UNIT 13 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING

(ECM)
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives

13.2 Electrochemical Machining (ECM) 13.3 ECM Machine Tool

13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4 Power Source Electrolyte System Tool and Tool Material Workpiece and Work Holding Device

13.4 Advantages, Limitations and Applications 13.5 Mechanical Properties of ECM'd Parts 13.6 Theory of ECM
13.6.1 13.6.2 13.6.3 13.6.4 13.6.5 Faradays Laws of Electrolysis Electrochemical Equivalent of Alloys Material Removal Rate in ECM Maximum Permissible Feed Rate in ECM Electrolyte Conductivity (k)

13.7 Summary 13.8 Key Words 13.9 Answers to SAQs

13.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Unit 11, mechanical type advanced machining processes can be applied to electrically conductive as well as non-conductive work materials, and they can produce even nano-meter surface finish in certain cases. But, they cannot machine big components with the desired material removal rate, precision, accuracy, and tolerances. Some of these requirements can be met by thermal processes, but they cannot produce very high surface finish, MRR is low, and more importantly they produce components with thermal residual stresses, microcracks, resolidified layer, heat affected zone etc. Third category of the AMPs (Electrochemical and other machining processes) overcome some of these problems. One of the processes in this category electrochemical machining is discussed in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand the working principle of anodic dissolution based processes, identify various elements of ECM and similar other machine tools, calculate MRR in case of pure metals as well as alloys, decide machining conditions for maximum productivity, and conclude whether ECM process can be used or not to machine the given workpiece.

13.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

The process of metal removal by electrochemical dissolution was known as long back as 1780 AD but it is only over the last couple of decades that this method has been used to advantage for machining purpose. It is also known as contactless electrochemical

71

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

forming process. The noteworthy feature of electrolysis is that the electrical energy is used to produce a chemical reaction, therefore, the machining process based on this principle is known as electrochemical machining (ECM). This process is based on the principle of Faraday's laws of electrolysis. In ECM, small electric DC potential (5-25 V) is applied across the two electrodes (Figure 13.1), i.e., cathode and anode (anode is work and cathode is tool). Usually anode is fully and cathode is partially immersed in electrolyte. The transfer of electrons between the ions and the electrodes completes the electrical circuit. During the flow of current metal is detached, atom by atom, from the anode surface and appears in the electrolyte as positive ions. In electrochemical machining, the detached metal appears as precipitated solid of metal hydroxides. During the electrolysis of water, its molecules gain electrons from cathode so that they separate into free hydrogen gas and hydroxyl ions. The chemical reaction that governs the removal of pure iron by electro-chemical method, using NaCl solution in water, can be described as follows (Figure 13.1) :

2H 2 O + 2e H 2 + 2 (OH )

Figure 13.1 : Schematic for Electrochemical Machining

As the anode dissolves, negatively charged hydroxyl ions are electrically balanced by positively charged metal ions entering into the electrolyte.

Fe 2 e 2Fe 2+ Fe2+ + 2 (OH ) Fe(OH)2

Metal ions do not remain as ions in the solution when neutral electrolytes are used, but combine with the hydroxyl ions to form the metal hydroxides (say, Fe(OH)2). These hydroxides are insoluble in water hence they appear as solid precipitates and no longer affect the electrochemical reaction.

Fe + 2H 2O Fe(OH)2 + H 2 4Fe(OH)2 + 2H 2O + O 2 4Fe(OH)3 .

. . . (13.1) . . . (13.2)

Ferrous hydroxides may further react with water and oxygen to form ferric hydroxide :

72

Smaller the interelectrode gap (IEG) (the gap, y, between the two electrodes), greater will be the current flow because the gap resistance decreases with y and higher will be the rate of metal removal from the anode. High current density, in the small spacing (usually about 0.5 mm or less), promotes rapid generation of reaction products, viz., hydroxide(s) and gas bubbles. These reaction products act as a barrier to the flow of electrolyzing current and their effect is minimized by letting the electrolyte flow at high velocity (as high as 20-30 m/s). Amount of hydroxides in the electrolyte is controlled by continuous removal using large settling tanks, filters, and by centrifuging.

Electrolyte flowing at high velocity serves multifarious functions, viz. dilutes the electrochemical reaction products and removes them out from the gap, dissipates heat at a faster rate, and limits the concentration of ions at the electrode surface to give higher machining rates. Electrolyte flow rate (volumetric) is determined based upon the desired flow velocity of electrolyte, IEG, and size of the component being machined. Electrolytes used in ECM consist of either acids or, more generally, basic salts dissolved in water. Electrolyte properties (composition, concentration, pH value, temperature and concentration of foreign elements) together with tool shape should be closely controlled because these are the important variables which determine the quality of the machined components (anode profile). Electrolyte temperature is another important factor which governs its electrical properties and its value should be controlled closely to within 1oC. Selection of electrolyte is quite important. However, inexpensive, easily available and commonly used electrolyte is sodium chloride (common salt). It is also necessary to pump the electrolyte at very high pressure through the IEG, so that the desired MRR can be maintained. The cathode is moved towards the anode (or vice-versa) at a rate at which the workpiece is being dissolved so that the gap spacing between the two electrodes remains constant. This will help in maintaining a constant material removal rate (MRR). Smaller gap spacing (Figure 13.2) between confronting surfaces of the tool and work will result in higher current density (J) and hence higher MRR.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Figure 13.2 : Electrochemical Machining (a) Initial Condition, (b) Final Condition

Machined profile of the anode depends upon a number of factors but can be narrowed down to only two, i.e., current density and cathode shape. The principle of electrochemical (EC) machining could also be employed in a variety of operations such as EC boring, EC turning, EC wire cutting, EC sawing etc. [Jain and Pandey, 1981].

13.3 ECM MACHINE TOOL

ECM machine tool (m/t) consists mainly of four sub-systems [Jain, 1980] : power source, electrolyte cleaning and supply system, tool and tool-feed system, and work and workholding system. A schematic diagram of horizontal type ECM m/t is shown in Figure 13.3. A brief description of these elements is given below.

13.3.1 Power Source

ECM process normally requires the use of low voltage DC (5-25 V) at high current values. The rate of material removal in this case is directly governed by the current density employed. The highest current density achieved so far is around 20,000 A/cm2. With the help of a rectifier and a transformer, three phase AC is converted to low voltage, high current DC. Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are used both for rectification as well as for voltage regulation because of their rapid response to the changes in the process load and their compactness. However, lack of process control, equipment failure,

73

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

operators error, and similar other reasons may lead to sparking between the tool and workpiece. The electrical circuitry detects these events and cuts off the power within 10 s to prevent any severe damage to the work and tool. In case of precision works, damage to an electrode is minimized by using SCRs bank placed across the DC input to ECM m/t.

13.3.2 Electrolyte System

The electrolyte supply and cleaning system consists of a pump, filters, pipings, control valves, heating or cooling coils, pressure gauges and a reservoir. Electrolyte supply ports (connections) may be made in the tool, work, or fixture, depending upon the requirements of the mode of electrolyte flow. Small IEG ( 1 mm) should be maintained for achieving high MRR and high accuracy. For this purpose, smooth flow of electrolyte should be maintained. Any blockade of IEG by particles carried by the electrolyte should be avoided. Hence, electrolyte cleanliness is imperative, and it is normally done with the help of filters made of anti-corrosive material (stainless steel, monel etc). Filters should be periodically cleaned for proper functioning and can be located in the supply line preferably close to the outlet point. Piping system is made of stainless steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP), plastic lined mild steel, or similar other anti-corrosive materials. It should be ensured that the piping system does not introduce any foreign materials like corroded particles, scale, or pieces of broken seal material in the electrolyte. All the metallic parts (piping, table, fixture etc.) should be earthed to prevent anodic corrosion. In case of heavy structures, if it is not possible to insulate from anode, they must carry a cathodic potential to prevent corrosion. Figure 13.3 shows a single tank system having three compartments. Reaction products from the electrolyte are separated by natural sedimentation process in the compartment I. Electrolyte is then made to go to the compartment II via a filter, and finally to the last compartment via a passage between the compartments II and III. Electrolyte is further cleaned by a filter fixed at the exit port of the tank (not shown in the figure).

Figure 13.3 : A Schematic Diagram of Horizontal Type ECM m/t [Jain, 1980]

74

A single tank system is not recommended when diversified metals and alloys are machined because of loss of time and wastage of electrolyte during draining, cleaning, mixing, or filling of new electrolyte in the tank. It results in higher cost and also poor control of operating conditions. More than one tank therefore, can be used and their number would depend upon the range of electrolytes needed to meet the work load. Use of more than one tank is justified when several ECM machines are in use. Further, concrete tank or swimming pool type of tank are advocated because of their low cost, easy maintenance, and reliability.

13.3.3 Tool and Tool Material

Tools are required to operate in a corrosive environment for a long period of time. Use of anti-corrosive materials for tools with high thermal and electrical conductivity, and easy machining characteristic is essential. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the tool directly influences the workpiece accuracy and the surface finish. Aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, carbon, stainless steel and monel are some of the materials used for this purpose. Further, those areas on the tool where ECM action is not required, should be insulated. Figure 13.4 shows three categories of tools, viz. bare tool, coated tool, and bit type of tool with the expected drilled hole profiles [Jain and Pandey, 1982]. Use of non-corrosive and electrically non-conducting materials for fixtures used in ECM is recommended. Also, the fixtures and tools should be rigid enough to avoid vibration or deflection under high pressure and flow velocity.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

(a)

(b)

(c) Figure 13.4 : Various Types of Tools : (a) Bare Tool; (b) Coated Tool; and (c) Bit Type of Tool [Jain, Yogindra, and Murugan, 1987]

13.3.4 Workpiece and Work Holding Device

Only electrically conducting work materials can be machined by this process. Work holding devices are made of electrically non-conducting materials having good thermal stability, with corrosive resistance, and low moisture absorption. For example, graphite fibres reinforced plastics (GFRP), plastics, perspex etc. are the materials used for fabricating work holding devices.

13.4 ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

ECM offers several advantages. It can machine highly complicated profiles in a single pass. A single tool can be used to machine a large number of pieces without any loss in shape and size (tool life in ECM is very high). The machinability of work material is independent of its physical and mechanical properties. Machined surfaces are stress and burr free, have good surface finish (best surface finish obtained is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 m), good corrosion resistance, and high accuracy. 75

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

ECM has its own limitations. It can be used only for electrically conductive workmaterials. The accuracy of the machined components depends upon the factors like tool design, degree of the process control, complexity in the shapes produced, etc. Machining of materials consisting of hard spots, and inclusions, presents practical difficulties. It cannot produce sharp corners and edges. ECM principle has been employed for a number of machining operations, viz. turning, trepanning, broaching, grinding, fine hole drilling, die sinking, piercing, deburring, plunge cutting, etc. It is being widely used in industries related to aeronautics, nuclear, space vehicles, automobiles, turbines, etc. Some of the typical examples of ECM applications are machining of turbine blades made of high strength temperature resistant (HSTR) alloys, copying of internal and external surfaces, cutting of curvilinear slots, machining of intricate patterns, machining of gears, production of integrally bladed nozzle rings for use in diesel locomotives, and connecting rods. This process has attracted attention of those involved in machining of complex shaped hard and tough materials. However, the capabilities of this process have not been exploited to its fullest extent mainly because of the inherent problems associated with environment friendliness and tool design [Jain and Pandey, 1980].

13.5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ECM'd PARTS

Effect of ECM on the mechanical properties of electrochemically machined (ECMd) components will greatly affect the acceptability of the process in industries. Hardly any evidence is available about the hydrogen embrittlement of the ECMd components because hydrogen is evolved at the cathode (tool), and not at the anode. Hydrogen embrittlement would certainly affect the ductility of the anode and may lead to its failure during use. Researchers have reported that there is no effect of ECM on ductility, yield strength, ultimate strength, and micro hardness of the machined components. Surface layers damaged during conventional machining or by some other process, may be removed by ECM, and this may result in improvement of the properties of the work material. However, removal of favourably stressed layers from the work surface reduces fatigue strength of a conventionally machined component. The conventionally machined surfaces have compressive residual stresses responsible for higher fatigue strength. This fact has been verified experimentally [Evans et al, 1971]. However, the required fatigue strength of the ECM'd parts can be restored by subsequent mechanical finishing treatment. After the mechanical treatment, the resulting workpiece exhibits fatigue properties comparable to or better than those of mechanically finished parts. The surfaces produced by ECM generally have better wear, friction, and corrosion resistance properties than those produced by mechanical means [Gurklis, 1965].

13.6 THEORY OF ECM

There are many industrial processes which are based on the application of Faraday's laws of electrolysis. ECM is considered as the reverse of electroplating process. But, there are some differences between ECM and other electrolytic processes (viz. electropolishing, electrolytic pickling, etc). ECM is employed not merely to remove metal from the workpiece but also to change the shape and size of the workpiece in a controlled manner. In addition, the current density used in ECM is very high (8 A mm 2) compared to that in electroplating or electrolytic pickling processes.

13.6.1 Faradays Laws of Electrolysis

During ECM, metal from the anode is removed atom by atom by removing negative electrical charges that bind the surface atoms to their neighbours. The ionized atoms are then positively charged and can be attracted away from the workpiece by an electric field. In an electrolytic cell (or ECM cell), the amount of material removed in a given period of time is governed by Faradays laws of electrolysis as stated below.

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The amount of chemical change m (substance deposited or dissolved) is proportional to the amount of charge passed through the electrolyte. The amounts of change produced (substance deposited or dissolved) by the same quantity of charge is proportional to the chemical equivalent weights of the materials. These laws can be expressed as follows : m I t and m E Therefore,

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

m=

ItE AIt = F Z.F

. . . (13.3)

where, I is the current strength (Amperes), t is the time (seconds), E is the gram equivalent weight of material (or A/Z, where A is gram atomic weight and Z is valency of dissolution), F is Faradays constant (96500 As), and m is mass in grams. Eq. (13.3) is used to calculate MRRg (= IE/F). This equation is based on the number of simplified assumptions and does not account for the effects of some of the significant process variables, viz., change in valency of electrochemical (EC) dissolution during the operation, gas evolution and bubble formation, electrolyte's electrical conductivity (k) and temperature variation along the electrolyte flow path, over potential, presence of passivation film, etc. [McGeough, 1974]. For example, dissolution of iron in NaCl solution, depending upon the machining conditions, may be either in the form of ferrous hydroxide (Fe2+) or ferric hydroxide (Fe3+). The preferential valency mode of dissolution has been found to depend upon the electrolyte flow rate, interelectrode gap, and length of electrolyte flow path. Table 13.1 gives the values of A and Z for the selected metals.

13.6.2 Electrochemical Equivalent of Alloys

The evaluation of m from Eq. (13.3) becomes difficult when the anode is made up of an alloy instead of a pure metal (or single element). The value of electrochemical equivalent of the alloy is not known. Two methods as discussed below have been suggested to solve this problem. In the first method, the electrochemical equivalent of an alloy is calculated by multiplying the chemical equivalent of individual elements (Ai / Zi) by their respective proportions (by weight) Xi, and then summing them up as follows :

1 n Ai A = Xi Z a 100 i =1 Z i
where, n is number of the constituent elements of the alloy.

. . . (13.4)

The second method (superposition of charge method) requires a computation of the amount of electrical charge to dissolve the mass of individual constituent element of the alloy. The total electric charge required to dissolve 1 g of the alloy is given by

Z F A a

coulombs (from Eq. (13.3)). Now, equate the electrical charge required by each element to dissolve their individual mass contribution to the total charge required for dissolving 1 gram of alloy,

Z F=F A a
or,

i i 100 A , i =1

X Z
i

A = Z a

100 . n Zi Xi A i i =1

. . . (13.5)

The electrochemical equivalent of the alloy calculated by the two methods will have different values. Hence, one should be careful in choosing a particular method for

77

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

calculating (A / Z)a. Further, actual MRR depends on the current efficiency [], which usually ranges from 75 % to 100 %. Theoretical MRR depends upon the current passing through the workpiece and its chemical composition. As soon as machining starts, the tool is fed towards the workpiece so that the gap can be maintained at a constant value. The feed rate is approximately equal to the linear material removal rate (MRR, i.e., penetration rate). Table 13.1 :Theoretical Material Removal Rates for a Current of 1000 A [McGeough, 1974]
Metal Atomic Weight (g) 26.97 9.0 51.99 Valency Density (g/cm3) 2.67 1.85 7.19 Removal Rate (g/s) 0.093 0.047 0.269 0.180 0.090 8.85 0.306 0.204 9.57 0.321 0.241 0.193 8.96 0.660 0.329 7.86 0.289 0.139 1.74 7.43 0.126 0.285 0.142 0.095 0.081 10.22 0.331 0.248 0.166 8.90 0.304 0.203 2.33 7.30 0.073 0.615 0.307 4.51 0.165 0.124 19.3 0.317 0.238 19.1 0.618 0.412 7.13 0.339 (10-6 m3/s) 0.035 0.025 0.038 0.025 0.013 0.035 0.023 0.034 0.025 0.020 0.074 0.037 0.037 0.025 0.072 0.038 0.019 0.013 0.011 0.032 0.024 0.016 0.034 0.023 0.031 0.084 0.042 0.037 0.028 0.016 0.012 0.032 0.022 0.048

Aluminum Beryllium Chromium

3 2 2 3 6

Cobalt

58.93

2 3

Niobium (Clumbium)

92.91

3 4 5

Copper

63.57

1 2

Iron

55.85

2 3

Magnesium Manganese

24.31 54.94

2 2 4 6 7

Molybdenum

95.94

3 4 6

Nickel

58.71

2 3

Silicon Tin

28.09 118.69

4 2 4

Titanium

47.9

3 4

Tungsten

183.85

6 8

Uranium

238.03

4 6

Zinc

65.37

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Example 13.1 An alloy consists (% by weight) nickel (72 %), chromium (20%), iron (5 %), titanium (0.5 %), copper (0.5 %), silicon and manganese (Mn) (1.0 % each). Determine chemical equivalent (using both methods) and density of the alloy. Use the lowest possible valency of chemical dissolution (Table 13.1). Compare material removed in one minute in two cases for a current value of 500A at 90 % current efficiency. Solution To solve this problem, follow the steps as given below : Calculate density of the alloy using the % by weight content of different constituents and density of individual element. Calculate chemical equivalent of the alloy by both the methods described above. Calculate the material removed per minute using both the chemical equivalents.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

The density of an alloy can be determined as follows : Consider that one gram of the alloy has density a and volume Va. Then, a Va = 1 or, For constituent 1, Therefore,

a =

1 1 . = Va V1 + V2 + V3 + ... + Vn

V1 1 = 0.72 g V1 = V2 =

0.72 72 . = 1 1001 20 100 2

Similarly,

Vn =
Therefore,

Xn . 100 n

a =

1 Xn X1 X2 + + + 1001 100 2 100 n

a = n

100

X i / i
i =1

Substitute the values of Xi and i in the above equation.

a = 100 72 20 5 0.5 0.5 1 1 + + + + + + 8.90 7.19 7.86 4.51 8.69 2.33 7.43

100 8.09 + 2.78 + 0.64 + 0.11 + 0.058 + 0.43 + 0.13

79

a = 8.17 g/cm 3

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

Now, the chemical equivalent of the alloy using percentage by weight method is employed : First Method (Eq. 13.4)
n Ai 1 A = Z a 100 i =1 Z i

Xi

= 0.72

58.71 51.99 55.85 47.9 63.57 28.09 54.94 + 0.20 + 0.05 + 0.005 + 0.005 + 0.01 + 0.01 2 2 2 3 1 4 2

= 21.135 + 5.199 + 1.396 + 0.080 + 0.318 + 0.070 + 0.275

A 28.473 g. Z a
Second Method
100 A = n Z a Zi A Xi i =1 i

100 2 4 1 3 2 2 2 72 + 20 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 1 + 1 54.94 28.09 63.57 47.9 55.85 51.99 58.71

100 2.453 + 0.769 + 0.018 + 0.031 + 0.008 + 0.142 + 0.036

A 28.927 g . Z a

Next, material removal using (A / Z)a obtained from the two methods is calculated :

MRR g1 =

IE 28.473 t = 0.90 500 60 F 96500 IE 500 28.927 t = 0.90 60 F 96500

MRRg1 7.965 g .

MRR g2 =

MRRg 2 8.095 g .

13.6.3 Material Removal Rate in ECM

It is always desirable to have minimum possible gap (usually 0.5 mm) between the two electrodes (tool and work) mainly to obtain an accurate reproduction of the tool shape on the workpiece. To simplify the analysis given in this section, following assumptions are made : (i) (ii) Electrical conductivity (k) of electrolyte in the IEG remains constant throughout. Electrical conductivities of tool and work material are very large (say, 1 1 1,00,000 cm ) as compared to that of electrolyte (less than 1 1 1.0 cm ). Hence, surfaces of the electrodes can be considered as equipotentials. Effective voltage across the electrodes is (V V), where V is a small fraction of V and known as over voltage. It is assumed to remain constant. The valency of dissolution of the anode remains constant.

(iii) (iv)

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For the simplicity of mathematical modelling, a case of plane parallel electrodes normal to feed direction [Tipton, 1964] is considered (Figure 13.5). Electrolyte is assumed to flow in the direction of increasing X across the gap between two electrodes. It is also assumed that the properties of electrolyte remain unchanged in the Z direction, (or 2-D problem). Eq. (13.3) can be used to calculate material removal rate in grams per unit time (MRRg) : &( MRRg ) = I E / F . m . . . (13.6)

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

From above equation, volumetric material removal rate (MRRv) can also be calculated as :

MRRv = I E/F a ,
where, is current efficiency and a is density (g/mm3) of the anode material.

. . . (13.7)

Leaving aside few specific applications of ECM (for example, deburring), tool (cathode) is usually fed towards the workpiece (anode) at a constant rate. For equilibrium conditions, the feed rate (f) of the cathode must be equal to the rate at which the thickness of the anode is being reduced, i.e., MRRl. It is given by the following equation (divide both sides of the last equation by the area A through which current is flowing) :

MRRl =

J E , a F

. . . (13.8)

where, J = I / A (A/mm2 ), and J = current density. Metal removal rate (MRR) of the workpiece is controlled by current density. Current density is a function of shapes of the electrodes (work and tool, Figure 13.5), their distance apart, voltage applied across them, and electrical conductivity of electrolyte. Current density (J) can also be written (Eq. 13.9) as a multiplication of potential gradient ((V V) / y) in the IEG, and electrolyte conductivity (k).

J=

(V V) k . y

. . . (13.9)

In Eq. (13.8), MRRl (penetration rate) gives the rate of change of IEG feed conditions.

dy , for zero dt
. . . (13.10)

dy JE . = dt a F

For ECM, the tool is usually moved towards the workpiece at a rate of f units/s. Hence, the effective rate of change of IEG is given by

dy JE = f. dt a F
Under equilibrium conditions,

. . . (13.11)

dy =0. dt
Therefore, equilibrium feed rate is given by

. . . (13.12)

JE = f. a F
Substitute the value of J in Eq. (13.13) from Eq. (13.9), we get

. . . (13.13)

(V V) k E = f ye a F

. . . (13.14) 81

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

where, ye is equilibrium inter-electrode gap.

Figure 13.5 : Electrochemical Machining of a Plane-Parallel Electrode at a Constant Voltage

Example 13.2

During machining of iron (gram atomic weight = 55.85 g, valency = 2, density = 7.85 g/cm3), the equilibrium gap is approximately 0.125 mm and the 1 1 measured value of specific conductance of electrolyte = 0.2 cm . Faraday's constant is 26.8 Ah, applied voltage is 10V, and over voltage is 1.5 V. Calculate the value of feed rate, f.
Solution

To calculate feed rate, substitute the values of different parameters in Eq. (13.14) (assume the efficiency as 100% (= 1.0)).

f =
or

(V V ) k E (10 1.5) 0.2 (55.85 / 2) = ye a F 0.0125 7.85 (26.8 60)

f = 0.3 cm/min.
f = 0.05 ms/s

Inter-electrode Gap in ECM

From Eq. (13.14) the equilibrium interelectrode gap (ye) is obtained :

ye =

(V V) k E . a f F

. . . (13.15)

The rate of change of IEG with time is given by the following equation [Tipton, 1964].

dy E(V V) k = f. dt F a y
Under equilibrium condition, dy / dt will become zero, and hence Eq. (13.16) can be written as :

. . . (13.16)

dy C = f . dt y
where, (C = E (V V) k / F a)

. . . (13.17)

Eq. (13.17) can be solved for two specific cases, namely for zero feed rate (f = 0) and finite feed rate (f 0). 82

Zero Feed Rate

When f = 0, Eq. (13.17) can be written as :

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

dy C = , dt y
or, or, This gives;
2 1/ 2 y = (2 Ct + y o ) .

. . . (13.18)

y dy = C dt. y2 = 2 C t + K .

To determine the value of K, initial condition y = y0 at t = 0 is used. . . . (13.19)

Eq. (13.19) predicts that the gap increase is proportional to the square root of the time (Figure 13.6).

Figure 13.6 : The Variation of the Gap Thickness (y) with Time (t) at Zero Feed-Rate [Tipton, 1964]

Finite Feed Rate

For f 0, the IEG under equilibrium machining condition will remain constant (or, dy/dt = 0), and from Eq. (13.17), we get

y = ye =

C . f

. . . (13.20)

The initial IEG if different from equilibrium value will gradually attain the equilibrium value during ECM (this is a self regulating feature). To make the analysis more generalized, IEG and time are made dimensionless. Let,

y' =
and,

y y f = . ye C t

f2 t' = =t . (ye /f) C

. . . (13.21)

Here, y' indicates the ratio of the actual gap to the equilibrium gap, and t ' indicates the number of times required to machine one ye distance. From Eq. (13.21) and Eq. (13.17) we obtain;

dy ' 1 = 1, dt ' y '

or,

dt ' y' = , dy ' 1 y '

83

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

or,

y' dt ' = 1 y' dy ' , 1 + y '+1 dt ' = 1 y' dy ' .

t' = y' ln(y' 1) + K
. . . (13.22)

or,

Integration of the above equation gives

Eq. (13.22) along with the initial condition [ y ' = y ' 0 at t' = 0] yields :
K = y 'o + ln ( y 'o 1) .

Substitute the value of K in Eq. (13.22).

t' = y'o ln(y' 1) + y'o +ln(y'o 1)

Simplification of the above equation gives

t' = y'o y' + In

(y'o 1) . (y' 1)

. . . (13.23)

In this equation, y ' = 0 implies a short circuit between the tool and workpiece.
Self Regulating Feature of ECM

In ECM with constant feed the equilibrium gap conditions would be achieved irrespective of the initial gap setting. To illustrate the self regulating feature of the ECM process, Eq. (13.23) has been plotted (Figure 13.7) wherein it can be observed that y' becomes asymptotic to y'o = 1 . However, theoretical time required for y'o to attain a value of 1 would be infinite.

Figure 13.7 : Effect of

t' on y' for Various Values of y'o

[Tipton, 1964]

The self regulating feature of constant feed ECM be examined further for three different initial gap settings. (i) initial gap = equilibrium gap, (ii) initial gap > equilibrium gap, and (iii) initial gap < equilibrium gap.

84

(i) (ii)

If y = ye, then for a given feed stable machining will take place and the IEG will remain equal to the equilibrium gap (y = ye) throughout. When the ECM process is started with constant feed and y > ye, at t = 0, the initial current density would be lower compared to the current density under equilibrium condition, resulting into lower rate of material removal. This progressively reduces the gap and when the IEG attains a value equal to the corresponding equilibrium value the process stabilizes and beyond this point onwards the MRRl would remain equal to the tool feed 'f'. If y at t = 0 is set at y < ye the initial current density would be higher as compared to the current density under equilibrium condition resulting into higher MRRl. This would tend to increase the gap progressively until y becomes equal to ye. At this point the process will achieve equilibrium and beyond this point machining will proceed with MRRl = f. Conditions (ii) and (iii) are demonstrated in Figure 13.7.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

(iii)

Generalized Equation for Inter-electrode Gap

Eq. (13.19) predicts an infinite value of the gap as t approaches infinity. However, in practice, as the gap increases, the current density decreases and hence MRR gradually diminishes, and for a very large value of the gap, the process would come to a stand still. This aspect is not well reflected by this Eq. (13.19). Secondly, Eq. (13.23) is an implicit equation and can be solved by iterative procedure, hence it requires large computer time. Further, these equations are not convenient to handle specially in cases where numerical methods like finite element method (FEM), finite difference method (FDM), or boundary element method (BEM), are used to analyze the ECM process. Keeping this in view, a single equation has been derived [Jain and Pandey, 1981] which can be conveniently used in for FEM, FDM, or BEM, analysis of ECM process. It is applicable to both the cases, i.e., zero feed rate (f = 0) as well as finite feed rate (f 0). Eq. (13.11) can be written as

EJ dy = f dt F a

. . . (13.24)

All the factors within the parentheses of Eq. (13.24), remain constant during machining except J. In FEM, BEM, and FDM, element size is quite small. Hence, within an element (very small area), J can be assumed to remain constant over a small interval of time dt. Above equation, therefore, can be written as dy = (c f) dt, where, . . . (13.25)

c=

EJ . F a

After integration, Eq. (13.25) can be written as

y = (c f ) t + c ' .
Substitute initial condition (at t = 0, y = yo), in the above equation to get c' = y o . This yields :

y = yo + (c f) t .

. . . (13.26)

Eq. (13.26) is valid only for a small interval of time (t), else J would change. Hence, more conveniently, it can be written as 85

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

y = yo + (c f) t .

. . . (13.27)

13.6.4 Maximum Permissible Feed Rate in ECM

From Eq. (13.7), specific meterial removal rate (m A
3 1 1

s ) can be obtained as : . . . (13.28)

MRRs =

E . 96500 a

The feed rate (m/s) can be calculated as : f = J. MMRs

(V V ) E k. 96500 a y

. . . (13.29)

One of the important functions of electrolyte is to carry away heat from the IEG. There is always an upper limit to the electrolyte flow rate that can be achieved from a given electrolyte flow system. This constraint in turn also poses limit to the maximum feed rate that can be used during ECM to limit the temperature of the electrolyte. An approximate expression for the maximum permissible feed rate can be derived [Pandey and Shan, 1980] as follows. Using the law of conservation of heat, the heat (Ho) required to raise the electrolyte temperature from Ti (temperature at inlet) to its boiling temperature Tb (upper limit of the electrolyte temperature specified) is given by :
H o = me Ce (Tb Ti )

= Ve e Ce (Tb Ti ) .

where, me, Ce, V e and e are mass, specific heat, volume, and density of the electrolyte. Divide both sides by time t.
Ho V e = e Ce (Tb Ti ) . t t

&be the volumetric flow rate of electrolyte then power (P) required for its heating is Let q given by (1 cal = 4.186 Joules) :
&e Ce (Tb Ti ) . P = 4.186 q
2 Substitute the value of P( = I R) ,
2 &e Ce (Tb Ti ) Im R = 4.186 q

or,

Im =

& 4.186 q e Ce (Tb Ti ) A k , y

. . . (13.30)

where, Im is the permissible machining current. An increase in current would require increased feed rate to maintain the constant gap for machining under equilibrium conditions. Maximum permissible feed rate (fm) can be calculated as :

I f m = J . MRRs = m MRRs . A
Using above Eqs. (13.28) and (13.30),

fm =
86

& 4.186q eCe (Tb Ti ) Ak 1 y A2

E a 96500

or,

& eCe (Tb Ti )k 4.186 q E yA a 96500

. . . (13.31)

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Above equation, after simplification, can also be used to calculate change in temperature (T = (Tb Ti)) for the specified feed rate (f).

T = 2.23 10

YA f w & Cee E k q

. . . (13.32)

13.6.5 Electrolyte Conductivity (k)

In the above analysis, electrolyte's electrical conductivity has been assumed to remain constant throughout the gap. However, in actual practice, it is not so. Electrolyte's electrical conductivity is a function of temperature, gas bubbles, and contamination of the electrolyte by sludge. Temperature increases the value of k while hydrogen gas bubbles decrease its value. As a result, usually, the gap gets tapered. Conductivity of the electrolyte varies linearly with temperature k = ko (1+ (T To)), . . . (13.33) where, is the temperature coefficient of specific conductance. Its unit is per C. To accurately predict variation in the gap along the electrolyte flow path, it is also desirable to consider the effect of hydrogen gas bubbles and the presence of sludge on k [Jain et al, 1990]. The quantitative analysis of the effect of sludge on the value of k is not available in the literature hence the effect of only hydrogen gas bubbles on k is usually discussed. To incorporate the effect of temperature as well as the presence of hydrogen gas bubbles on electrolyte conductivity, following equation has been suggested [Hopenfeld and Cole, 1969; Thorpe and Zerkle, 1969] : k = ko (1+ T ) (1 v) where, v is void fraction and n is an exponent. The value of exponent 'n' in Eq. (13.34) depends on the distribution of voids in the IEG. For uniform void distribution, Hopenfeld and Cole [1969] suggested a value of n = 1.5, and for non-uniform distribution when bubbles are concentrated near the cathode, Thorpe and Zerkle [1969] suggested a value of n = 2.0. However, an average value of n = 1.75 can be used.
n

. . . (13.34)

SAQ 1
Write correct answer. (a) If the electrolyte temperature along the path of flow increases linearly but the void fraction remains approximately constant, slope of the machined surface will be (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) zero varying linearly varying nonlinearly unpredictable high residual stresses and improved fatigue strength high residual stresses and reduced fatigue strength insignificant (or no) residual stresses and reduced fatigue strength insignificant residual stresses and improved fatigue strength 87

Electrochemically machined surfaces have

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

(v) (c)

none of these

In ECM, the maximum permissible feed rate is f1 while using electrolyte A having sp. heat as C1 and electrolyte density as el. In the second case, while using electrolyte B, the maximum permissible feed rate becomes f2. In this case, specific heat of electrolyte B is 1.125 C1 and density as 2el. If the highest allowable temperature of the electrolyte and the values of other parameters remain the same, what is the ratio of f1 / f2? (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 2.25 1.5 1.0 0.667 None of these

(d)

During ECM of an iron plate, ferrous hydroxide is formed and MRRv obtained is 300 mm3/s. What would be MRRv (mm3/s) if iron dissolves as ferric hydroxide in place of ferrous hydroxide. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 100 200 450 300 None of these

(e)

During ECM, electrode feed rate is calculated as 2 mm/min. The electrolyte 1 1 conductivity is 0.2 cm . It is now decided to change the feed rate to 3 mm/min without changing any other parameter except conductivity. What is the new value of conductivity (/-cm) for the same performance of the process? (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.133 None

13.7 SUMMARY
Electrochemical machining is based on the Faradays laws of electrolysis. Based on this principle, various operations (ECB, ECD, ECT, etc.) can be performed. ECM m/c tool consists basically of four elements e.g., electrolyte supply system, tool feed and tool holding system, work holding system, and power supply. Mechanical and physical properties of the ECMd components are normally not affected. Calculation of theoretical MRR can be done in case of both pure metals as well as alloys. It is desirable to use single equation for IEG determination for f = 0 as well as for f 0. For maximum productivity, maximum permissible feed rate should be used which is controlled by the

88

specified constraints (say, boiling temperature of the electrolyte). In all such calculations pertaining to ECM, it is desirable to account for the effect of temperature, sludge contamination and voids on the conductivity of the electrolyte.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

13.8 KEY WORDS

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Interelectrode Gap (IEG) Electrolyte : Machining process based on the principle of electrolysis i.e., to produce chemical reaction using electrical energy. : Gap between the two electrodes. : Solution which consists of acids or, more generally, basic salts dissolved in water.

13.9 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

ii iii iii ii ii

EXERCISES
Q1. (a) The composition (% by weight) of Nimonic 75 alloy is given below :
Element : % by weight : Atomic weight : Valency : Density : Ni 72.0 58.71 2, 3 8.90 Cr 20.00 51.99 2, 3, 4 7.19 Fe 5.00 55.85 2, 3 7.89 Ti 0.50 47.90 3, 4 4.51 Si 1.00 28.09 4 2.33 Mn 1.00 54.94 2, 4, 6, 7 7.43 Cu 0.50 63.50 1, 2 8.96

(i)

Calculate MRR (specific MRR and volumetric MRR) when a current of 3000 A is used. Use the highest valency of dissolution in each case. Assume that electrolyte used is NaCl solution in water. Determine the equilibrium gap if applied voltage = 15.0 V, over potential is 5% of the applied voltage, k = 0.21/-cm, and f = 1.1 mm/min. Calculate rise in temperature for the following machining conditions : feed rate = 0.08 mm/s, room temperature = 38oC, electrolyte density = 1.05 g/cm3, =100 %, electrolyte flow rate = 100 liters/min, electrolyte flow velocity = 2000 cm/s and specific heat of electrolyte, Ce = 1.06 Cal/g-oC.

(ii)

(iii)

(b)

Geometry of the workpiece surface with single curvature is given by the equation y = 10 + 0.20 x 0.08 x2 where, x and y are in centimeters. The other details are as follows : Applied voltage = 15 V, over potential = 0.70V, f = 0.75mm/min, work material = copper (A = 63.57 g, Z = 1) = 8.96 g/cm3, k = 0.2/-cm. Determine the equation of the required tool surface geometry and write the assumptions made, if any. 89

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

(c)

Derive an equation for the maximum permissible feed rate during ECM. Also deduce the relationship for electrolyte temperature change for a given feed rate of tool. Derive one single equation for computing IEG during both zero feed rate as well as finite feed rate. Write the assumptions clearly. During ECM of iron using aqueous solution of NaCl as electrolyte, what are the possible reactions at anode and cathode? Complete the following equations : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) J = (V V )

(d) (e) (f)

&= A m
f =J K = Ko (1 + . . .)

Q.2 (a)

During ECM, 10 V DC power supply is used. Initial conductivity of the 1 1 electrolyte used is 0.2 cm . Feed rate is 1.0 mm/min. Calculate the IEG at 10, 20 and 30 mm distance from the inlet after 10 seconds. Use the following given conditions : T = 30 o C, v = 0.0 at x = 0.0 mm, T = 60 o C, v = 0.3 at x = 40.0 mm. Take n (exponent) = 1.75, atomic weight of anode = 55.9 g, density of anode = 7.86 g/cm3, initial IEG = 0.4 mm, valency of dissolution = 2.0, over potential = 1.5 V, and = 0.002. Also calculate mean equilibrium gap.

(b)

The composition of nimonic alloy turbine blade is 18 % cobalt, 62 % Ni, and 20 % chromium. Take I =1500 A, and a = 8.3 g cm-3. Use valency of dissolution for chromium, nickel and cobalt as 6, 2 and 2, respectively. Gram atomic weights are as follows : Ni = 58.7 g, Cr = 52.0 g and Co = 59.0 g. Calculate the volumetric MRR, and state assumptions, if any. Explain the 'self regulating (or adjusting) feature' of ECM.

(c)

NOMENCLATURE
A C E f F H I J k m n q R Rtc 90 ref Atomic mass, area of cross-section Specific heat Gram equivalent mass of material Feed rate Faraday's constant Heat required Current Current density Electrolyte electrical conductivity Mass of the material removed Number of the constituent elements Volumetric flow rate of electrolyte Resistance Tool corner radius Tool inner hole radius

r1 r2 t T T U V
Ve

Tool outer radius Workpiece hole radius Time Temperature Change in temperature Electrolyte flow velocity Applied voltage Volume of electrolyte flowing Over potential Proportion by weight of ith element Interelectrode gap Valency of dissolution Temperature coefficient of specific conductance Density Machining efficiency

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

V Xi y z

SUBSCRIPTS
a b e i l m o s t v Alloy Boiling Equilibrium, electrolyte Inlet Linear Permissible maximum Condition at time t = 0, or initial condition Specific At any time `t' Volumetric

91

Non-conventional Material Removal Processes

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Benedict, G. F. (1987), Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes, Marcel Dekker, New York. DeBarr, A. E. and Oliver, D. A. (Ed) (1975), Electrochemical Machining, Macdonal and Co. Ltd. Evans, J. M., Boden, P. J. and Baker, A. A. (1971), Effects of Surface Finish Produced during ECM upon the Fatigue Life of Nimonic- 80A, Proc. 12th Int. Machine Tool Design and Research Conference, p. 271. Gurklis, J. A. (1965), Metal Removal by Electrochemical Methods and its Effects on Mechanical Properties of Metals, Defense Metals Information Centre Report, 213 Bettle Memorial Institute. Jain, V. K. (1980), An Analysis of ECM Process for Anode Shape Prediction, Ph.D. Thesis, Roorkee University, India. Jain, V. K. and Pandey, P.C. (1980), Tooling Design for ECM, Precision Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 195-206. Jain, V. K. and Pandey, P. C. (1980), CAD of ECM Tools, Precision Engineering, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 309-315. Jain, V. K. and Pandey, P. C. (1981), Tooling Design for ECM : A Finite Element Approach, Trans. ASME, J. Engg. for Industry, Vol. 103, pp. 183 -191. Jain, V. K., Tandon, S. and Kumar, Prashant (1990), Experimental Investigations into Electrochemical Spark Machining of Composites, Trans ASME, J. Engg. for Industry, Vol. 112, No. 2, pp. 194 -197. Jain, V. K., Yogindra, P.G. and Murugan, S. (1987), Prediction of Anode Profile in ECBD and ECD Operations, Int. J. Machine Tools Manufacture, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 113 - 134. McGeough, J. A. (1974), Principles of ECM, Chapman and Hall, London. Pandey, P. C. and Shan H.S. (1980), Modern Machining Processes, Tata McGraw Hill, India. Tipton, H. (1964), The Dynamics of Electrochemical Machining, Advances in Machine Tool Design and Research, Pergamon Press, Birmingham. Wilson, J.F. (1971), Practice and Theory of Electrochemical Machining, Wiley Interscience, New York.

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NON-CONVENTIONAL MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

This block consists of four units. In the previous three blocks, we have already studied conventional material removal methods. In this block, we are going to discuss non-conventional material removal processes. This block comprises four units. In Unit 10, non-conventional material removal processes have been classified and introduced. This unit also specifies reasons for increasing demand of non-conventional methods and the areas in which these techniques can be used most effectively. Unit 11, entitled Mechanical Advanced Machining Processes, discusses various kinds of machining/finishing processes. Brief introduction of three types of processes, i.e. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM), their working principles and applications are discussed. Unit 12 describes laser beam and electric discharge machining processes. These are thermal processes which remove material from the workpiece surface by melting and/or vaporization. Finally, in Unit 13, electrochemical machining (ECM) process has been described in details. This unit gives detailed theory of ECM process.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

93