Sanjivani Rural Education Society’s

Sanjivani College of Engineering, Kopargaon-423 603

(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
NACC ‘A’ Grade Accredited, ISO 9001:2015 Certified

Department of Electrical Engineering

EE305B - Smart Grid

Prof. Dr.M.Sujith
Assistant Professor
Email:msujithelect@sanjivani.org.in
Contact No: 9486820743

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 Unit-4 Power Electronics and Energy Storage in Smart
Grid

Course Objectives : To describe the power electronic converters and

energy storage technologies used in smart grid.

Power electronics in the Smart Grid - Renewable energy generation, Fault

current limiting, Shunt compensation, Series compensation, FACTS, HVDC.

Energy storage technologies - Batteries, Flow Battery , Fuel and hydrogen

electrolyzer, fuel cells, DLC, SMES, Case study

Course Outcome : Use the suitable converters and energy storage

technologies for smart grid applications

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 Power Electronics In Smart Grid

● The power output of some of renewable energy sources is always DC (for

example, photovoltaic systems) and an inverter is needed to interface them to
the AC grid.

● Even though renewable energy sources using an AC generator (for example,

wind turbines) can be connected directly to the grid, often some form of AC
to DC and then DC to AC conversion is used.

● Some power system operating conditions demand rapid independent control

of the active and reactive power output of the renewable energy generators.

● These control actions can only be achieved conveniently using a power

electronic interface

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 Photovoltaic systems

● Photovoltaic (PV) systems which convert solar power directly into electricity
are being installed in increasing numbers in many countries, for example,
India, Germany, Spain, the USA and Japan.

Figure 1.
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 Photovoltaic systems

● Figure shows the main elements of a grid-connected domestic PV system. It

typically consists of:

(1) a DC–DC converter for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and to

increase the voltage;

(2) a single phase DC–AC inverter;

(3) an output filter and sometimes a transformer; and

(4) a controller.

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Photovoltaic systems

Figure 2.
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 Problem Statement

The PV system shown in Figure.3 has two series-connected PV modules with the V-I
characteristic shown in Figure.2. The single phase inverter operates with sinusoidal PWM
and is connected directly to the 230 V mains. The irradiance on the module is 1000 W/m2

Figure 3: Figure for Example .1

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 Problem Statement

1. Describe a possible control strategy which could be used.

2. What should be the amplitude modulation index of the inverter to maintain V DC2 at
350 V?
3. Calculate the duty ratio of the switch SW that is required to extract maximum power.
4. If, due to constraints of the local power network, the output of the PV system was
reduced by 50 percent, calculate the new duty ratio required for switch SW.

Data: For the boost converter: VDC2 = (1/(1 − D)) ×VDC1 where D is the duty ratio of the
switch SW.
For a single phase inverter operating with sinusoidal PWM V1 = ma ×VDC2 where
V1 is the peak value of fundamental of the inverter output voltage, ma is the modulation
index
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1. Describe a possible control strategy which could be used?

2. What should be the amplitude modulation index of the inverter to maintain V DC2 at
350 V?

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3. Calculate the duty ratio of the switch SW that is required to extract maximum power.

4. If, due to constraints of the local power network, the output of the PV system was
reduced by 50 percent, calculate the new duty ratio required for switch SW

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 Wind, hydro and tidal energy systems

They can be categorized into:

1.Horizontal axis turbines: The architecture of these turbines is similar to that of
wind turbines.

2. Vertical axis turbines: Vertical axis turbines do not require orientation into the
flow but do suffer from large cyclic torques.

3. Oscillating hydrofoil devices: These have hydrofoils which move back and
forth in a plane normal to the tidal stream.

4. Ducted devices: The tidal flow is directed through a duct and a smaller
diameter turbine is situated inside the duct.

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A wind turbine having the characteristic of Figure operates in a wind speed of
11 m/s. The generator used is a synchronous generator. Due to a high frequency
on the network, the grid operator requests a reduction of the wind turbine output
by 20 percent. At rated speed the frequency modulation index of the wind
turbine side VSC is 30. What should be the new modulation index required to
reduce the wind turbine power output?

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 Fault current limiting

series
compensator

• A varistor is connected to limit the transient voltage across the thyristors.

• The rate of rise of the transient voltage is limited by the snubber circuit.

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 Problem on FCL

For the part of the distribution network shown in Figure, calculate the following:
1. The fault current for a three-phase fault at E without generator G1.
2. The fault current for a three-phase fault at E with generator G1 (without Static
FCL).
3. Find Fault current impedance if the fault current calculated in (2) by 5 per cent.

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 SHUNT COMPENSATION

● Shunt compensation devices based on Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)

such as STATCOMs, active filters and Voltage Source Converters
with Energy Storage (VSC-ES) have begun to be used in the power
system

● STATCOMs are used to provide reactive power compensation in

both transmission and distribution circuits in order to manage
network voltages, reduce losses and overcome possible instabilities.

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 SHUNT COMPENSATION

● The voltage change across a distribution circuit is given by

ΔV = (PR + QX)/V

where P and Q are active and reactive power flows, X and R are the
reactance and resistance of the circuit and V is the nominal voltage.

● Many electronic loads draw non-sinusoidal currents and this can

lead to unacceptable levels of voltage distortion. Standards such as
IEEE 519–1992 specify limits to either the harmonic current which
may be injected or to the resulting harmonic voltages on the network

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 D-STATCOM
● A STATCOM connected to the distribution circuits is normally called a D-
STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

● The VSC of the D-STATCOM produces a controllable three-phase voltage

(VSTATCOM) in phase with the terminal voltage

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 D-STATCOM

● When the amplitude of the VSC output voltage (VSTATCOM_1) is less

than the terminal voltage (Vterminal), the D-STATCOM draws a current
(ISTATCOM_1) lagging the terminal voltage, thus absorbing reactive power.

● When the VSC generates a voltage higher than the terminal voltage, the D-
STATCOM generates reactive power

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 D-STATCOM

Two main control approaches for STATCOM control.

● phase shifting control -PWM control of the voltage source inverter
● decoupled current control method

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 Load Compensation

● A D-STATCOM can be used for power factor correction and to balance the
current drawn by an unbalanced load.

● For load compensation, first, the current that the D-STATCOM should inject is
calculated. Then a suitable controller generates this current.

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Power factor correction of a balanced three-phase load

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Power factor correction and balancing of an unbalanced three-phase
load

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● The three-phase load currents are not equal and the three phases of the
DSTATCOM output should be controlled independently

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Active filtering

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Shunt compensator with Energy Storage

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 SERIES COMPENSATION

● A series-connected converter may be used, as a so-called Dynamic Voltage

Restorer (DVR), to maintain the voltage within specified limits

● If the incoming feeder voltage fluctuates beyond the voltages that a

sensitive load could operate, then the DVR adds a voltage in series to
compensate for voltage fluctuation.

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 ● Two commonly used compensation techniques are ‘in-phase compensation’
and ‘freeze PLL compensation’.

‘In-phase compensation’ technique keeps the the DVR maintains the load voltage magnitude
load voltage phasor always in-phase with the as the same as the pre-sag condition
supply voltage

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 FACTS –Flexible AC transmission Systems

Basic applications of FACTS-devices are:

● Power flow control,
● Increase of transmission capability,
● Voltage control,
● Reactive power compensation,
● Stability improvement,
● Power quality improvement,
● Power conditioning,
● Flicker mitigation,
● Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

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● The TCSC can change the impedance of the line, the STATCOM can control the
voltage magnitude at the terminal to which it is connected by injecting or
absorbing reactive power and the UPFC can alter the phase angle of the sending
end voltage, thus power flow through a line can be controlled in a number of
ways.

The power transfer

through the lines is given
by:

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 Reactive power compensation

A reactor can be connected in series with the fixed capacitor to form a harmonic
filter (Figure a).

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 Reactive power compensation

Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) are a reactor in series with a bi-directional thyristor
pair as shown in Figure b.

● The current flow in the inductor (L) is controlled by adjusting the conduction
interval of the back to back-connected thyristors.

● This is achieved by delaying the closure of the thyristor switch by an angle α, the
firing angle, in each half cycle with respect to the voltage zero

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 Reactive power compensation
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) are a capacitor in series with a bi-directional thyristor
pair and a small reactor as shown in Figure C

● The purpose of the reactor is to limit switching transients, to damp inrush

currents and to be a filter for harmonics coming from the power system.
● The capacitance is adjusted by controlling the number of parallel capacitors
connected in shunt.

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 Reactive power compensation

● The STATCOM (Fig.d) is a voltage source converter whose DC side is

connected to a capacitor and whose AC side is connected to the grid via a
transformer having high reactance or a transformer with a series connected
reactor.

● Its dynamic response is faster than a TSC or TCR and allows continuous control
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 HVDC

● Figure shows a VSC-based HVDC connected in parallel with an AC line. In

addition to providing real power flow from the sending to the receiving end,
the two converters can also control their reactive power so as to control the
voltage magnitude at the sending or receiving end thus influencing the AC
power flow.
● For the connection of large renewable energy sources, such as offshore wind
farms, which are normally far away from load centres (typically the best sites
for renewable energy generation are located a long distance from load
centres), HVDC can be attractive as it is flexible and economic.

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 Current Source Converters

● CSC-HVDC has been the technology of choice to transmit large amounts of

power from one point to another.

● The basic building block of both rectifier and the inverter of the CSC-HVDC
is a current source converters.

● CSC-HVDC technology is primarily chosen because of the reliability and

robustness inherent within the thyristor valves at the heart of the converter.

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 Voltage Source Converters

● The full controllability through both turn-on and turn-off operation of the IGBTs
allows the self-commutated VSCs to reverse power flow much more quickly than
CSC and eliminates the risk of commutation failure.
● The VSC also has the ability to absorb and generate both active and reactive
power independently of one another.
● Further advantages are that the generation of harmonics is greatly reduced,
minimizing the footprint of filters required to absorb them and the capability to
blackstart an AC system (that is, restore power without the aid of an external
voltage source).
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 Energy storage technologies

● Batteries,
● Flow Battery ,
● Fuel and hydrogen electrolyzer,
● fuel cells,
● DLC,
● SMES,
● Case study

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 ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

● Batteries store energy in chemical form during charging and discharge

electrical energy when connected to a load.

● Lead acid and Sodium Sulfur (NaS) batteries are used at present for large
utility applications in comparable numbers. Lithium Ion (Li-ion), Nickel
Cadmium (NiCd) and Nickel metal hydrides (NiMH) are also thought to be
promising future options.

● NaS batteries operate at 300–400◦C and have a large energy capacity per

unit volume and weight. They are used for electrical energy time shifting,
wind farm support and to smooth the output of PV generators.

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 NaS battery

● The positive electrode is molten sulfur and the negative electrode is molten
sodium. The electrolyte, which is a sodium beta-alumina ceramic (four layers of
oxygen atoms and aluminium in the same atomic arrangement), allows ion exchange
to take place.

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 NaS battery

● The electrolyte allows only the positive sodium ions to go through it and
combine with the sulfur to form sodium polysulfides.

2Na + 4S = Na2S4

● During discharge, as positive Na+ ions flow through the electrolyte and electrons
flow in the external circuit of the battery producing about 2 volts.

● This process is reversible as charging causes sodium polysulfides to release the

positive sodium ions back through the electrolyte to recombine as elemental
sodium. This hermetically sealed battery is kept at approximately 3000 C

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 Flow battery

● A flow battery uses two electrolytes, often different kinds of the same
chemical compound.
● Both the positive and negative electrolytes are stored separately and are
pumped through a cell. Inside the cell, the two electrolytes are kept
separate. The electrochemical reaction takes place by transferring ions
across a membrane as shown in Figure

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● Flow batteries using Zinc Bromide (ZBB) and Vanadium Redox (VRB) are
available.

● A ZBB consists of a zinc negative electrode and a bromine positive

electrode separated by a micro-porous membrane.

● An aqueous solution of zinc bromide (ZnBr) is circulated through the two

compartments of the cell from two separate reservoirs as shown in Figure.

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● On discharge, the zinc is oxidised, giving zinc ions, and the bromine is
reduced to bromide ions.

● During charging, zinc is electroplated on the negative electrode and bromine is

evolved at the positive electrode; this is stored as a chemically complex
organic phase at the bottom of the positive electrolyte tank.

● The reactions that occur at the two electrodes during charge and discharge are:

● A third pump is used for recirculation of the organic phase during the
discharge cycle.
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 Fuel cell and hydrogen electrolyzer

● Most fuel cells use H2 and O2 as their main fuel .

● A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode.

● In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen

molecules into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the
cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of
electricity.

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 Flywheels

● Flywheels store kinetic energy in a rotating mass and release it by slowing

the rotation when electrical energy is required.

● Their application to date has mainly been for power quality and to provide
energy for UPS.

● The stored energy is proportional to the square of the rotor speed (ω) and the
moment of inertia of the rotating mass (J):

The moment of inertia is given by

where x is the distance to an element of mass dmx from the axis of rotation.
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Superconducting magnetic energy storage
systems

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