4.

0 CHEMICAL BASED PROCESSES

4.2 Electrochemical Machining
4.2.1 Introduction
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a modern machining process that relies on the removal of
workpiece atoms by electrochemical dissolution (ECD) in accordance with the principles of
Faraday (1833). Gusseff introduced the first patent on ECM in 1929, and the first significant
development occurred in the 1950s, when the process was used for machining high-strength and
heat-resistant alloys.

4.2.2 Principles of electrolysis

Electrolysis occurs when an electric current passes between two electrodes dipped into an
electrolyte solution. The system of the electrodes and the electrolyte is referred to as the
electrolytic cell. The chemical reactions, which occur at the electrodes, are called the anodic or
cathodic reactions. ECD of the anodic workpiece forms the basis for ECM of metals.

The amount of metal dissolved (removed by machining) or deposited is calculated from

Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, which state that:

1. The amount of mass dissolved (removed by machining), m, is directly proportional to the

amount of electricity:

2. The amount of different substances dissolved, m, by the same quantity of electricity (It) is
proportional to the substances’ chemical equivalent weight ε:

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4.2.3 ECM equipment
Figure 4.2.1 shows the main components of the ECM machine: the feed control system,
electrolyte supply system, power supply unit, and workpiece holding device. As shown in Figure
4.2.2, the feed control system is responsible for feeding the tool at a constant rate during
equilibrium machining. The power supply drives the machining current at a constant dc
(continuous or pulsed) voltage. The electrolyte-feeding unit supplies the electrolyte solution at a
given rate, pressure, and temperature.

Facilities for electrolyte filtration, temperature control, and sludge removal are also included.
ECM machines are capable of performing a wide range of operations such as deburring, sinking,
and drilling.

Semi-automatic and fully-automated facilities are used for large-size machining, such as
deburring in the automotive industry. ECM machines, in contrast to conventional machine tools,
are designed to stand up to corrosion attack by using nonmetallic materials. For high strength or
rigidity, metals with nonmetallic coatings are recommended.

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Figure 4.2.1 ECM elements

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 Figure 4.2.2 ECM system components

4.2.3.1 Power supply: The dc power supply for ECM has the following features:

1. Voltage of 2 to 30 volts (V) (pulsed or continuous)

2. Current ranges from 50 to 10,000 amperes (A), which allow current densities of 5 to 500
A/cm2
3. Continuous adjustment of the gap voltage
4. Control of the machining current in case of emergency
5. Short circuit protection in a matter of 0.001 s
6. High power factor, high efficiency, small size and weight, and low cost
4.2.3.2 Electrolytes: The main functions of the electrolytes in ECM are to:

1. Create conditions for anodic dissolution of workpiece material

2. Conduct the machining current

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 3. Remove the debris of the electrochemical reactions from the gap
4. Carry away the heat generated by the machining process
5. Maintain a constant temperature in the machining region
The electrolyte solution should, therefore, be able to:

1. Ensure a uniform and high-speed anodic dissolution

2. Avoid the formation of a passive film on the anodic surface (electrolytes containing
anions of Cl, SO4 , NO3 , ClO 3, and OH are often recommended)
3. Not deposit on the cathode surface, so that the cathode shape remains unchanged
(potassium and sodium electrolytes are used)
4. Have a high electrical conductivity and low viscosity to reduce the power loss due to
electrolyte resistance and heat generation and to ensure good flow conditions in the
extremely narrow interelectrode gap
5. Be safe, nontoxic, and less erosive to the machine body
6. Maintain its stable ingredients and pH value, during the machining period
7. Have small variation in its conductivity and viscosity due to temperature rise
8. Be inexpensive and easily available
4.2.3.3 Tools
The design of a suitable tool for a desired workpiece shape, and dimension forms a major
problem. The workpiece shape is expected to be greater than the tool size by an oversize. In
determining the geometry of the tool to be used under steady-state conditions, many variables
should be specified in advance such as the required shape of the surface to be machined, tool
feed rate, gap voltage, electrochemical machinability of the work material, electrolyte
conductivity, and anodic and cathodic polarization voltages. With computer integrated
manufacturing, cathodes are produced at a lower cost and greater accuracy.

Computer-aided design (CAD) systems are used first to design a cathodic tool. This design is
programmed for CNC production by milling and turning. After ECM, the coordinate measuring
machine inspects the workpiece produced by this tool and sends data back to the CAD computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM) unit for analysis of the results.

The material used for ECM tools should be electrically conductive and easily machinable to the
required geometry. The various materials used for this purpose include copper, brass, stainless

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steel, titanium, and copper tungsten. Tool insulation controls the side electrolyzing current and
hence the amount of oversize. Spraying or dipping is generally the simplest method of applying
insulation. Durable insulation should ensure a high electrical receptivity, uniformity, smoothness,
heat resistance, chemical resistance to the electrolyte, low water absorption, and resistance
against wear in the machine guides and fixtures. Teflon, urethane, phenol, and epoxy are
commonly used for tool insulation.

4.2.4 Process characteristics

As shown in Figure 4.2.3, ECM relies mainly on the ECD phase that occurs by the movement of
ions between the cathodic tool and the anodic workpiece.

Figure 4.2.3 ECM process components

4.2.4.1 Material removal rate: Faraday’s laws describe the rate of material removal.

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When machining titanium, in NaCl electrolyte, a current efficiency of 10 to 20 percent is
obtainable. When this solution is replaced by some mixture of florid-based electrolytes, higher
efficiencies are obtained at 60 V that break down the tenacious oxide film formed on the
machined surface. However, McGeough (1988) reported that this tough, light, and corrosion-
resistant layer is what makes titanium so useful in the aircraft engine industry. With low
electrolyte flow rates the current efficiency is reduced due to the accumulation of machining
products within the gap that impedes further dissolution of the metal. Additionally, the buildup
of cathodically generated gases can lead to short circuiting between the tool and workpiece,
which terminates the machining process and damages both the tool and workpiece.

Electrolyte concentration is also an important factor that determines the gap resistance and
controls the machining current. In some cases the removal rate and hence the machinability can
be enhanced by heating the electrolyte because this increases the electrolyte’s specific
conductivity.

In practice, the electrolyte temperature must not exceed 60 to 700C using temperature regulators.
Electrolyte circulation and replenishment are recommended for raising the electrolyte
discharging voltage and keeping the pH number at a moderate level of 4 to 10. The electrolytes
used in practice make it possible to employ a working voltage up to 20 V.

4.2.4.2 Accuracy of ECM: A small gap width represents a high degree of process accuracy. As
can be seen in Figure 4.2.4, the accuracy of machined parts depends on the current density,
which is affected by:

1. Material equivalent and gap voltage

2. Feed rate and gap phenomena including passivation
3. Electrolyte properties including rate, pH, temperature, concentration, pressure, type, and
velocity
For high process accuracy, machining conditions leading to narrow machining gaps are
recommended. These include use of:

1. A high feed rate

2. High-conductivity electrolytes
3. Passivating electrolytes, such as NaNO 3 , that have a low throwing power
4. Tool insulation that limits the side-machining action

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Figure 4.2.4 Relative machinability for different materials at constant current density

4.2.4.3 Surface finish: According to Konig and Lindelauf (1973), considerable variations in
surface finish occur due to the workpiece characteristics and machining conditions.
Crystallographic irregularities, such as voids, dislocation and grain boundaries, differing crystal
structures and orientation, and locally different alloy compositions produce an irregular
distribution of current density, thus leaving the microscopic peaks and valleys that form the
surface roughness.

In general the following ECM effects are summarized as follows:

 Large grains cause a rougher finish than fine grains.

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  Insoluble inclusions such as graphite in cast iron increase roughness and create
machining problems.
 Variations in workpiece composition, as in the case of hardened steel, cause differences
in local machining rates.
 Precipitation of intermetallic compounds at grain boundaries leads to serious
intergranular attack.

4.2.5 Process control

During ECM many of the selected machining conditions must be kept unchanged as they have a
direct impact on the process accuracy and surface finish. The gap voltage affects the produced
oversize, which in turn alters the dimensions of the machined workpiece. Surface roughness
depends on current density, which is affected by the tool feed rate, gap voltage, work material,
gap phenomenon, and electrolyte conditions including type, concentration, temperature, pressure,
pH level, and conductivity.

During ECM, machining conditions leading to high process accuracy are associated with smaller
surface roughness and greater machining productivity. High current densities are, therefore,
recommended.

However, electrolyte heating, and boiling and the increased possibility of sparking should be
considered. Proper control of ECM enhances the product quality and process productivity in
view of the following reasons:

1. The non-stationary behavior of ECM is due to variations in the interelectrode gap

conditions such as gas generation, heating, passivation, and other electrode reactions.
2. For large components, the actual machining time constitutes a high percentage of the total
production time. Any improvement in machining performance could yield a significant
reduction in product cycle time.
3. The cost of additional control hardware may remain a small fraction of the total machine
cost including power supply and electrolyte feeding and filtration units.
4. The increase of unmanned working hours raises the efficiency of ECM machines and
enhances the possibility of process integration into CAD/CAM systems.
5. ECM deterioration by sparking may cause irreparable damage to the intricate and often
costly workpiece and tools or completely shut down the machine prematurely. This risk

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 rises at high machining speeds which are normally associated with narrow interelectrode
gaps. The application of an advanced control system may significantly contribute to the
reduction of the risk of such losses.

4.2.6 Applications
ECM has been used in a wide variety of industrial applications ranging from cavity sinking to
deburring. The ability to machine high-strength alloys and hardened steel has led to many cost-
saving applications where other processes are impractical. Typical applicators for the ECM
process are shown in Figure 4.2.5. Some of the very basic applications of ECM include:

a) Die-sinking operations
b) Multiple hole drilling and jet engine turbine blades drilling
c) Machining steam turbine blades within close limits

Figure 4.2.5 ECM components

4.2.7 Micro-ECM
ECM is usually characterized as a low-accuracy machining process because of its wider
machining gap. In micro-ECM an electrolyte jet is used as a micro-tool in the arrangement
shown in Figure 4.2.6. Moving the workpiece and controlling or switching the pulse current
produces small indents or cavities in predesigned alignment.

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 Figure 4.2.6 Electrolyte jet ECM.

4.2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of ECM

Advantages

1. There is no wear in the tool because there is no contact between the tool and the
workpiece.
2. Machining is done at low voltages, compared to other processes, with high metal removal
rates.
3. Very small dimensions up to 0.05 mm can be controlled.
4. Complicated profiles can be machined easily in a single operation.
5. Because of the low temperature developed, no thermal damage occurs to the workpiece
structure.
6. Hard conductive materials can be machined.
7. The surface finish can be maintained at 0.1 to 1.25 m Ra.
8. Labour requirements are low.
Disadvantages

1. A huge amount of energy is consumed (about 100 times that required for turning or
drilling steel).
2. Metal removal rates are slow compared with conventional methods.
3. ECM can only be applied to electrically conductive workpiece materials.
4. There are difficulties in safely removing and disposing of the explosive hydrogen gas
generated during machining.
5. The workpiece needs to be cleaned and oiled immediately after machining.

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6. There are difficulties with handling and containing the electrolyte, which may attack the
equipment.
7. It is not easy to duplicate the shape of the tool electrode in the workpiece with a high
degree of accuracy because of the side machining effect.
8. The process can’t produce sharp internal or external edges.
9. The pumping of high-pressure electrolyte into the narrow machining gap gives rise to
large forces acting on the tool and the workpiece.

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