Astm E2192-13

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This copy downloaded on 2014-08-07 11:12:13 -0500 by authorized user Henry Craig.
No further reproduction or distribution is permitted.
Designation: E2192 13
Standard Guide for

Planar Flaw Height Sizing by Ultrasonics1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2192; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope* E543 Specification for Agencies Performing Nondestructive

1.1 This guide provides tutorial information and a descrip- Testing
tion of the principles and ultrasonic examination techniques for 2.2 ASNT Standards4
measuring the height of planar flaws which are open to the SNT-TC-1A Personnel Qualification and Certification in
surface. The practices and technology described in this stan- Nondestructive Testing
dard guide are intended as a reference to be used when ANSI/ASNT-CP-189 Standard for Qualification and Certifi-
selecting a specific ultrasonic flaw sizing technique as well as cation of Nondestructive Testing Personnel
establishing a means for instrument standardization.2 2.3 AIA Standards5
1.2 This standard guide does not provide or suggest accu- NAS-410 Nondestructive Testing Personnel Qualification
racy or tolerances of the techniques described. Parameters such and Certification
as search units, examination surface conditions, material
composition, etc. can all have a bearing on the accuracy of 3. Terminology
results. It is recommended that users assess accuracy and 3.1 DefinitionsRelated terminology is defined in Termi-
tolerances applicable for each application. nology E1316.
1.3 This guide does not purport to provide instruction to 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
measure flaw length. 3.2.1 corner reflectionthe reflected ultrasonic energy re-
1.4 This standard guide does not provide, suggest, or sulting from the interaction of ultrasound with the intersection
specify acceptance standards. After flaw-sizing evaluation has of a flaw and the component surface at essentially 90 degrees.
been made, the results should be applied to an appropriate code 3.2.2 doublettwo ultrasonic signals that appear on the
or standard that specifies acceptance criteria. screen simultaneously and move in unison as search unit is
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the manipulated toward and away from the flaw. During tip-
standard. The values given in parentheses are for information diffraction flaw sizing, the flaw tip signal and flaw base signal
only. (corner reflector) will appear as a doublet.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the 3.2.3 far-surfacethe surface of the examination piece
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the opposite the surface on which the search unit is placed. (For
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- example, when examining pipe from the outside surface the
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- far-surface would be the inside pipe surface).
bility of regulatory requirements prior to use. 3.2.4 focusthe term as used in this document applies to
dual crossed-beam search units that have been manufactured so
2. Referenced Documents that they have a maximum sensitivity at a predetermined depth
2.1 ASTM Standards:3 or sound path in the component. Focusing effect may be
E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations obtained with the use of dual-element search units having both
refracted and roof angles applied to each element.
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc- 3.2.5 near-surfacethe surface of the examination piece on
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.06 on Ultrasonic
Method. which the search unit is placed. (For example, when examining
Current edition approved June 1, 2013. Published June 2013. Originally pipe from the outside surface the near-surface would be the
approved in 2002. Last previous edition approved in 2008 as E2192 - 08. DOI: outside pipe surface).
10.1520/E2192-13.
2
This Standard Guide is adapted from material supplied to ASTM Subcommittee
E07.06 by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
3 4
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or Available from American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), P.O. Box
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM 28518, 1711 Arlingate Ln., Columbus, OH 43228-0518, http://www.asnt.org
5
Standards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page on Available from Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. (AIA), 1000
the ASTM website. Wilson Blvd., Suite 1700, Arlington, VA22209-3928, http://www.aia-aerospace.org.
*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
1
Copyrighted material licensed to Cameron International by Thomson Scientific, Inc. (www.techstreet.com). This copy downloaded on 2014-08-07 11:12:13 -0500 by authorized user Henry Craig.
E2192 13
3.2.6 sizingmeasurement of the through-wall height or cations outside these 13 zones provided a proper reference
depth dimension of a discontinuity or flaw. block and technique is demonstrated.
3.2.7 30-70-70term that is applied to the technique (and
6. Basis of Application
sometimes the search unit) using an incident angle that
produces a nominal 70 L wave in the examination piece. 6.1 The following items are subject to contractual agree-
Provided that a parallel far-surface exists, the 30 shear wave, ment between the parties using or referencing this standard.
produced simultaneously at the near surface, reflects as a 30 6.2 Personnel Qualification
shear wave and generates a nominal 70 L wave as a result of 6.2.1 If specified in the contractual agreement, personnel
mode conversion off the far-surface. The 70 L wave reflects performing examinations to this standard shall be qualified in
off a planar flaw and is received by the search unit as a 70 L accordance with a nationally or internationally recognized
wave. NDT personnel qualification practice or standard such as
ANSI/ASNT-CP-189, SNT-TC-1A, NAS-410, or a similar
4. Summary of Guide document and certified by the employer or certifying agency,
4.1 This guide describes methods for the following flaw as applicable. The practice or standard used and its applicable
sizing techniques. revision shall be identified in the contractual agreement be-
4.1.1 Far-surface creeping wave or mode conversion tween the using parties.
method, 6.3 Qualification of Nondestructive AgenciesIf specified
4.1.2 Flaw-tip-diffraction method, in the contractual agreement, NDT agencies shall be qualified
4.1.3 Dual element bi-modal method, and and evaluated as described in Specification E543. The appli-
4.1.4 Dual element, (focused) longitudinal wave or dual cable edition of Specification E543 shall be specified in the
element, (focused) shear wave methods. contractual agreement.
4.2 In this guide, ultrasonic sound paths are generally 6.4 Procedures and TechniquesThe procedures and tech-
shown diagrammatically by single lines in one plane that niques to be utilized shall be as specified in the contractual
represent the center of the ultrasonic energy. agreement.
4.3 Additional information on flaw sizing techniques may 6.5 Reporting Criteria/Acceptance CriteriaReporting cri-
be found in the references listed in the Bibliography section. teria for the examination results are not specified in this
standard, they shall be specified in the contractual agreement.
5. Significance and Use
6.6 Reexamination of Repaired/Reworked Items
5.1 The practices referenced in this document are applicable Reexamination of repaired/reworked items is not addressed in
to measuring the height of planar flaws open to the surface that this standard and if required shall be specified in the contrac-
originate on the far-surface or near-surface of the component. tual agreement.
These practices are applicable to through-wall sizing of me-
chanical or thermal fatigue flaws, stress corrosion flaws, or any 7. Ultrasonic Flaw Sizing Methods
other surface-connected planar flaws. 7.1 30-70-70 Mode Conversion or Far-surface Creeping
5.2 The techniques outlined describe proven ultrasonic flaw Wave MethodThe far-surface Creeping Wave or 30-70-70
sizing practices and their associated limitations, using refracted Mode Conversion method (as illustrated in Fig. 1) provides
longitudinal wave and shear wave techniques as applied to qualitative additional depth sizing information. This method
ferritic or austenitic components. Other materials may be has considerable potential for use when approximating flaw
examined using this guide with appropriate standardization size, or, determining that the flaw is far-surface connected.
reference blocks. The practices described are applicable to both 7.1.1 Excitation of Creeping WavesThe excitation of re-
manual and automated examinations. fracted longitudinal waves is always accompanied by refracted
5.3 The techniques recommended in this standard guide use shear waves. In the vicinity of the excitation, the separation
Time of Flight (TOF) or Delta Time of Flight (TOF) methods between these two wave modes is not significantly distinct. At
to accurately measure the flaw size. This guide does not include the surface, a longitudinal wave cannot exist independently of
the use of signal amplitude methods to determine flaw size. a shear wave because neither mode can comply with the
boundary conditions for the homogeneous wave equation at the
5.4 Generally, with these sizing methods the volume of free surface alone; consequently, the so-called headwave is
material (or component thickness) to be sized is divided into formed. The headwave is always generated if a wave mode
thirds; the inner 13, the middle 13 and the near 13. Using the with higher velocity (the longitudinal wave) is coupled to a
far-surface Creeping Wave Method the user can qualitatively wave mode with lower velocity (the direct shear wave) at an
segregate the flaw into the approximate 13 zone. interface. The longitudinal wave continuously energizes the
5.5 The sizing methods are used in 13 zones to quantita- shear wave. It can be concluded that the longitudinal wave,
tively size the crack, that is, Tip-diffraction for the far 13, which in fact creeps along the surface, is completely attenu-
Bi-Modal method for the middle 13, and the Focused Longi- ated a short distance from the location of the excitation. (See
tudinal Wave or Focused Shear Wave Methods for the near 13 Fig. 2 for generation of the near-side creeping wave). With the
. These 13 zones are generally applicable to most sizing propagation of the near-surface creeping wave and its continu-
applications, however, the various sizing methods have appli- ous conversion process at each point it reaches, the energy
2
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FIG. 1 Wave Generation for the Far-surface Creeping Wave/30-70-70 Mode-Conversion Search Unit
FIG. 2 Near-Surface Creeping Wave Occurs for a Short Distance in Association with the Incident Longitudinal Wave
converted to shear is directed into the material as shown in Fig. to 6 mm (0.20 to 0.24 in.) from the ideal conversion point on
3. Thus, the wave front of the headwave includes the head of the far surface. The sensitivity range of the far-surface creeping
the creeping wave, direct and indirect shear waves. wave extends from approximately 2 to 13 mm (0.080 to 0.52
7.1.2 Far-Surface Creeping Wave GenerationWhen the in.) in front of the index point. The far-surface creeping wave,
headwave arrives at the far-surface of the component, the same as reflected from the base of a far-surface notch or flaw, will
wave modes will be generated which were responsible for convert its energy into a headwave since the same principles
generating the shear wave energy, due to the physical law of apply as established earlier for the near-surface creeping wave.
reciprocity. Thus, the indirect shear wave and part of the direct The shear wave will continue to convert at multiple V-paths if
shear wave will convert into a far-surface creeping wave and a the material has low attenuation and noise levels.
70-degree longitudinal wave. The far-surface creeping wave
7.1.3 Typical Echoes of the Far-Surface Creeping Wave/30-
will be extremely sensitive to small surface-breaking reflectors
and the longitudinal wave will be engulfed in a bulk longitu- 70-70 Mode Conversion TechniqueWhen the search unit
dinal beam created by beam spread. Additionally, these reflec- approaches a far-surface connected reflector, three different
tion mechanisms are responsible for a beam offset so that there signals will occur in sequence: (1) 70-degree longitudinal wave
is a maximum far-surface creeping wave sensitivity at about 5 direct reflection; (2) 30-70-70 mode-converted signal; and (3)
FIG. 3 Generation of S-Waves (Headwaves) by an L-Wave with Grazing Incidence
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A far-surface creeping wave signal, as a result of mode correlating to these diffraction centers are identified, it is
conversion of the indirect shear wave. possible to determine their positions relative to the thickness of
7.1.3.1 Direct Longitudinal Wave SignalIf the flaw ex- the component. The tip-diffraction method relies on this
tends to within approximately 10 to 16 mm (0.375 to 0.625 in.) principle. Although the tip-diffraction concept sounds simple,
of the scanning surface (near surface), the direct longitudinal there are many other signals that may complicate screen
wave will reflect from the upper extremity of the flaw face, interpretation. This is due to the fact that the ultrasound/planar
which is very similar to the high-angle longitudinal wave flaw interaction is very complex. When ultrasound strikes a
sizing method discussed later. flaw, specular reflection from the main plane of the flaw and
7.1.3.2 Mode Converted SignalIf the flaw exceeds a texture reflections from flaw surface facets occur in addition to
height of 10 to 20 % of the wall thickness, an indication from diffraction and mode conversions. There are two standardiza-
the mode converted signal will occur at a typical wall tion and measuring techniques for tip-diffraction sizing: (1 )
thickness-related position. This mode converted signal results The Time of Flight (TOF) technique that measures the arrival
from the headwave or direct shear wave, which mode converts time of the tip-diffracted signal from the top of the flaw and
the 70-degree longitudinal wave that impinges on the reflector locates the top of the flaw with respect to the near surface; and
at its highest part; it is reflected as a 70-degree longitudinal (2) The Delta Time of Flight (TOF) technique that measures
wave back to the search unit as depicted by position 1 in Fig. the difference in arrival time of the tip-diffracted signal and the
4. The presence of the mode-converted echo is a strong corner reflector signal at the far surface.
indication of a flaw with a height greater than 10 to 20 % of the 7.2.1 Time of Flight (TOF) Sizing TechniqueThe TOF
wall thickness. In the case of smooth or at least open flaws, sizing technique is a tip-diffraction technique that takes advan-
amplitude versus height function curves can give a coarse tage of uniquely locating the flaw tip. The signal from the flaw
estimate of flaw height. tip is peaked (maximized), and its arrival time or sound path is
7.1.3.3 Far-Surface Creeping Wave SignalIf a far-surface measured without regard to the arrival time of other signals.
connected reflector is within the range of sensitivity (as This time of flight or sound path is then a direct measurement
described above), the far-surface creeping wave will be re- of the remaining ligament (material) above the flaw, or the
flected and mode converted into the headwave or shear wave distance from the flaw tip to the examination surface. This
directed to the search unit (Fig. 5). Since the far-surface technique is illustrated in Fig. 9. Note that here the second
creeping wave is not a surface wave, it will not interact with half-V path is possible also. When the search unit is moved
weld root convexity and will not produce an indication from away from the flaw, the tip echo may again be obtained after
the root as shown by position 1 in Fig. 6. However, if the the tip-diffracted signal reflects off the opposite surface of the
search unit is moved too far toward the weld centerline, the component. With the second half-V path technique, the tip
direct shear wave beam could result in a root signal, but there signal will occur later in time than the signal from the flaw
is at least 5 mm (0.2 in.) difference in positioning as shown in corner reflector.
Fig. 6. The far-surface creeping wave signal is a clear, sharp
signal with a larger amplitude than the mode converted signal. NOTE 1It is very important that the user be extremely conscious of the
weld geometry when using the second half-V path since, for example, the
It does not have as smooth an echo-dynamic behavior as does counterbore can exaggerate flaw height.
the mode converted signal, and it cannot be observed over as NOTE 2Longitudinal waves should not be applied when practicing the
long a distance as shown in Fig. 7. second half-V path technique as this can cause mode conversions that may
interfere with the ability to interpret the instrument display.
7.2 Tip-Diffraction MethodUltrasonic diffraction is a phe-
nomenon where ultrasound tends to bend around sharp corners 7.2.2 Delta Time of Flight (TOF) TechniqueThe TOF
or ends of an object placed in its path, as illustrated in Fig. 8. Technique is applied by observing the arrival time difference
While the flaw tends to cast a shadow, diffraction occurs at the between the flaw corner reflector signal and the diffracted
flaw tips and ultrasonic energy is bent to fill part of the shadow signal from the flaw tip while both are simultaneously present
region. Sharp edges are diffraction centers tending to radiate on the ultrasonic instrument display. While using this
spherical or cylindrical wave fronts as though they were technique, the ultrasonic beam diameter must be greater than
actually ultrasonic point or line sources. If the screen signals the projected height of the flaw (actual height multiplied by the
1Mode-Converted Signal
2Far-Surface Creeping-Wave Signal
FIG. 4 Search Unit Index Point Position
4
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FIG. 5 Generation of Far-Surface Creeping Wave Signal
1Flaw indication maximized for mode-converted wave signal

2Flaw indication maximized for creeping-wave signal
FIG. 6 Far-Surface Creeping Wave Search Unit Position Related to Index Point
sine of the refracted beam angle) and the flaw must be situation, the tip-diffracted signal will occur earlier in time due
essentially perpendicular to the examination surface. In this to its shorter sound path. The tip signal amplitude is very small
5
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FIG. 7 Echo-Dynamic Behavior of Mode-Converted Echo Signal and Far-Surface Creeping-Wave Signal
FIG. 8 Corners or Ends of Reflectors are Diffraction Centers and Tend to Radiate Spherical or Cylindrical Waves
in comparison to the flaw corner reflector signal; and the flaw v ~ t !

h5
tip and corner signals are out of phase due to one signal being 2cos
diffracted and the other reflected twice. To measure flaw
height, it is necessary to note the difference in the time of
arrival between the two signals, then apply the following
formula:
6
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FIG. 9 Various Metal Paths (MP) from Different Search Unit Positions Used in the TOF Technique
where: operator to distinguish between tip and corner signals can be

h = flaw height, compromised if several cracks are clustered in the same area.
v = ultrasonic velocity in the material, In areas of clustered cracks, corner reflections will dominate
t = difference in arrival time, and and mask tip signals. In cases of clustered cracks, the depth of
= refracted beam angle. the peaked signal may be the only reliable means to distinguish
Alternately, the ultrasonic instrument may be standardized to the tip signals from the corner signals. The tip-diffraction
read directly in flaw height. This standardization method will methods can be valid for a wide range of flaw heights. The
be addressed in the standardization section. Separation be- prerequisites are that the tip of the flaw and the tip signal be
tween the doublets should remain constant as the signals move distinguishable from other signals. For very shallow flaws, the
across the screen. The echo dynamic of the doublet is asyn- tip signal may be masked by the flaw corner-reflector signal
chronous; however, since it is the fixed interval between the due to poor resolution. A search unit with a shorter pulse
doublet arrival times that is measured, it is not necessary to duration will improve this limitation. Broadband search units
maximize the response from either signal. This technique have been noted for their short pulse durations; however, due to
allows measurement when the weld crown is wide, preventing dispersion in austenitic stainless steel weld metal, it may be
maximization of the tip signal. It may also be possible to note beneficial to select a narrow-band search unit with greater
a tip signal after reflection from the back surface (second penetrating characteristics. This argument holds true for very
half-V path). The principles are the same as for the first half-V deep flaws also. When the flaw is located in the weld region or
path except that the tip signal will appear later in time than the very near the weld region, longitudinal waves may be consid-
corner reflector signal. Whether using the first or second half-V ered for the tip-diffraction method. Longitudinal waves may
path, accuracy of the height measurement depends on the flaw help locate weak tip-diffracted signals in highly attenuative
orientation. If the flaw is vertical, then the measurement is stainless steel but reflection from the component far surface
accurate. If the flaw is oriented toward the search unit, the first should be avoided due to mode conversion. A very important
half-V path measurement will overestimate the height and the factor in the sizing of planar flaws using the tip-diffraction
second half-V path measurement will underestimate the height. method is signal pattern recognition. To size with this method,
The opposite occurs for flaws oriented away from the search the user must be able to identify two signals: (1) a signal that
unit. is diffracted from the flaw tip and (2) a second signal that is
7.2.3 Application ConsiderationsFor all of the physics reflected from the base of the flaw. The task of identifying the
involved in tip diffraction, the method relies on the users two signals is complicated by the high-amplitude noise signals
ability to uniquely identify the location of the flaw tip. The and geometric signals from the component surface. Some
signal need not originate singly from diffraction, since reflec- ultrasonic instruments allow the user the option of using the
tion can also occur very near the flaw tip. In fact, reflection is un-rectified or rectified display (RF display) signals. In many
the mechanism that will primarily be observed when using cases, an RF display facilitates in distinguishing the tip signal
notched reference blocks. It is reasonable to expect some from noise signals by identifying the phase of the signals. The
reflection to occur at an actual flaw tip. The associated rough signal from the tip of the flaw must always peak when the
texture will often act as a good scattering center. It should be search unit is moved forward from the point where the corner
noted, however, that this may not be true in every case and the signal is maximized (for first half-V path) or backed up from
amplitudes of the signals received may be 20-30 dB below the the point where the corner signal is maximized (for second
flaw corner-reflector signal amplitude. Each component and half-V path). This distance traveled is directly related to flaw
material type examined should be considered as a separate height. The examiner must become accustomed to the search
examination problem. The flawed area should be adequately unit movement as it relates to flaw height by becoming familiar
scanned so that all signals, which occur in the region, can be with the characteristics observed when sizing notches of
identified. Care should be taken to define the tip signal since known heights.
some geometries or weld flaws produce signals that can be 7.3 Dual-Element Bi-Modal MethodThe Bi-Modal Sizing
readily confused with the true tip signal. Some flaws produce Method is based on the use of a dual-element search unit. This
multiple tip signals that must be resolved. The ability of the dual-element search unit is designed to insonify the entire wall
7
E2192 13
thickness by transmitting and receiving high-angle refracted receives two longitudinal waves (one from the tip of the flaw
longitudinal waves as well as low-angle shear waves. For this and one from the base of the flaw), one mode-converted signal
reason, the Bi-Modal sizing methods that feature the dual- from the flaw face, and one far-surface Creeping wave signal
element search unit are applicable to far-surface connected from the base of the flaw when the search unit is operated in its
planar flaws from 10 to 90 % through-wall. The TOF technique normal dual element mode. Depending upon search unit
requires that the first signal, the longitudinal wave, be maxi- design, either element can be used as the transmitter or the
mized or peaked and the peaked first signal is measured along receiver. The directivity patterns of the Bi-Modal search units
the instrument time base which is standardized in through-wall are quite broad due to the relatively small active element size
depth. The TOF technique is particularly useful because the and low operating frequency in the region of 3 MHz.
flaw height-related separation between the direct longitudinal Therefore, the high-angle longitudinal waves and the low-
wave and mode-converted signal can be measured before the angle shear waves insonify the entire component wall thick-
search unit is restricted by the weld crown. For the TOF ness. Four associated signals that move together on the
technique, both measurements are independent of signal am- instrument screen can be expected when the search unit is
plitudes. A20 % far-surface notch and an 80 % far-surface scanned over a far-surface connected flaw with broad back-
notch are sufficient to standardize the time base for components and-forth movements, (Fig. 11). This follows from the premise
in the thickness range of 10 to 40 mm (0.4 to 1.6 in.). Flaw that while the longitudinal waves interact effectively with both
height may then be read directly on the screen in percent of extremities of the flaw (the tip and the base), the shear waves
wall thickness. The extent of the flaw is indicated by the signals interact only with the flaw base. The first signal originates from
that are observed in the left half of the instrument screen. The the upper tip of the flaw. If each element were a transmitter, the
further the direct longitudinal wave is peaked, or the greater the longitudinal wave energy from the two elements would con-
separation of the signals from the mode-converted signal, or verge to this area. The usually weak tip-diffracted signal is
peaks from mid-screen, the deeper the flaw. Signals originating enhanced while the background of irrelevant indications is
from the interaction of shear waves with the base of the flaw, suppressed by restricting the longitudinal wave beams to the
with or without mode conversion, are confined to the right half upper flaw tip area. The next signal can sometimes be observed
of the instrument screen and merely indicate that the flaw is from a flaw and is usually observed from a far-surface notch as
far-surface connected. a result of the longitudinal wave from the transmitter reflecting
7.3.1 Wave Propagation Through the MaterialIt is ac- at the flaw base and being received as a longitudinal wave by
knowledged that shear waves cannot interact effectively with the receiver. The third signal is usually the strongest because it
the upper extremities of tight and branched, medium to large results from the mode-converted shear wave from the face of
flaws that are located near the sound-scattering fusion lines of the flaw. The reflection of the incident shear wave at the flaw
austenitic welds. These may not produce readily recognizable opening results in the fourth signal which is analogous to the
tip-diffracted signals for flaw sizing purposes. The Bi-Modal far-surface creeping wave signal. The echo-dynamic curve is
search unit is designed specifically for austenitic weld broadest for the longitudinal wave signal and narrowest for the
examination, however, this is also applicable to carbon steel creeping wave signal as shown in Fig. 12. The mode-converted
materials. As shown in Fig. 10, the Bi-Modal search unit signal peaks shortly after the flaw is insonified. It follows from
transmits one longitudinal wave, and two shear waves and geometrical considerations that the echo-dynamic curves for
Subscript a denotes travel to the receiver and subscript b denotes travel from the transmitter. Enlarged detail note refers to Fig. 11.
FIG. 10 Bi-Modal Search Unit Longitudinal Wave and Shear Wave Signals
8
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Subscripts as in Fig. 10.

FIG. 11 Interaction of the Incident L-Wave and S-Wave from a Bi-Modal Search Unit with a far-surface Connected Flaw Resulting in Four
Associated Signals
the longitudinal wave signal and the far-surface creeping wave converted signal since their separation, measured in screen
signal are nearly synchronous for a large flaw (that is, the rise divisions, is practically independent of the axial coordinate of
in the amplitude of one signal is in unison with the amplitude the search unit relative to that of the flaw. Figs. 14 and 15
rise of the other). When the center of the incident longitudinal illustrate the nearly linear relationship between normalized
wave beam is directed toward the flaw tip, the center of the flaw height and this signal separation. The most useful feature
incident shear wave beam is directed toward the flaw base, and of the Bi-Modal sizing method is that the flaw height can be
the amplitude of the longitudinal wave signal, as well as that of measured anywhere along the length of the flaw as long as both
the far-surface creeping wave signal, is maximized. Upon the longitudinal wave and the mode-converted signals are seen
moving the search unit closer to the flaw, the longitudinal wave moving in unison on the screen, allowing height measurements
signal will again recede into the background of irrelevant to be made even when a wide weld crown is present. A second
indications. To determine the arrival time of this signal, the TOF measurement may sometimes be used to confirm the
user typically moves the search unit toward the flaw until the flaw height. This second measurement is obtained by noting
amplitude drops. the difference in arrival time of the longitudinal wave signal
7.3.2 Principles of Bi-Modal TOF TechniqueWeld crown and the longitudinal wave signal reflected from the flaw base.
permitting, the search unit may be moved toward the weld far These two signals also move in unison and form a linear
enough to peak the longitudinal wave signal. Fig. 13 shows that relationship when the flaw is oriented vertically.
the relationship between the signal arrival time in screen
divisions and the flaw height in percent of wall thickness is 7.4 Focused Longitudinal Wave or Dual-Elements Focused
very nearly linear and independent of wall thickness. Shear Wave MethodsThe dual-element focused longitudinal
7.3.3 Principles of the TOF TechniqueThe longitudinal or dual-element focused shear wave flaw sizing techniques are
wave signal may be considered as a satellite of the mode- essentially the TOF or sound-path measurement techniques
9
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FIG. 12 Asynchronous Echo-Dynamic Curves for a 50 % Deep far-surface Notch
FIG. 13 Correlation of Normalized Flaw Height With Time Delay, , Obtained by the Bi-Modal Time of Flight Technique
with the use of focused longitudinal or shear wave search units, path is recorded without regard to the arrival time of other
generally greater than 50 % from the far surface in depth. signals. The focused longitudinal wave and focused shear wave
These techniques are particularly suitable for sizing flaws sizing techniques are used to measure the remaining ligament
which are mid-wall to very deep. The use of high beam angles of good material between the flaw and the scanning surface.
results in this technique being the most accurate for very deep Actual flaw height is obtained by subtracting the remaining
flaws. As with the tip-diffraction method, the signal from the ligament from the local wall thickness. Occasionally, the signal
flaw tip is maximized or peaked and its time of flight or sound associated with the upper extreme of a flaw is due to beam
10
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FIG. 14 Relationships Among Normalized Flaw Height, h/t, Doublet Separation, and Time Delay,
FIG. 15 Correlation of Normalized Flaw Height With Doublet Separation, , Obtained by the Bi-Modal TOF Technique
reflection rather than diffraction. This is most prevalent when a the weld and is oriented away from the weld and the search unit
flaw follows the weld fusion line toward the outside surface of is placed on the weld reinforcement and directed at the flaw. In
11
E2192 13
this case instead of a diffracted wave returning to the search 8.1.1.2 FrequencyTo limit beam spread and its degrada-
unit, the upper extreme of the flaw face reflects ultrasonic tion of sizing accuracy, higher frequencies than those com-
energy back to the search unit. The result is a high-amplitude monly used during examination are suggested. Narrow-band
signal with a long or broad echo-dynamic pattern. Due to an search units will avoid the beam spread caused by the
obliquely oriented flaw, a flaw height measurement obtained in low-frequency components of the spectrum. A frequency of 2
this manner tends to undersize the flaw when the location of the MHz seems ideal for austenitic material, while 4 MHz seems
peak reflection is used as the tip location. The user must more effective for carbon steel materials.
compensate by moving the search unit toward the flaw until the 8.1.1.3 ElementsSpecially designed search units with
signal drops by about 3 dB or by finding the slight rise in single- or dual-element search units may be used. It is very
amplitude along the leading edge of the echo-dynamic pattern, difficult to eliminate internal wedge reflections and entry
which is due to the diffracted wave from the flaw tip. surface noise with a 70-degree, single-element search unit.
NOTE 3A limitation of this method with a focused longitudinal wave These single-element problems can only be avoided with long
search unit is that associated shear waves (if not properly identified) may wedge paths. This can lead to increased beam size and make
cause confusion and could result in mode-converted signals that may search unit movement difficult. Element size is significant.
produce erroneous measurements.
Very small elements will have excessive angular beam spread,
Search unit frequency, refracted angle, element size, and and very large elements may produce beams with too much
focal depth are factors for determining the effective range of
penetration. The optimal size will probably be a function of
the technique. Common search unit frequencies are 2 MHz and
wall thickness, with larger elements being acceptable for
4 MHz, with the lower frequency preferred for coarse grain
greater thickness. Generally, a 10 mm or a 0.375 in. diameter
materials, for example, austenitic. The effectiveness of sizing
or square search unit will work for most applications.
with high-angle longitudinal waves is strongly dependent on
the selection of a search unit that produces a beam shape 8.1.1.4 Contact AreaThe search unit contact area or foot-
appropriate to the application. When sizing a flaw in thin-wall print should be as small as practical. With dual search units,
material, select a beam angle that does not penetrate very small search unit width is necessary for proper coupling of both
deeply into the component. For thicker-wall material, increase elements to the scanning surface. Short length is desirable for
the penetration depth by reducing the frequency to increase adequate coupling in pipe weld conditions of diametrical weld
beam spread or by reducing the incident angle for a lower shrinkage, especially if the shrinkage is made more severe by
central refracted angle, that is, a 60-degree or a 45-degree grinding of the weld crown. If the search unit is too long, there
longitudinal wave or shear wave search unit. It is essential to may be entry angle variations with strong effects on the
measure the focal depth of the search unit using a reference refracted angle.
block that contains a series of known reflectors at different 8.1.2 InstrumentA pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument ca-
depths. pable of generating and receiving frequencies in the range of at
least 1 to 5 MHz should be suitable for sizing with the
8. Ultrasonic Flaw Sizing Standardization Requirements
far-surface Creeping Wave or 30-70-70 mode conversion
8.1 Far-Surface Creeping Wave MethodThe far-surface method. The instrument should exhibit adequate resolution and
Creeping Wave Sizing Method depends upon pattern recogni- high filtering capabilities.
tion of the three potential signals that may be observed, for
8.1.3 Reference BlockStandardization for the far-surface
example, 70-degree L wave, the mode converted signal or the
Creeping Wave technique requires special far-surface notch
far-surface creeping wave signal. By observing the absence or
reference blocks. The block must have a set of notches located
presence of these three signals, the echo dynamics of the
at various depths from the far surface. The simplest design is a
signal, and the time of flight of the 70-degree L wave signal, a
flat plate or pipe section with far-surface notches located at
user can classify a far-surface connected crack into the far 13,
increments of 10 % or 20 % depths, for example, 10 %, 20 %,
middle 13, or the near 13 zone of the material thickness to be
40 %, 60 %, 80 %. The user should become familiar with the
inspected.
8.1.1 Search UnitThe pattern of the three signals strongly absence or presence of the 70-degree L wave signal, the time of
depends on several search unit parameters. Before attempting flight of the 70-degree L wave signal, the amplitudes and
to apply this method with a new search unit, the sound wave echo-dynamic patterns of the mode-converted signal and the
patterns should be evaluated using known notch reflectors at far-surface creeping wave signal as different depth notches are
various depths, 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, and 80 %. There may be encountered. If these notches are used to familiarize the user
significant variations between search units with identical face- with various signals that may be encountered, the block should
plate parameter values, even if they are from the same equal the thickness of the component to be examined.
manufacturer. Generally, a single-element search unit is suit- 8.1.4 System StandardizationThe far-surface Creeping
able for most applications. Wave or 30-70-70 mode conversion technique does not depend
8.1.1.1 Beam AngleThe primary intent when sizing with on the arrival time of the flaw tip signal, so the system does not
the far-surface Creeping Wave method is to produce different have to be standardized accurately for distance. The same
beams at the far surface and utilize the responses from these search unit used for the refracted longitudinal wave sizing
beams to categorize flaw height. This goal is met by using method may be used for the far-surface Creeping Wave
70-degree longitudinal waves or refracted longitudinal waves technique. Use a notched block for standardization following
at 55 degrees and higher. these steps:
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8.1.4.1 Adjust the delay to display the initial pulse at the left 8.2.1 Search UnitsWhen selecting a search unit for sizing
side of the screen. planar flaws using the tip-diffraction method, the following
8.1.4.2 Place the search unit near the end of the reference guidelines should be considered: (1) A very high signal-to-
block. Observe the 70-degree mode converted L wave signal noise ratio is desired. This characteristic is governed by the
and creeping wave signals. frequency, diameter, and wave mode; (2) High-resolution
8.1.4.3 Peak the creeping wave signal, and adjust delay and search units (higher frequency, shorter pulse length) will aid in
range controls to position the 70-degree mode converted L sizing very shallow flaws because the tip and base signals are
wave and creeping wave signals at 4 and 5 screen divisions close together and nearly coincident in time; (3) High-
respectively. resolution search units work well with the time of flight (TOF)
8.1.4.4 Adjust the creeping wave signal amplitude to 80 to technique; (4) Large beam spread may be beneficial when
100 % full screen height. Then increase the instrument ampli- sizing suspected midrange flaws with the delta time of flight
tude by 8 dB. This reference level is now the primary scanning technique because this technique requires viewing of the tip
and evaluation level. and base signals simultaneously; (5) The characteristics of the
8.1.4.5 Place the search unit to peak the creeping wave search unit selected should be thoroughly investigated with
signal from the 20 % notch. Record echo dynamic movement reference blocks before attempting any sizing techniques; (6)
of the 70-degree mode converted L wave signal as the search Longitudinal waves can enhance the tip signal but may produce
unit is scanned toward and away from the far-surface con- spurious mode-converted indications; (7) The distance from
nected notch. the front of the search unit to the beam index point should be
8.1.4.6 Place the search unit to peak the creeping wave minimal in order to maximize the diffracted signal from the
signal from the 40 % notch. Record the echo dynamic move- flaw tip when a wide weld crown is present; and (8) Beware of
ment of the 70-degree mode converted L wave signal as the reflections that may occur from within the search unit wedge.
search unit is scanned toward and away from the far-surface These can occur in the area of interest on the display and can
connected notch. If present, record the amplitude of the increase the difficulty of identifying the tip signal. Various
70-degree L wave signal. search unit designs with different element sizes and arrange-
8.1.4.7 Place the search unit to peak the creeping wave ments can be used. It must be pointed out that the individual
signal from the 60 % notch. Then record echo dynamic search unit design parameters greatly influence their effective-
movement of the 70-degree mode converted L wave signal as ness. For the Tip-diffraction method using delta time of flight
the search unit is scanned toward and away from the far- technique, a search unit that is highly damped to a maximum
surface connected notch. If present, record the amplitude of the pulse length of one and one half to two cycles at the -6 dB
70-degree L wave signal. Increase the gain to bring the points is desirable. This will improve resolution for sizing very
70-degree L wave signal up to at least 40 % full screen height shallow flaws, that is, less than 10 % wall thickness. Search
(FSH). Peak the longitudinal wave signal and record the unit characteristics must be documented adequately prior to use
horizontal screen division position, for example, 2.5 divisions. if examination repeatability is necessary.
8.1.4.8 Place the search unit to peak the creeping wave 8.2.1.1 Beam AngleRefracted beam angles in the range of
signal from the 80 % notch. Then record echo dynamic 40 to 60 can generally be used with the tip-diffraction method.
movement of the 70-degree mode converted L wave signal as Due to the long sound paths involved in the second half-V path
the search unit is scanned toward and away from the 80 % technique, it is preferable to use refracted angles in the range of
notch. Record the amplitude of the 70-degree L wave signal. 40 to 52 from the perpendicular. Higher beam angles require
Increase the gain to bring the 70-degree L wave signal up to at longer metal path distances and the energy may be attenuated
least 40 % FSH. Peak the L wave signal and record the to an almost nonexistent level.
horizontal screen division position, for example, 1.8 divisions.
8.2.1.2 FrequencySearch units may have either single or
8.1.4.9 A typical sequence of recordings is shown below.
dual elements in the nominal frequency range of 2 to 5 MHz.
These values will be relative to the search unit design and
Favorable results have been obtained with nominal frequencies
frequency, and material type and thickness.
of 4 and 5 MHz when the sizing is limited to the first half-V
Creeping 70-degree Mode
Notch Depth 70 L Wave Wave Converted
path and height of the flaw is minimal. To maintain penetration
Signal L Wave Signal of shear waves through large-grain base metal structures, low
20 % none 2.5 divisions yes frequencies such as 2.25 MHz are desirable. However, this low
40 % none 3.5 divisions yes
60 % 2.5 divisions 4.5 divisions yes frequency does result in a sizeable amount of beam spread,
80 % 1.8 divisions 5.5 divisions yes which reduces the accuracy of the sizing method. Occasionally,
8.2 Tip-Diffraction MethodThe tip-diffraction method de- tip-diffracted signals are detected with lower frequencies (for
pends primarily on the arrival time of the flaw tip signal and, example, 1.5 MHz). The tip signal should be noted if identified
in some cases, on the arrival time of the flaw base or corner during the flaw detection process. The flaw depth should then
signal. Consequently, it is important to standardize the screen be measured using higher frequencies.
accurately for sound path, however, it is always acceptable to 8.2.1.3 Propagation ModeEither shear or longitudinal
standardize the screen to read directly in depth as a function of waves may be used for the tip-diffraction sizing techniques
a percent of component thickness. This approach is generally when using the first half-V path technique. Due to the high
more convenient. attenuation of stainless steel, longitudinal waves may present
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higher amplitude tip-diffracted signals, but decreased resolu- (1) Select a suitable reference block with at least two
tion. Longitudinal waves are impractical with the second notches of known depths, bracketing the flaw depth range of
half-V path technique since the search unit also produces a interest, for example, 20 % and 80 % deep notches.
shear wave which may cause confusion. Also, the longitudinal (2) As a ranging technique, place the search unit to obtain
wave tends to mode convert to shear wave as the ultrasonic the far-surface corner of the end of the reference block.
beam reflects at the opposite surface. The large amount of (3) Peak this half-V path signal and using the delay control
mode conversion reduces the signal-to-noise ratio even more. adjust this signal to 5 horizontal screen divisions.
Additionally, the presence of many spurious signals from the (4) Move the search unit from the end of the block to peak
various mode converted signals may present the user with more the near-surface signal at the edge of the reference block and,
opportunities to select the wrong signal and misidentify it as using the range control, adjust this full-V path signal to 10
the flaw tip. screen divisions.
8.2.2 InstrumentA pulse-echo instrument capable of gen- (5) Alternate between the delay and range controls to set
erating and receiving frequencies in the range of at least 1 to 5 the far-surface corner to 5 divisions and the near-surface corner
MHz is suitable for sizing with the tip-diffraction method. to 10 divisions.
Avoid screen displays showing signals that have minimal (6) Locate the base signal or corner signal of the 80 %
filtering. Horizontal linearity should be within 2 % of full far-surface notch. Move the search unit forward to peak the
screen width. The ability to view the full, unrectified RF tip-diffracted signal from the tip or edge of the notch. Using the
waveform is helpful during sizing. It is recommended that delay control adjust this signal to 1 horizontal screen division.
ultrasonic instruments capable of displaying the RF waveform (7) Locate the 20 % far-surface notch to obtain the base or
be used. corner signal. Move the search unit forward to peak the
8.2.3 Reference BlocksThe reference block (or blocks) tip-diffracted signal from the tip or edge of the notch. Using the
should contain special reference reflectors (for example, fine range control adjust the peaked signal to 4 screen
notches having various depths) that pertain to the standardiza- divisions.
tion for specific sizing technique(s). To standardize the time (8) Alternate between the delay and range controls to set
base, use 25 mm (1 in.) thick, flat plate of material similar to the 80 % tip signal to 1 screen division and the 20 % tip signal
the component to be examined. This plate should have notches to 4 divisions.
from 10 to 90 % deep in steps of 10 %. The most desirable Depth from Far-
Screen Divisions
reference block is the same thickness as the component Surface
0 100 %
containing the flaw to be sized, but standardization can be 1 80 %
accomplished with any known thickness. 2 60 %
8.2.4 System StandardizationThe tip-diffraction method 3 40 %
4 20 %
depends primarily on arrival time differences between the 5 0%
pulses from the base of the flaw and the flaw tip. It is, therefore,
important that the screen be standardized accurately for sound 8.2.4.2 Standardization for Delta Time of Flight Technique
path. Sound path standardization may be accomplished in (Direct Flaw Depth Measurement)Standardize the ultrasonic
exactly the same fashion as the standardization for flaw instrument as in 8.2.4.1, record the screen divisions of separa-
detection if it is limited to second half-V path. The horizontal tion for the base and tip-diffracted signals for each of the
sweep is standardized in inches or mm of sound path along the notches. They will be approximately as follows:
beam path. Any reference block used for sweep distance Notch Depth Divisions of Separation
20 % 0.5 Divisions
standardization may be used, for example, IIW, DSC, etc. 40 % 1.0 Divisions
There is an alternative sweep standardization which is simple 60 % 1.5 Divisions
and results in higher accuracy. In this case, the horizontal 80 % N/A
sweep is standardized in depth. A reference block consisting of With the deeper notches, that is, 60 % and 80 %, the tip and
a series of far-surface connected notches is required (see Fig. the base signal may not be seen on the instrument screen due
16). to limited beam spread of the search unit.
8.2.4.1 Standardization for the Time of Flight (TOF) Tech- 8.3 Bi-Modal Technique:
nique To standardize for direct flaw depth measurements when 8.3.1 Search UnitThe Bi-Modal search unit consists of
using the time of flight (TOF) technique: two moderately damped search units, one mounted behind the
NOTE 4The first 5 steps are a simple technique to establish a coarse other (tandem design) on a plastic wedge with two refracting
standardization. wedge angles. Both elements are bi-modal, that is, each is
FIG. 16 Sizing Reference Block
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capable of transmitting and receiving both a longitudinal wave (4) Position the Bi-Modal search unit to peak the refracted
and a shear wave signal. The roles of the two elements can be L wave signal from the 20 % far-surface connected notch.
interchanged. Adjust the range control to position this to 4th horizontal
8.3.1.1 Beam AnglesIn the transmit-receive mode of screen division.
operation, one element transmits a high-angle longitudinal (5) Alternating between delay and range controls ensure
wave beam as well as a low-angle shear wave. The other the signal from the 80 % notch is at screen division 1 and the
element is directed to receive all sound waves emanating from 40 % notch signal is at the screen division 4.
the upper and lower extremities of a far-surface connected flaw. (6) The instrument is now standardized such that 5 screen
8.3.1.2 Mode of PropagationThe search unit transmits divisions equals 0 % and 0 screen divisions equals 100 %
and receives both longitudinal and shear wave signals. through-wall depth.
8.3.2 InstrumentA pulse-echo, ultrasonic instrument ca- 8.3.4.2 Standardization for the Delta Time of Flight tech-
pable of generating and receiving frequencies in the range of at nique should be conducted as follows. With the Time of Flight
least 1 to 5 MHz with linear and stable time base should be standardization set, record the separation in horizontal screen
suitable for sizing with the multi-pulse observation sizing divisions between the refracted L wave and mode converted
method. An RF display mode is not required, but is desirable. signals. Approximate values are shown below:
20 % Notch 2.1 Screen Divisions
8.3.3 Reference BlockStandardization for this sizing 40 % Notch 2.5 Screen Divisions
method also requires special reference blocks. As with the 60 % Notch 2.9 Screen Divisions
other sizing methods referenced in this document, the reference 80 % Notch 3.3 Screen Divisions
block must have a set of planar notches located at various 8.4 Dual-Element Focused Longitudinal or Focused Shear
depths from the far surface. Using additional blocks, the user Wave MethodsAs with the tip-diffraction TOF technique,
should become familiar with the echo-dynamic patterns of the high-angle focused longitudinal wave or focused shear wave
various signals expected from components of known thickness. methods also depend primarily on the sound path travel of the
8.3.4 System StandardizationA reference block containing flaw tip signal. It is important that the screen be standardized
far-surface notches as in Fig. 16 or Fig. 17 is necessary to accurately for sound path distance; however, it is always
standardize the time base of the ultrasonic instrument. Each possible to standardize the screen to read directly in depth. The
notch in a 25 mm (1 in.) thick reference block increases by 5 depth approach is preferred.
mm (0.2 in.) or 20 % depth increments. 8.4.1 Search UnitsThe focal depth of the longitudinal
8.3.4.1 Standardization for the Time of Flight technique wave and shear wave search units depends on several search
should be conducted as follows: unit parameters. Before attempting to apply this sizing method
(1) Position the Bi-Modal search unit at the edge of the with a new search unit, it is essential to determine the focal
reference block to display the three primary signals, that is, the depth of the search unit with known reflectors at known depths.
refracted L wave signal, the mode converted shear wave signal, Results between search units having identical faceplate param-
and the far-surface Creeping wave signal. eter values may vary significantly even if they are from the
(2) As a ranging technique, using the range control, sepa- same manufacturer. Search unit selection should be based on
rate the second and third signals by approximately 2.0 screen the component thickness and depth of penetration. The objec-
divisions. tive is to insonify a layer of the component thickness under the
(3) Position the Bi-Modal search unit to peak the refracted near surface without penetrating to the opposite surface.
L wave signal from the 80 % far-surface connected notch. 8.4.1.1 Beam AngleThe primary intent when sizing with
Adjust the delay control to position this to 1 horizontal screen the focused longitudinal or focused shear wave techniques is to
division. limit the penetration of the beam into the component in order
FIG. 17 A Bi-Modal Search Unit Positioned on the Reference Block for Maximum L-wave Signal Amplitude from the Fourth Step
15
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FIG. 18 Focused Longitudinal Wave or Focused Shear Wave Standardization
to avoid confusion from unidentifiable ultrasonic signals. elements to the surface. Short length is desirable for adequate
Focused search units should only be used with the first half-V coupling in conditions of diametrical weld shrinkage, espe-
path technique. Dependent upon the examination volume (near cially if the shrinkage is made more severe by grinding of the
13 thickness), 45, 60, 70 degree L-waves or shear waves, and weld crown.
near-surface Creeping Waves may be used. 8.4.1.5 Focal Depth or Focal Sound PathDual-element
8.4.1.2 FrequencyTo limit beam spread and its negative search units focus at a point directly beneath or only slightly
effect on sizing accuracy, it is desirable to use higher frequen- ahead of the housing to maximize the signal. This is the point
cies than those commonly used during flaw detection. Narrow- at which the sound beams would cross or Beam Crossover
band search units should be used to limit the beam spread Point. This may result in insufficient access to deep flaws if the
caused by the low-frequency components of the spectrum. weld crown is present. The exit point-to-front of search unit
Ideally, the transmitting element should have a tuning circuit distance should be as small as practical and the crossover point
that will optimize the effects of possible pulser impedance distance should be as long as practical. The focal sound path is
variations on the frequency spectrum. If the frequency is too generally noted for each type of focused dual-element search
high, then the penetration depth will be inadequate for locating unit. The more important measurement is the focal depth of the
any but the deepest flaws. A search unit of 4 or 5 MHz should search unit. This can be calculated by the following formula:
permit quantitative sizing of flaws that reach to the near 13
FD 5 FS ~ Cos of the refracted angle of the search unit!
thickness of the near surface. Lower frequencies of 2 and 3
MHz are acceptable dependent upon the depth of penetration where:
desired. FD = focal depth, and
8.4.1.3 ElementsEither single or dual-element search FS = focal sound path.
units may be used. Note that it is very difficult to eliminate
internal wedge reflections and entry surface noise when using 8.4.2 InstrumentA pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument ca-
a single-element search unit for high-angle longitudinal wave pable of generating and receiving frequencies in the range of at
examination. These single-element problems can only be least 1 to 5 MHz should be suitable for sizing using the
avoided with the use of larger wedges, however, this can lead high-angle longitudinal wave method. Horizontal linearity
to increased beam size and difficult search unit manipulation. should be within 2 % of full screen width. The system should
Element size is an important consideration. Very small ele- exhibit adequate resolution and high filtering capabilities.
ments will have excessive angular beam spread, and very large 8.4.3 Reference BlockStandardization for the focused lon-
elements may produce beams with too much penetration. The gitudinal wave or focused shear wave sizing techniques re-
optimal size will probably be a function of depth of penetration quires special reference blocks. The block must have a set of
and wall thickness, with larger elements being acceptable for planar or rounded reflectors located at various depths from the
greater thicknesses. examination surface. An example is a flat plate or pipe section
8.4.1.4 Contact AreaThe search unit contact area or foot with far-surface notches located at increments of 2 mm depth
print should be small. With dual-element search units, small below the near surface, that is, 2 mm, 4 mm, 6 mm, etc. (or if
search unit width is necessary for proper coupling of both in inch units, 0.10 in., 0.20 in., 0.30 in., 0.40 in., etc.).
16
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Alternatively, a reference block with side-drilled holes located 8.4.4.6 Obtain and maximize the high-angle longitudinal
at increments of 2 mm (or inch equivalent) in depth below the wave or shear wave signal from the notch or hole located at the
near surface can be used. The signals noted from the holes are desired depth below the near surface, for example, 12 mm or
due to reflection rather than diffraction, and the central part of typically 0.5 in. if using inch reference blocks. Adjust the range
the ultrasonic beam is apparently bent as it propagates into the control to place this signal at 5 screen divisions.
component, resulting in the beam interacting with the holes at 8.4.4.7 Continue with the other notch or hole signals until
various depths. The beam may reflect off of the side of the hole they are too far from the near surface to be detected with a
at the 2 mm depth and near the top of the hole at the 10 mm signal-to-noise ratio of at least 3. Increase instrument gain as
depth. This is dependent upon the refracted angle of the search necessary.
unit and the depth of the hole. Starting with the notch or hole 8.4.5 The screen setup should now be as follows:
located 2 mm (or inch equivalent) in depth below the near Reflector Signal Horizontal Divisions
surface, set the ultrasonic response from the notch tip at 1 End of block 0
2 mm deep 1
horizontal screen division. Standardize the instrument screen 4 mm deep 2
so that each horizontal division represents 2 mm (or inch 6 mm deep 3
8 mm deep 4
equivalent) of depth into the component. The beam entry point 10 mm deep 5 (may not be detectable:
is placed at the extreme left side of the screen. It is also useful dependent on search unit)
to observe the response from either a near-surface notch or the (For inch standardization, select accordingly). See Fig. 18.
end of the block. These signals appear at the same horizontal The standardized region of the screen is from 1 division to
position as a 100 % through-wall flaw. When a planar flaw the position of 10 mm below the surface. As a general rule, do
signal is obtained and maximized, its distance below the near not attempt to size cracks outside this standardized range.
surface will be indicated by the time-of-flight (sweep position), Instrument gain will likely need to be increased to obtain the
or depth from the near surface. This dimension is subtracted last one or two signals. Also, the near-surface notch signal
from the local thickness of the component to determine the would be well over 100 % full screen height. Note that the area
flaw height. If notches are used, the block should be of the of the screen where the mode converted shear wave signals
same thickness as the component. If the reference block is used appear from the far surface is to the right half of the screen
only for establishing the screen distance standardization, its outside the standardization region.
thickness is not important provided that it is a known thickness
9. Sizing Applications
and it is thick enough to fully characterize the ultrasonic beam.
8.4.4 System StandardizationThe focused longitudinal 9.1 Far-Surface Creeping Wave or Mode Conversion
wave or focused shear wave techniques depend primarily on TechniqueOnce the flaws existence has been verified with
the time of flight or sound path. The instrument must be the detection and characterization techniques, the next decision
standardized accurately for distance or depth. Standardization is to estimate the vertical extent of the flaw as measured from
the far surface. The far-surface Creeping Wave or Mode
may be performed using a notched block.
Conversion Method will place the flaw into 13-depth zones.
8.4.4.1 Adjust the delay to display the initial pulse at the left The far-surface Creeping Wave method will provide a qualita-
side of the screen. tive estimate of the flaw depth. The technique also confirms
8.4.4.2 Obtain a signal from the end of the reference block that a flaw is surface connected by the presence of the Creeping
with the index point placed very near the block end. This will Wave signal. The component thickness is divided into 13
not be a corner reflection from the bottom of the block; it will thickness zones; far 13, middle 13 and the near 13 volume or
be a reflection from the top part of the end of the block. Verify zone. Using the far-surface creeping wave, the user can
that the correct signal is obtained by finger-damping near the approximate the flaw depth into one of the 13 zones. Once the
top of the end face. flaw is qualitatively sized, for example, 20 to 30 % deep, then
8.4.4.3 Adjust the delay and range controls to place the the other sizing methods and techniques are used to provide a
end-of-block signal at 0 horizontal divisions. finite flaw depth estimate, for example, 23 % through-wall.
8.4.4.4 Place the search unit index point directly above the Generally, the following steps are used for evaluation with the
reference notch or hole located at 2 mm (or inch equivalent) far-surface creeping wave to approximate the flaw depth.
from the near surface. Move the search unit backward, slowly. However, the standardization performed on the reference
With focused L waves, one or more signals from the associated blocks addressed in Section 8 is used for comparison with
shear wave component may appear. Continue to move back signals observed on an actual far-surface connected flaw. If
until a separate signal appears. This will be the focused only the far-surface creeping wave signal is observed, the flaw
longitudinal wave or focused shear wave signal. It can be is approximated to less than 10 to 15 % depth. If the far-surface
recognized by the fact that it usually travels more along the creeping wave signal and the mode converted signal, are
screen baseline than the mode converted signals. observed, the flaw is approximated to greater than 15 to 20 %
depth. If the far-surface creeping wave signal, the mode
8.4.4.5 When the focused L wave or focused shear wave
converted signal, and a 70-degree L wave are observed, the
signal is maximized, visually verify that the search unit index
flaw is approximated to greater than 40 to 50 % depth.
point is in the proper position to detect the reflector with a high NOTE 5These estimates are a typical evaluation from a far-surface-
beam angle. Adjust the delay control to place this signal at 1 notch reference block. These estimates will vary with type of search unit,
division. frequency, size, material thickness and type. Another key point is to
17
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observe the echo dynamics of the mode converted signal. A broad echo Technique standardization and a sketch of the ultrasonic beam
dynamic movement of the mode converted signal would confirm the paths relative to the far-surface notches in the reference block.
presence of a 70-degree L wave signal to verify a deep flaw greater than
40 to 50 % through wall. 9.2.2 Second Half-V Path Technique:
9.2.2.1 Time of Flight (TOF) TechniqueAfter the specific
9.2 Tip-Diffraction TechniqueTip-diffraction sizing may
area containing the planar flaw is identified, position the search
be performed using the first or second half-V path techniques,
unit to obtain a signal from the flaw base at half-V path. Move
and the user may choose either the Time of Flight (TOF) or the
the search unit away from the flaw to obtain the diffracted wave
Delta Time of Flight (TOF) techniques. The results should be
signal from the tip of the flaw after reflecting from the far
the same if the flaw is vertical and the actual material thickness
surface. If the signal is observed, peak the diffracted wave
is known. If more than one of these combinations of methods
signal from the flaw tip, then measure the distance to the signal.
is used and different results are obtained, the user must
Subtracting the local wall thickness from this measurement
determine whether to accept the results of one method or
reveals the flaw height. Fig. 21 shows the display of a second
disregard all results and attempt sizing with one of the other
half-V path Time of Flight (TOF) Technique standardization
two methods. If the flaw is not vertical, the TOF technique
and the ultrasonic beam paths related to that standardization.
will provide inaccurate results; therefore if the flaw is sus-
This technique may be effective for wide weld crowns which
pected to be oriented other than essentially vertical, the user
would not allow for effective use of the first half-V path
should choose the TOF technique. Experience has shown that
technique. If the tip signal is not observed but there is the
occasionally the second half-V path, TOF technique may
presence of a second half-V path corner reflector signal, this
exaggerate the flaw height as the ultrasonic beam may be
would indicate the presence of a very deep flaw. This signal
redirected slightly at the reflection. This leads to the conclusion
would only provide qualitative information that the flaw was
that the first half-V path technique is more accurate and the
very large. This may occur in highly attenuative material, such
second half-V path data is used only for confirmation of flaw
as with austenitic stainless steel, or when the tip signal cannot
height in the middle to outer 13 volume of material.
be resolved from the upper corner reflector signal. If both the
9.2.1 First Half-V Path Technique:
tip and the upper corner signal are present, which can occur
9.2.1.1 Time of Flight TechniqueAfter the specific area
with less attenuative material, then both a quantitative and a
containing the far-surface connected planar flaw is identified,
confirming qualitative signal are attained as illustrated in Fig.
position the search unit to obtain a signal from the flaw base at
22.
half-V path. Move the search unit forward to obtain the
9.2.2.2 Delta Time of Flight TechniqueAfter the specific
diffracted signal from the flaw tip. If the signal is observed,
peak the diffracted wave signal from the flaw tip, then measure
the sound-path distance to the signal. This distance reveals the
the search unit back to obtain a tip-diffracted signal from the
amount of material above the flaw tip. The flaw height is then
top of the flaw. Manipulate the search unit back and forth and
determined by subtracting this dimension from the local
look for a doublet. If the doublet is observed, measure the time
material thickness. Fig. 19 shows the display of a first half-V
difference between the two signals. The separation indicates
path TOF standardization and the ultrasonic beam paths related
the height of the flaw, according to the standardization. Fig. 23
to that standardization.
shows the instrument display of a second half-V Delta Time of
9.2.1.2 Delta Time of Flight TechniqueAfter the specific
Flight standardization and a sketch of the ultrasonic beam paths
related to that standardization.
the search unit toward the flaw and back again and look for 9.3 Bi-Modal MethodFlaw sizing on the basis of time of
evidence of a tip-diffracted signal moving in unison with the flight or the delta time of flight techniques should be performed
flaw base signal (a doublet). If the doublet is observed, measure as follows:
the time difference between the two signals, (the tip signal and 9.3.1 Connect the search unit to the instrument operated in
the flaw base signal). The separation indicates the height of the the transmit-receive mode.
flaw, according to the standardization. Fig. 20 shows the 9.3.2 Standardize the instrument for the appropriate wall
instrument display of a first half-V path Delta Time of Flight thickness using the nomograms prepared from Fig. 13 or the
FIG. 19 Example of First Half-V Path Time of Flight (TOF) Standardization
18
E2192 13
FIG. 20 Example of First Half-V Path Delta TOF Standardization
FIG. 21 Example of Second Half-V Path Time of Flight Standardization
FIG. 22 Example of the Presence of Both the Tip Signal and the Upper Corner Signal
FIG. 23 Example of Second Half-V Path Delta Time of Flight Standardization
table prepared from the nomograms. Check the standardization to the surface, only two signals separated by about 2.2 screen
by observing the initial pulse at t = 0 from the edge of a block divisions and peaking between divisions 5 and 7 should be
and a tip-diffracted signal from the reference block. observed. The longer the signal duration, the deeper the flaw.
9.3.3 Using the notches in the most appropriate reference 9.3.6 Scan the area from the opposite direction with broad
block, review the echo-dynamic behavior of the various signals movements and look for signals only to the right of mid-screen.
that are expected from all flaw sizes. If the signal patterns are essentially the same when the flaw is
9.3.4 Scan a component volume void of flaws from both viewed from the two directions, it is likely that the flaw has
opposing directions and observe the irrelevant indications, both grown perpendicular to the surface and is oriented vertically.
statically and dynamically, to the left of mid-screen. Adjust the 9.3.7 Look for a tip-diffracted longitudinal wave signal to
gain so that the average background noise is approximately the left of mid-screen, from both sides of the component. If the
10 % of full screen height. amplitudes of the tip-diffracted signals are comparable and
9.3.5 Scan over the flawed area with broad back-and-forth smaller than that of the appropriate reference signal, then it is
movements. Look for the mode-converted and creeping wave still likely that the flaw is oriented vertically. The separation
signals to the right of mid-screen. If the flaw is perpendicular measured between the tip-diffracted longitudinal wave signal
19
E2192 13
and the mode-converted signal along the component from each 9.4.2 Calculation of Flaw HeightIf no relevant signals
side of the flaw yields the first two estimates of flaw height were obtained in the standardized region, then the high-angle
according to the appropriate curve in Fig. 15. The more longitudinal wave method has not found any evidence that the
extensive the flaw, the larger the distance between the signals. flaw penetrates near the near surface. If relevant signals were
9.3.8 Move the search unit toward the flaw far enough to present in the standardized region but excessive signal travel
maximize the tip-diffracted longitudinal wave signal (weld precluded accurate definition of their sweep positions at
crown permitting). The time between the peaked tip-diffracted maximum amplitude, then a quantitative value for flaw height
signal and the mid-screen mark yields a third estimate of height cannot be obtained. The only conclusion is that the flaw was
in percent of local wall thickness. deep enough to approach the near surface to within the
9.3.9 If possible, repeat these measurements from the other standardized depth range. If accurately maximized signals are
direction and profile the flaw from both directions. If a obtained, calculate the indicated height by the formula:
longitudinal wave signal from the flaw base is received, then h 5 t 2 0.1 in. ~ s 2 2 !
relative arrival time measurements between the tip-diffracted
longitudinal wave signal and the longitudinal wave signal from where:
the flaw base provide additional confirmation of flaw height. h = height,
9.4 Focused Longitudinal Wave and Shear Wave Method t = wall thickness at the flaw location, and
Longitudinal waves are not strongly affected by weld metal. s = sweep position of the maximized recordable signal,
Given a suitable surface, ideally a flush-ground and blended expressed as the number of major sweep positions.
weld crown, this method can work as well through weld metal NOTE 7The 2 in the parenthesis results from placing the beam center
entry point at 2 major sweep divisions. The constant in front of the
as through base metal. parenthesis is shown in inches. This would be converted to the applicable
9.4.1 Signal Presentation value in mm if metric standardization was used.
NOTE 6Instrument gain for investigating the flaw should be set such Compare the height measurements obtained from both sides
that the noise level from an unflawed area is low in amplitude but visible, of the flaw. They should be almost equal. For weld inspection,
that is, 10 to 20 % full screen height. The examiner should only be
concerned with the noise level in the part of the screen that is standard- the measurement made from the weld side may be slightly
ized. Noise at the extreme left and right sides of the screen will have no lower if the flaw follows the weld fusion line because the
effect. received signal will be a reflected wave from the top of the flaw
Select the area of the component where the flaw is located. face instead of the extreme tip. If the heights are very different
Scan the area and look for signals in the standardized area of (more than two wavelengths), then one of the signals may have
the screen. Signals near 2 divisions should be expected to have been a misinterpreted noise signal. If confirmation is achieved,
higher amplitude and signal-to-noise ratio than those occurring the conservative approach should be taken. Compare the height
deeper into the wall (a strong signal at 2 divisions indicating a measurements obtained from different points along the length
through-wall flaw). The screen may display the longitudinal of the flaw. A flaw profile can be constructed from these
wave extremity signals and the shear wave flaw opening measurements. If the profile shows large height changes with a
signals moving in unison. As the search unit is scanned toward small position change (small compared to the flaw length),
the flaw, the shear wave signal will appear late in time at high suspect that some of the measurements are incorrect.
amplitude, and the high-angle longitudinal wave signal will
appear earlier in time (in the standardized region), probably 10. Use of Complementary Methods for Flaw Sizing
with less amplitude. If signals were obtained in either of the
10.1 General Guidelines for Complementary MethodsThe
previous investigations, return to the unflawed area of the weld
various sizing methods have certain limitations that prohibit
and try to reproduce them. If similar signals are obtained in the
their application to all flaw sizes. By understanding each
unflawed area, the recorded signals were probably not flaw-
method in detail with its limitations, the methods must be
related; if the signals cannot be reproduced in the unflawed
combined to complement one another so that the user is more
area, they were probably flaw-related. Time permitting, repeat
confident of the flaw size measurement obtained from several
the investigation at several points along the flaw. If the flaw is
methods than of a flaw size obtained from only one method.
large enough to penetrate into the beam center, the signal-to-
The methodology described in this document assumes that all
noise ratio should be sufficient to resolve the indications. In the
of the necessary search units are available to the user to
shallower, less intense areas of the beam, it is possible to miss
combine the methods in the prescribed manner. The extent to
the tip signal. The distinction between the high- and low-
which complementary flaw sizing methods may be useful in a
intensity areas can be very clear, particularly for search units
field environment will depend on the physical conditions of the
with a very high refracted angle and relatively low beam
component, the flaw morphology, the search unit selection and
spread. When evaluating a signal in a low-intensity area of the
the time constraints imposed. Fig. 24 shows the optimum
beam, the user should confirm the result using another sizing
ranges of applicability for the three most important sizing
technique. When a large beam is used (large due to high
methods.
angular beam spread or large elements), the tip signals may
exhibit extensive travel across the time-base. Such signals are 10.2 General Guidelines for Flaw Sizing EvaluationsTo
difficult to maximize accurately and therefore should be used provide optimum conditions for flaw sizing in welds, the weld
non-quantitatively. Use a smaller beam or a different sizing crown should be ground flush with the weld for the entire flaw
method to obtain a numerical value for the flaw height. length. Prior to attempting to size a planar flaw, the user must
20
E2192 13
FIG. 24 Optimum Ranges of Applicability for Flaw Sizing Methods
first verify its location and extent. This is typically accom- 10.3.1 Verify location and extent of flaw.
plished with the original equipment used for detection. The 10.3.2 Approximate the flaw depth with the far-surface
next step involves searching for evidence of an extremely large Creeping Wave or Mode Conversion Method.
flaw. The initial approach is to use the creeping wave tech- 10.3.3 Search for evidence of a very large flaw:
nique. The two methods of determining that a planar flaw is
10.3.3.1 Focused Longitudinal Wave or Focused Shear
large (High-Angle Longitudinal Wave Method and obtaining a
Wave Method,
signal from the second half-vee path corner reflection) should
both be attempted to provide greatest confidence. If neither of 10.3.3.2 Second Half-V Path Corner Reflection, and
these show that the flaw is large, the tip-diffraction method 10.3.3.3 Tip-Diffraction.
should be attempted with the first half-V path technique. The 10.3.4 Search for evidence of a small flaw:
Mode Conversion and Bi-Modal Methods should add confi- 10.3.4.1 Tip-Diffraction, and
dence to the results obtained. It is recommended that whatever 10.3.4.2 Bi-Modal Method.
results are obtained, the user must confirm them using a 10.3.5 If evidence of a large flaw exists:
complementary method. Additionally, if the results show that
10.3.5.1 Confirm with complementary method, and
the flaw is small, the user should also prove that it is not large
by using a High-Angle Longitudinal Wave technique. This is 10.3.5.2 Prove that a small flaw does not exist.
important since flaws can be multifaceted and a lower facet 10.3.6 If evidence of a small flaw exists:
may provide signals indicating flaws less than 50 % through- 10.3.6.1 Confirm with complementary method,
wall while there are other facets that may be virtually 100 % 10.3.6.2 Confirm that a large flaw does not exist, and
through-wall. It is very important that large flaws are not 10.3.6.3 Confirmation may also be achieved by a different
missed and that small flaws are not called large. Flaw height angle of approach or by the opposite direction of approach.
determinations should also be made at several locations along
10.3.7 If two or more methods exhibit differing results:
the flaw length to increase confidence levels and to increase the
chances of finding the deepest point of the flaw. In the case 10.3.7.1 Eliminate those results with lowest confidence
where two or more methods produce different estimations of based on range of applicability or repeatability or result,
flaw height, the user should be knowledgeable enough to select 10.3.7.2 In case of doubt, take value with greater height, and
the correct data. This requires understanding of the theory 10.3.7.3 Be aware of possible indications from weld fabri-
behind each method as well as the limitations. The diagram cation flaws.
shown in Fig. 25 presents a flaw evaluation and sizing flow
chart with five possible sequences for estimating flaw height. 11. Keywords
10.3 Principles for Flaw SizingThe activities as listed 11.1 evaluation; examination; flaw-height sizing; flaw siz-
should be accomplished. ing; nondestructive testing; ultrasonic
21
FIG. 25 Guide to Confirm Flaw Existence, Location, and Depth Sizing
E2192 13
22
E2192 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Advanced Ultrasonic Flaw Sizing Handbook, 1998 Edition, J. (11) IIW Handbook on the Ultrasonic Examination of Austenitic Clad
Mark Davis, published by: The Art Room Corporation, 1998. Steel Components, R.J. Hudgel, compiled by Commission V IIS/
(2) Advanced Ultrasonic Flaw Sizing Training Course, Davis NDE, IIW 1080-90 ex.doc. V-939-90, published by European
Inc., June 1999. Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute of Advanced
(3) A Time-of-Flight Method for Crack Evaluation Using Focused Materials, 1994.
Ultrasonic Probes, L. Paradis, Y. Serruys, and R. Saglio, Materials (12) Ultrasonic Defect SizingJapanese Tip Echo Handbook, second
Evaluation, Vol. 44 No. 4, April 1986, pp 568-570. version, Edited by: K. Harumi, Y. Ogura, M. Uchida, Translated
(4) Changes in Ultrasonic Defect Sizing, by M.G.Silk, NDT Interna- by: M. D. C. Moles, N. Miura Published by: Tip Echo Working
tional Vol. 20 No. 1 February 1987. Group of 210 and 202 Subcommittee of Japanese Society for
(5) Crack Height Measurement-An Evaluation of the Accuracy of Ul- Non-Destructive Inspection, 1996 .
trasonic Timing Methods, by K.Date, H.Shimada & N.Ikenaga, NDT (13) Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing,
International December 1982 .
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1991.
(6) Creeping Wave Probes in Ultrasonic TestingPhysical Principles,
(14) On the Nature of the So-Called Subsurface Longitudinal Wave
Application in Welded Constructions, A. Erhard, H. Wustenberg,
and/or the Surface Longitudinal Creeping Wave,
E. Schulz, E. Mundry and B. Ludwig, Welding and Cutting, May
K.J.Langenberg, P. Fellinger, R. Marklein, Research in Nonde-
1983.
(7) Defect Identification and Sizing by the Ultrasonic SatellitePulse structive Evaluation, Springer-Verlag, 1990, pp 61-81.
Technique, G.J. Gruber, Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. (15) Sizing of Planar Defects by Use of Double-Angle Ultrasonic
1, No.4, December 1980, pp 263-276. Beams and Tip-Echo Times, M.A.M. Mahmoud, G.A. Hewitt and
(8) Detection of Near-Surface Cracks with Creeping-Longitudinal D.J. Burns, Materials Evaluation, Vol. 44 No. 9, August 1986, pp
Waves, A. Erhard, H. Wustenberg, E. Mundry, FASE, Warschau, 1125-1131.
18-22, 1978. (16) Stress Corrosion Cracking, Recommended Practices, Canadian
(9) Electric Power Research Institute Training Course, UT Operator Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA), Inspection Modu1e, Same
Training for Sizing Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking Side Sizing of Stress Corrosion Cracking Manual Procedure, by R.
(IGSCC), Competency Area 911. Ginzel, 1997.
(10) Full Characterization of Near-surface Flaws with Multimode (17) The Use of the Head-type Waves for Ultrasonic Monitoring, I.N.
Straight-Beam Transducers, by G.J. Gruber & S.R.Burger, Intnl Ermolov, N.P. Razygraev, and V.G. Shcherbinski, Soviet Journal of
Journal of Pressure Vessels & Piping, # 22, 1986. NDT, S 27/33, 1978.
SUMMARY OF CHANGES
Committee E07 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue (E2192 -
08) that may impact the use of this standard. (June 1, 2013.)
(1) Added 1.5 (4) Added references made in Section 6 to Section 2 Refer-
(2) Deleted definition in 3.2 enced Documents
(3) Added Section 6 Basis of Application as applicable to this (5) Renumbered paragraphs due to insertion of new section
document
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Standard Guide for

1. Scope* E543 Specification for Agencies Performing Nondestructive

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

FIG. 3 Generation of S-Waves (Headwaves) by an L-Wave with Grazing Incidence

FIG. 5 Generation of Far-Surface Creeping Wave Signal

1Flaw indication maximized for mode-converted wave signal

in comparison to the flaw corner reflector signal; and the flaw v ~ t !

where: operator to distinguish between tip and corner signals can be

Subscripts as in Fig. 10.

FIG. 12 Asynchronous Echo-Dynamic Curves for a 50 % Deep far-surface Notch

FIG. 16 Sizing Reference Block

FIG. 18 Focused Longitudinal Wave or Focused Shear Wave Standardization

FIG. 19 Example of First Half-V Path Time of Flight (TOF) Standardization

FIG. 20 Example of First Half-V Path Delta TOF Standardization

FIG. 21 Example of Second Half-V Path Time of Flight Standardization

FIG. 23 Example of Second Half-V Path Delta Time of Flight Standardization

FIG. 24 Optimum Ranges of Applicability for Flaw Sizing Methods

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