Accepted Manuscript

An overview of Solar Power (PV Systems) Integration into Electricity Grids

K.N. Nwaigwe, P. Mutabilwa, E. Dintwa

PII: S2589-2991(19)30057-6
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2019.07.002
Reference: MSET 101

To appear in: Materials Science for Energy Technologies

Received Date: 9 April 2019

Revised Date: 15 July 2019
Accepted Date: 15 July 2019

Please cite this article as: K.N. Nwaigwe, P. Mutabilwa, E. Dintwa, An overview of Solar Power (PV Systems)
Integration into Electricity Grids, Materials Science for Energy Technologies (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.mset.2019.07.002

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 An overview of Solar Power (PV Systems) Integration into Electricity Grids

K. N. Nwaigwe1, P. Mutabilwa1 and E. Dintwa1

1Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana.

ABSTRACT
A work on the review of integration of solar power into electricity grids is presented. Integration
technology has become important due to the world's energy requirements which imposed significant need
for different methods by which energy can be produced or integrated, in addition to the fact that
integration of solar energy into non-renewable sources is important as it reduces the rates of consuming of
non-renewable resources hence reduce dependence of fossil fuels. Photovoltaic or PV system are leading
this revolution by utilizing the available power of the sun and transforming it from DC to AC power.
Integrating renewable energy of this source into grids has become prominent amongst researchers and
scientists due to the current energy demand together with depletion of fossil-fuel reserves and
environmental impacts. In this review, current solar-grid integration technologies are identified, benefits
of solar-grid integration are highlighted, solar system characteristics for integration and the effects and
challenges of integration are discussed. Integration issues and compatibility of both systems (i.e. solar and
grid generations) are addressed from both the solar system side and from utility side. This review will
help in the implementation of solar-grid integration in new projects without repeating obvious challenges
encountered in existing projects, and provide data for researchers and scientists on the viability of solar-
grid integration.
Keywords: Integration, solar power, electricity grid, grid connections

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Solar-grid integration is a network allowing substantial penetration of Photovoltaic (PV) power into the
national utility grid. This is an important technology as the integration of standardized PV systems into
grids optimizes the building energy balance, improves the economics of the PV system, reduces
operational costs, and provides added value to the consumer and the utility (Ton et al., 2008). Solar-grid
integration is now a common practice in many countries of the world; as there is a growing demand for
use of alternative clean energy as against fossil fuel (Akubude et al, 2018). Global installed capacity for
solar-powered electricity has seen an exponential growth, reaching around 290 GW at the end of 2016.
According to IRENA’s Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics (2017), currently China is the leading

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producer of solar power followed by Japan, Germany, and United States. Also, solar installed capacity by
region has Europe leading with over 98.8 GW, closely followed by Asia with 92.3 GW. Africa is least in
solar installed capacity with about 1.92 GW (Renewable & Agency, 2017; WEC, 2018; Volkmar, 2013).
However, Africa is highly abundant in solar radiation with most of the African countries receiving a very
high amount of bright sunlight resource of days per year that can be used for electricity generation.
Notable areas include the deserts of North & West Africa like Egypt, Nigeria and some parts of Southern
and East Africa which receive long periods of sunny days with a very high intensity of irradiation.
According to the IRENA’s Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics (2017), Africa has nearly reached a
total solar Photovoltaic capacity of 2.5 GW, representing less than 1.16 % of the world’s solar capacity of
290 GW. In South Africa, the majority of its territory receives in excess of 2,500 hours of sunshine per
year, and has average solar radiation levels ranging from 4.5 to 6.5 kWh/m2/day with an annual 24-hour
global solar radiation average of about 220 W/m2 (WEC, 2018). The country is considered to have a high
solar energy potential. In the neighboring Botswana, according to the World Energy council report
(2016), Botswana receives a high rate of solar insolation of approximately 280-330 days of sun per year
with daily average sunshine ranging from 9.9 hours during the summer to 8.2 hours in winter. The
average total solar radiation is approximately 2,100 kWh/m2/yr. However, the country’s available
resource is currently under-utilized. It is mainly used for domestic solar water heating but PV technology
is also used for small-scale generation systems (WEC, 2018). Egypt is another country located in the
world’s solar belt and therefore has an excellent solar availability. According to WEC (2018), average
solar radiation ranges from about 1,950 kWh/m2/yr on the Mediterranean coast to more than 2,600
kWh/m2/yr in Upper Egypt, while about 90% of the Egyptian territory has an average global radiation
greater than 2,200 kWh/m2/yr. Egypt’s first concentrating solar power (CSP) plant project at Koraymat,
90 km south of Cairo, is estimated to include two gas turbines of approximately 40 MW each, and a 70
MW steam turbine. The overall output capacity is estimated to be around 140 MW (WEC, 2018).
Solar-grid integration technology include advanced inverters technology, anti-islanding technology, grid-
plant protection technology, solar-grid forecasting technology and smart grids technology. Inverter ranges
from Light duty inverters typically (100–10,000 W), Medium duty inverters typically (500–20,000 W),
Heavy duty inverters typically (10,000–60,000 W) continuous output. Energy created by the solar array
powers the loads directly, with any excess being sent to the utility, resulting in net metering (Wenham et
al., 2012). Due to this interaction with the grid, inverters are required to have anti-islanding protection,
meaning they must automatically stop power flow when the grid goes down (Hoke et al., 2016).
Currently, advanced inverters devices that convert direct current solar power into alternating current
power for the grid have features that could be used to help control voltage and make the grid more stable.
During manufacturing inverters are validated their advanced photovoltaic (PV) capacities by using the

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ESIF's power hardware-in-the-loop system and megawatt-scale grid simulators. During simulation
inverters are put into a real-world simulation environment and see the impact of the inverter's advanced
features on power reliability and quality (NREL, 2011).
Islanding is the phenomena in which a PV power distributed continues to power the grid even though
electrical grid power is no longer present. According to IEEE 1547 section 4, PV system power must be
de-energized from the grid within two seconds of the formation of an island; this means PV Plant
interconnection system shall detect the island and cease to energize the grid within two seconds of the
formation of an island. Further, the inverter must not connect within 60 seconds of the grid re-establishing
power supply after a power failure, sometimes called Reconnection Timing Test (Hoke et al., 2016). This
is often achieved through autonomous island detection controls. Such controls use one or more of a wide
variety of active or passive methods to detect an island. Normally grid tie Inverters undergoes anti-
islanding tests during manufacturing to check whether they connects and disconnects to the broader
electricity grid safely (NREL, 2011).
An additional new requirement concerns grid and plant protection (G/P protection). This is the protective
device that monitors all relevant grid parameters and disconnects the plant from the grid, if necessary. A
freely accessible disconnection point for plants with more than 30 kVA of apparent power is no longer
required, but more extensive grid monitoring including the power frequency and single error safety is
usually stipulated (SMA, 2012). Plants with less than 30 kVA of apparent power may still be operated
with G/P protection integrated in the inverter. If all inverters include separate stand-alone grid detection
with grid disconnection via the tie breaker integrated in the device, separate stand-alone grid detection
may be omitted in the central G/P protection. This solution is a considerable cost-saver and is possible
with all SMA inverters (SMA, 2012).
Grid forecasting involve assessing the grid's health in real time, predicting its behavior and potential
intervention and quickly responding to events which require understanding vital parameters throughout
the electric infrastructure, from generation to the end use (NREL, 2011). According to the ongoing
research by NREL's, the renewable resource management and forecasting technology focuses on
measuring weather resources and power systems, forecasting resources and grid conditions, and
converting measurements into operational intelligence. NREL's experts provide tools to accurately assess
renewable energy density (solar energy) as it varies with time and location as well as information on how
to design efficient renewable energy systems for integration with the electric grid.
A smart grid technology is designed to achieve a high penetration of photovoltaic (PV) systems into
homes and businesses, it is an intelligent system capable of sensing system overloads and rerouting power
to prevent or minimize a potential outage of power over the grid. According to Kempener et al. (2013),
when grid upgrades are required, whether to accommodate any renewable energy or for other reasons, it is

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typically much more cost-effective to include smart grid technologies than to use only conventional
technology. Normally there are three different levels of renewable energy penetration in electricity
systems – low, medium and high. These three levels are defined according to the grid modifications
necessary to afford renewable. Renewable resources capacity penetration levels above 30% are
considered to be high and usually require the use of smart grid technologies to ensure reliable grid
operation (NREL, 2011). A smart grid technology makes use of sensing and automated controls in the
power transmission and distribution systems. According to Singapore Energy Market Authority report
(2011), the country is installing a pilot micro grid project on the smaller island of Pulau Ubin, the micro
grid will incorporate solar PV generation, the micro grid is intended to serve as a test bed for other smart
grid technologies and to develop local knowledge and experience with advanced grid technologies in
preparation for future micro grids on other islands and in commercial settings (Kang & Seow, n.d.;
Report, 2011).
Several researchers have studied solar-grid integration. Zahedi (2011) reviewed the drivers, benefits, and
challenges in integrating renewable energy sources into electricity grid and highlighted the issue of
perception by end users. Parida et al (2011) reviewed solar photovoltaic technologies and concluded that
the increasing efficiency, lowering cost and minimal pollution associated with it have led to its application
in several energy projects such as building integrated systems, pumps, solar home systems, desalination
plant, Photovoltaic and thermal (PVT) collector technology. In studying load mismatch of grid-connected
photovoltaic systems, Orioli and Ganji (2013) reviewed the possible effects in an urban context. The
study was aimed to assess the coverage of the electricity demand and the economic feasibility of grid-
connected photovoltaic systems installed on the roof of multi-storey buildings. The study confirmed that
the load match index of the case-study district resulted to 42.4%, if no shadowing effect is considered;
and lowered to 38.6% assuming that 10% of the solar radiation is obstructed by the surroundings. This
study was a classical application of solar integration in buildings in relation to the activities of the
surrounding environment. Apart from application to electricity grids, there are also several other
integration projects of renewables. Chong et al (2012) applied integration technology to a building by
designing an innovative 3-in-1 wind–solar hybrid renewable energy and rain water harvester for urban
high rise application.
Renewable energy source integration with power systems is one of the main concepts of smart grids. Due
to the variability and limited predictability of these sources, there are many challenges associated with
integration. This paper reviews integration of solar systems into electricity grids. The approach in is
focused on integrating Photovoltaics (PV) system to electricity grids. Attention is focused on inverter
technology since the harmonization problem comes mainly from power inverters used in converting solar
generated DC voltage into AC. Solar power as one of the renewable energy also has environmental

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impacts, some of which are significant. The intensity of environmental impacts varies depending on the
specific technology used, the geographic location, and a number of other factors. It is therefore of utmost
importance to also evaluate the environmental impacts of solar integration. Challenges and benefits of
Solar –grid integration are also discussed in this paper.

2.0. SOLAR POWER GENERATION

Basically, there are two types of solar power generation used in integration with grid power -
concentrated solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) power. CSP generation, sometimes known as
solar thermal power generation, is much like conventional thermal power generation that converts thermal
energy (steam) into electricity. However, Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels differ from solar thermal systems
in that they do not use the sun’s heat to generate thermal power, instead they use sunlight through the
‘Photovoltaic effect’ to generate direct electric current (DC) . The direct current is then converted to
alternating current, usually using inverters and other components, in order to be distributed onto the
power grid network. PV systems do not produce or store thermal energy as they directly generate
electricity and electricity cannot be easily stored (e.g. in batteries) especially at large power levels.
However, concentrated solar power systems (CSP) can store energy using thermal energy storage
technologies. This capability to store thermal energy has led to better penetration of solar thermal
technology using CSP in the power generation industry as this situation helps more to overcome
intermittency problems which are normally found in PV systems. Due to these scenarios CSP systems are
more attractive for large scale power generation as thermal energy storage technologies. Although CSP
has better performance for grid integration, the technology and the high cost are currently limiting its
large-scale expansion and deployment as it involves both steam and solar plants which demand high
initial costs. Diminishing costs of PV and even energy market conditions currently favor Photovoltaic
installations (Green, 2012; IEC,2012; IEC MSB, 2012).

3.0. SOLAR-GRID SYSTEM

Solar-Grid integration is the technology that allows large scale solar power produced from PV or CSP
system to penetrate the already existing power grid. This technology requires careful considerations and
attentions including in areas of solar component manufacturing, installations and operation. The levels of
solar energy penetration must be interconnected effectively onto the transmission grid; such
interconnection requires an in-depth understanding of the effects on the grid at various points.
Photovoltaic plant which uses PV modules to feed into the grid essentially consists of different
components, but basically the inverter is the most important component for integration. Other components
include PV generator (solar modules), Generator junction box (GJB), Meters, Grid connection, and DC

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and AC cabling as shown in Figure 1. Inverters play a crucial role in any solar energy system and are
often considered to be the brains of a project. An inverter’s basic function is to “invert” the direct current
(DC) output into alternating current (AC) which is the standard used by all commercial appliances.
Inverters are required to supply constant voltage and frequency, despite varying load conditions, and need
to supply or absorb reactive power in the case of reactive loads (Wenham et al., 2012). Apart from
inverting, inverters do reconcile the systems with each other and to feed the solar power into the grid with
the highest possible efficiency. A PV installation’s yield is, therefore, just as heavily dependent on the
reliability and efficiency of the inverter as on the orientation, interconnection and quality of the PV
modules (Volkmar, 2013; NREL, 2011; Hoke et al., 2016; SMA, 2012).

Figure 1: Diagram of a PV power station

4.0. CHALLENGES, BENEFITS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SOLAR-GRID

INTEGRATION
In most electric utility systems, power flows in one direction - from centralized generators to substations,
and then to consumers. With solar power generation, power can flow in both directions. However, most
electric distribution systems were not designed to accommodate two-way flow of power. For distribution
feeder circuits that are long and serve rural or developing areas, even small amounts of PV may impact
system parameters if the load and PV generation are not closely matched (Katz, n.d.). When PV
generation exceeds local energy demand, energy will move through the distribution feeder and possibly
through the local substation, increasing the potential for damage to the utility grid and for impacts to other
utility customers served by the same distribution circuit (Katz, n.d.).

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For large-scale PV projects or farms, most of which are located far away from urban centers, they often
require transmission lines to carry the electricity long distance to where it will actually be used. This
requires more investment in building the transmission lines and often results in “line losses” as some of
the energy during transportation are converted into heat and lost.
Some notable challenges associated with Solar-Grid integration include problems of voltage stability,
frequency stability, and overall power quality. According to Belcher et al. (2017), a distributed system is
considered large-scale when loading on the system is greater than 10MW. Systems under this limit do not
qualify for power integration and usually have many power quality issues. However, large-scale systems
also experience power quality problems. Power generation plants that use the conventional method to spin
a turbine benefit from having complete control over generation, Photovoltaic generation does not have the
luxury of producing power on demand (Belcher et al., 2017). Power quality issues range from voltage and
frequency to other areas such as harmonics. The harmonics problem comes mainly from power inverters
used in converting renewably generated DC voltage into AC. Harmonics are created by certain loads who
introduce frequencies that are multiples of 50 or 60Hz and can cause equipment to not operate as intended
(Belcher et al., 2017). The inherent non-dispatchable characteristics of PV systems (i.e. generation of
electrical energy that cannot be turned on or off in order to meet societies fluctuating electricity needs)
allow voltage generation fluctuations that have not previously been present in the grid. In order to combat
these voltage issues, storage solutions along with other instantaneous power producing solutions are on
the forefront of current PV research and development (Belcher et al., 2017). Alongside the intermittency
of PV generation itself, there are also grid-connected voltage quality issues that must be considered.
Power plants must be able to ride-through various voltage levels sags in order to operate with-out outages.
This requires that PV plants should be adaptable to voltage sags just as conventional power plants
(Belcher et al., 2017).
PV is also the only solar power generation technique that does not result in inertial power generation
which proves to be a challenging problem with large-scale grid integration. The lack of inertia injected
into the grid is the result of the lack of a rotating machine in PV integration (Belcher et al., 2017).
Another major challenge is the variability of insolation. The amount of generation from Photovoltaic or
PV systems depends on the amount of insolation or sunshine at any given location and time. Both under-
generation and over-generation could to instability on the grid. A solution sequence fort his challenge
involves (Mulenga, 2015):
 Using better forecasting tools to allow for more accurate predictions of when solar generation
might decline to the minimum penetration capacity
 Installing solar across a large geographic area to minimize any impact of generation variability
due to local cloud cover

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  Shifting electricity supply and storing excess energy for later use
 Shifting electricity demand by encouraging customers to use electricity when it is more readily
available.
Solar PV’s variability can also be mitigated by dispersing solar farms across a wide geographic region or
deployed on a very incremental basis; there is no standard capacity size that must be considered. PV
generation is immensely flexible in this regard as it can be sized on a scale of hundreds of kilowatts to
hundreds of megawatts (Sterling et al., 2013). By deploying solar farm in smaller amounts across a wider
region, a utility can smooth out any site-specific cloud variability and related quick ramping up and down.
Targeting specific geographic locations for PV installations can also allow the utility to solve localized
voltage concerns, where siting generation assets (particularly those with emissions) can be problematic.
(Sterling et al., 2013).
There are environmental issues associated with solar-grid integration. Solar energy sources have
environmental impacts, some of which are significant. Normally the intensity of environmental impacts
varies depending on the specific technology used, the geographic location, and a number of other factors.
By understanding the current and potential environmental issues associated with each renewable energy
source particularly solar energy source, steps can be taken to effectively avoid or minimize these impacts.
Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar farms can raise concerns about land degradation and
habitat loss. According to the report of Union of Concerned Scientists (2015), “the total land area
requirements for solar farms vary depending on the technology, the topography of the site, and the
intensity of the solar resource. The estimates for PV systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt,
while estimates for CSP facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt”. Unlike wind facilities,
there is less opportunity for solar projects to share land with agricultural uses. However, land impacts
from solar systems can be minimized by sitting them at lower-quality locations such as brown fields,
abandoned mining land, on the sea/lake or existing transportation and transmission corridors (Scientists,
2015).
The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous materials, most of which are used to
clean and purify the semiconductor surface. These chemicals include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid,
nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride and acetone. The amount and type of chemicals used depends on the type of
cell, the amount of cleaning that is needed, and the size of silicon wafer (Scientists, 2015). Workers also
face risks associated with inhaling silicon dust. Thus, PV manufactures must follow laws to ensure that
workers are not harmed by exposure to these chemicals and that manufacturing waste products are
disposed of properly (Scientists, 2015; Ashden, 2016).

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5.0 CONCLUSION
Integrating PV system into national grids can reduce transmission and distribution line losses, increase
grid resilience, lower generation costs, and reduce requirements to invest in new utility generation
capacity. The goal of this paper was to review the current and future discussions regarding generation and
integration of large-scale solar generation into a conventional fossil-fuel dominated grid. Most of the
research has shown positive results on integration. The effects of this integration on system stability and
security should therefore be considered carefully even before installations of plant. The use of advanced
integration technologies should be considered before plant installation, this will help the generation and
distribution company to foresee the possible impact of PV integration and generation on system stability.

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Conflict of Interest

Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in this work.

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