Notes

Unit – 4
Measurement is an important subsystem of a mechatronics system. Its main function is
to collect the information on system status and to feed it to the micro-processor(s) for
controlling the whole system.
Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the
production operations as well as process monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the
following important advantages in transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into
a modern one.
1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of
manufacturing system.
2. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by
carrying out the preventative measures.
3. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
4. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.

Sensor:
It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being measured.
According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined as “A device which
provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.” Here, the output is
usually an ‘electrical quantity’ and measurand is a ‘physical quantity, property or
condition which is to be measured’. Thus in the case of, say, a variable inductance
displacement element, the quantity being measured is displacement and the sensor
transforms an input of displacement into a change in inductance.

Transducer:
It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related
change or an element which converts a specified measurand into a usable output by using
a transduction principle. It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one
form of energy to another form. A wire of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy)
can be called as a sensor because variation in mechanical displacement (tension or
compression) can be sensed as change in electric resistance. This wire becomes a
transducer with appropriate electrodes and input-output mechanism attached to it. Thus
we can say that ‘sensors are transducers’.

Classification of sensors:
Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as measurand,
application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and
thermodynamic considerations. Detail classification of sensors in view of their
applications in manufacturing is as follows.
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors:
• Potentiometer
• Strain-gauged element
• Capacitive element
• Differential transformers
• Eddy current proximity sensors
• Inductive proximity switch
• Optical encoders
• Pneumatic sensors
• Proximity switches (magnetic)
• Hall effect sensors

B. Velocity and motion:

• Incremental encoder
• Tachogenerator
• Pyroelectric sensors

C. Force:
• Strain gauge load cell

D. Fluid pressure:
• Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Tactile sensor

E. Liquid flow:
• Orifice plate
• Turbine meter

F. Liquid level:
• Floats
• Differential pressure

G. Temperature:
• Bimetallic strips
• Resistance temperature detectors
• Thermistors
• Thermo-diodes and transistors
• Thermocouples
• Light sensors
• Photo diodes
• Photo resistors
• Photo transistor
Advantages of Sensors:
 No physical contact and therefore no stress
 No wear and tear, hence long life
 Contact less and therefore maintenance free
 Electronic high precision
 Protected and safe switching in harsh environments
 High switching rate
 Potential-free contact, thus not prone to false pulses

Proximity Sensors:
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact.
A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The
object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive proximity
sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive
proximity sensor always requires a metal target.
Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the
absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor and the
sensed object.
Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the
variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large
steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.
Inductive Proximity Sensor:
The inductive proximity sensor as seen in Figure is used to detect both ferrous metals
that contain iron and can be magnetized and nonferrous metals such as what we use to
conduct electricity and copper. Inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical
principle of magnetism when a fluctuating current induces the voltage in a target object.
The inductive proximity sensor contains a certain type of solid-state control system. It
contains an oscillator circuit that generates a high-frequency magnetic field. When the
metal object enters the field, it disturbs the magnetic field, this disturbance results in a
change of state in the high-frequency circuit.

The oscillator creates a symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field that radiates from the
ferrite core and coil array at the sensing face. When a ferrous target enters this
magnetic field, small independent electrical currents (eddy currents) which
are induced on the metal’s surface.

An inductive proximity sensor has the frequency range from 10 to 20 Hz in ac, or 500 Hz
to 5 kHz in dc. Because of magnetic field limitations, inductive sensors have a relatively
narrow sensing range like from fractions of millimetres to 60 mm on an average.
Due to this, load will be caused on the sensor that decreases the electromagnetic field
amplitude. If the metal object moves towards the proximity sensor, the eddy current will
increase accordingly. Thus, the load on the oscillator will increase, which decreases the
field amplitude.

The Schmitt trigger block monitors the amplitude of the oscillator and at particular level
(predetermined level) the trigger circuit switches on or off the sensor. If the metal object
or target is moved away from the proximity sensor, then the amplitude of the oscillator
will increase.

The above image shows the waveform of the inductive proximity sensor oscillator in the
presence of the target and in the absence of the target.

Nowadays, inductive proximity sensors are available with different operating voltages.
These inductive proximity sensors are available in AC, DC, and AC/DC modes (universal
modes). The operating range of the proximity sensor circuits is from 10V to 320V DC
and 20V to 265V AC.

Advantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Contactless detection
 Environment adaptability- resistant to common conditions seen in industrial
areas such as dust and dirt
 Capable and versatile in metal sensing
 High switching rate
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life

Disadvantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 60 mm
 Can only detect metal objects
 External conditions like extreme temperatures, cutting fluids or chemical effects
on the performance of the sensor.

Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Machine tools, assembly line, automotive industry
 Detection of metal parts in harsh environments
 High-speed moving parts

Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing
object and the Sensor. As per the name, capacitive proximity sensors operate by noting a
change in the capacitance read by the sensor.

The amount of capacitance varies

depending on the size and distance of the
sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive
Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor
with two parallel plates, where the
capacity of the two plates detected.

One of the plates is the object being

measured (with an imaginary ground),
and the other is the Sensor’s sensing
surface. It detects the changes in the
capacity generated between these two
poles. The detection of the object depends
on their dielectric constant, but they
include resin and water in addition to
metals.
The capacitive proximity sensor consist a high-frequency oscillator along with a
sensing surface formed by two metal electrodes. When an object comes near the sensing
surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the capacitance of
the oscillator.

As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the output state of the
sensor when it reaches certain amplitude. As the object moves away from the sensor, the
oscillator’s amplitude decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial state.

A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a few millimetres up to
about 1 inch. (or 25 mm), and some sensors have an extended range up to 2 inch. Where
capacitive sensors really excel, however, is in applications where they must detect objects
through some kind of material such as a bag, bin, or box. They can tune out non-metallic
containers and can be tuned or set to detect different levels of liquids or solid materials.

The capacitive proximity sensor detects the larger dielectric constant of a target
easily. This makes possible the detection of materials inside non-metallic containers
because the liquid has a much higher dielectric constant than the container, which gives
the sensor ability to see through the container and detect the liquid.

For best operation, they should use in an environment with relatively constant
temperature and humidity.

When dealing with non-conductive targets there are three factors that determine
the sensing distance.

 The size of the active surface of the sensor – the larger the sensing face the longer
the sensing distance
 The capacitive material properties of the target object, also referred to as the
dielectric constant – the higher the constant the longer the sensing distance
 The surface area of the target object to be sensed – the larger the surface area the
longer the sensing distance

Other factors that have minimal effect on the sensing distance

 Temperature
 Speed of the target object

The point at which the proximity sensor recognizes an incoming target is the operating
point. The point at which an outgoing target causes the device to switch back to its
normal state is the release point. The area between operating and release points is
the hysteresis zone.

Most proximity sensors are equip with an LED status indicator to verify the output
switching action.

The difference between Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensor:

Inductive sensors use a magnetic field to detect objects. Capacitive sensors use an electric
field. In order to be sense by an inductive sensor an object must be conductive. This limits
suitable targets to metal objects (for the most part). In order to be sense by a capacitive
sensor the target doesn’t need to be conductive.

A capacitive sensor will react to an object acting as a dielectric material as well as a

conductive object. This makes metal and non-metal objects suitable targets.

Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

 Contactless detection
 A wide array of materials can detect
 Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
 Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
 Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that
only wanted objects will be sensed
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

 Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors

 Higher price as compared to inductive sensors

Capacitive sensing technology uses in other sensing technologies such

as:

 flow
 pressure
 liquid level
 spacing
 thickness
 ice detection
 shaft angle or linear position
 dimmer switches
 key switches
 x-y tablet
 accelerometers

Optical / Photoelectric Proximity Sensor:

A complete optical proximity sensors includes a light source, and a sensor that detects
the light. These sensors detect objects directly in front of them by the detecting the
sensor’s own transmitted light reflected back from an object’s surface.

Photoelectric sensors are able to detect both metallic and non-metallic targets. They uses
in many applications like in mobile phones and for level sensing. In the iPhone, the sensor
is used to deactivate the touch screen as the user brings the device closer to the face.

However, the main components of this sensor are emitter, detector and associated
electronics. Emitter (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode) sends a beam of light. The
detector (photo diode or phototransistor) detects emitted light. Associated electronics
required to amplify the detected signal.
The emitter sometimes called the sender transmits a beam of either visible or infrared
light to the detecting receiver.

All photoelectric sensors operate under similar principles. Dark-on and light-on
classifications refer to light reception and sensor output activity. With no reception of
light, the output produces then the sensor is dark-on. If output from light received then it
is light-on.

Sensing Methods or Working Principle of Photoelectric Proximity

Sensor:
There are three main sensing methods of the photoelectric proximity sensor and they
are,

 Through beam method

 Retro-reflective method
 Diffuse or Reflective method

Through beam method

In this type of method, an emitter sends out a beam of light directly in the line-of-sight of
the emitter to a receiver. When an object breaks this beam of light, it detects as a presence.
This type of setup requires two components they are an emitter and a separate detector,
which makes it a bit more complex to install and wire. However, the advantage is that it’s
the most accurate of the sensing methods with the longest sensing range.

New laser diode emitter models can transmit a well-collimated beam 60 m for increased
accuracy and detection. At these distances, some through-beam laser sensors are capable
of detecting an object the size of a fly, at close range, that becomes 0.01 mm. One ability
unique to through beam photoelectric sensors is effective sensing in the presence of thick
airborne contaminants.

Retro-reflective method
In this method, detection occurs when the light path breaks or disturbs. Both the light
emitting and light receiving elements are in same housing. The light from the emitting
element hits the reflector and returns to the light receiving element. When a target is
present, the light gets interrupt.
One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam sensor is for the
convenience of one wiring location, the opposing side only requires reflector mounting.

Diffuse or Reflective method

As in retro-reflective sensors, emitters and receivers located in the same housing. In this
Diffuse method, Both the light emitting and light receiving elements contain in a single
housing. The sensor receives the light reflected from the target.

Diffuse photoelectric sensors are similar in some respects to reflective sensors. This is
because like reflective sensors they emit a light beam in the direction of the object to be
detected. However, instead of a reflector used to bounce the light back to a detector, the
object to be sensed functions as the reflector, bouncing some of the light back to be
detected and register an object’s presence.

Mostly, the diffuse sensors use in public washroom sinks, where they control automatic
faucets. Hands placed under the spray head act as reflector, triggering (in this case) the
opening of a water valve. diffuse sensors are somewhat color dependent, certain versions
are suitable for distinguishing dark and light targets in applications that require sorting
or quality control by contrast.

Advantages of Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

 The sensor senses all kinds of materials.
 It has longer life, long sensing range and very reliability.
 Very fast response time and less costly.
 Diffuse photoelectric sensor detects small objects including color mark and label
detection.
 mostly retro-reflective type sensor can detect transparent objects.
  Through beam type can detect long range and it is tolerant of dirty environment.

Disadvantages of Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

 Over coarse of time lens get contaminated.
 Generally, the sensing range is affected due to color and reflectivity of the target.
 Through beam type requires transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) at two separate
locations
 Retro reflective type requires reflector in addition to Tx/Rx. This makes system
installation complex

Applications of Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

The photoelectric proximity sensors use in different section. Few of them are as follow,

 Checking objects on production lines or conveyors:

photoelectric sensors can detect product size to spot any errors, or simply spot their
absence. As well as picking up problems like misaligned caps on bottles. They are widely
used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, and in packaging plants.

 Counting of small objects:

In some production environments, small items will fall from a vibrating conveyor belt into
a packaging system or bag – and a photoelectric sensor can count them.

 Detection of colours:

Through scanning independently in red, green and blue light, with applications in multiple
processes in the printing and packaging sectors.

 Monitoring bigger areas for objects with light grids:

Instead of using multiple sensors, a light grid uses parallel beams of light to cover a two-
dimensional area.

 Measuring distance:

With multiple sensors, a triangulation process compares reflected laser beams and can use
to accurately determine position and distance. for example, to check the location of
manufacturing systems, or in automated transport applications.

 Logistics and materials handling:

In an automated warehouses with robotic pickers or trucks rely on position and object
sensing to operate efficiently and safely.
 Automatic doors:

In buildings or public transport, photoelectric sensors detect when someone is standing by

a door.

Magnetic Proximity Sensor:

Magnetic proximity sensors use for non-contact position detection beyond the normal
limits of inductive sensors. In conjunction with a separate “damping” magnet, magnetic
sensors offer very long sensing ranges from a small package size and can detect magnets
through walls of non-ferrous metal, stainless steel, aluminium, plastic or wood.

Depending on the orientation of the magnetic field the sensor damped from the front or
from the side. In the food industry, the magnetic sensor uses in connection with a cleaning
device which pass through the inside of pipes.

Output of Magnetic proximity sensor:

The magnetic field sensor output can be linear in which its output voltage linearly relates
to the magnetic field strength impinging on the detector, or binary in which the output is in
one state when the measured magnetic field strength is greater than a particular threshold,
and in the other state when the measured magnetic field strength is less than the threshold.
Binary proximity sensors use to replace simple position-determining mechanical switches
because they have no moving parts to wear or jam, and are therefore more reliable than
their mechanical counterparts.

Features of Magnetic proximity sensor:

 Detection through plastic, wood, and any non-magnetisable metals
 Small housings with very long sensing ranges up to 70 mm
 Cylinder and rectangular designs satisfy space-dependent applications
 High mechanical stability in case of shock or vibration
 Flush or non-flush installation in non-magnetisable metals

Working Principle of Magnetic Proximity Sensor

There are several operating principles used including reed switches, GMR inductive,
variable reluctance, magneto resistive or hall effect sensors.
1. Variable reluctance
Proximity sensors comprise of a permanent magnet and a pick-up coil. A VR sensor uses as
a simple proximity sensor can determine the position of a mechanical link in a piece of
industrial equipment.

A Crankshaft position sensor (in an automobile engine) uses to provide the angular
position of the crankshaft to the Engine control unit. The Engine control unit can then
calculate engine speed (angular velocity).

A pickup uses in an electric guitar or in other musical instrument detect vibrations of the
metallic "strings".

2. Magneto-resistive
Proximity sensors measure the magneto-resistive effect or the impact of the resistivity of a
ferromagnetic material in the presence of a magnetic field.

Magneto-resistance is the tendency of a material to change the value of its electrical

resistance in an externally applied magnetic field.

3. Reed Switches
Reed switches are magnetically actuated switches. They typically manufacture with two
ferromagnetic reeds (contact blades), which seal powered in a glass capsule. In which
consist of two low reluctance ferro-magnetic reeds enclosed in glass bulbs containing
inert gas.
A magnetic field from an electromagnet or a permanent magnet will cause the reeds to
attract each other to establish an electrical circuit. An example of a reed switch application
is to detect the opening of a door, when used as a proximity switch for a security alarm.

4. Giant Magneto-Resistive Effect

Magnetic sensors use GMR (Giant Magneto-Resistive Effect) technology. The measuring cell
consists of resistors with several extremely fine, ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers.

Two of these GMR resistors use to form a conventional Wheatstone bridge circuit which
produces a large signal proportional to the magnetic field when a magnetic field is present.
A threshold value defines and an output signal switches via a comparator.

The main application of GMR is magnetic field sensors, which use to read data in hard disk
drives, biosensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other devices. GMR
multi-layer structures also use in magneto-resistive random-access memory (MRAM) as
cells that store one bit of information.

5. Hall effect sensor

Hall effect sensor is a device that uses to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. Its
output voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength through it.

Hall effect sensors used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and current
sensing applications. Frequently, a Hall sensor combines with threshold detection so that
it acts as a switch.
Advantages of Magnetic proximity sensor
 Contacts are well protected against dust, oxidization and corrosion due to the
hermetic glass bulb and inert gas; contacts are activated by means of a magnetic
field rather than mechanical parts
 Special surface treatment of contacts assures long contact life
 Maintenance free
 Easy operation
 Reduced size

Applications of Magnetic Proximity Sensor

Magnetic sensors are used in many industrial applications for contactless current sensing,
linear and angular position, and rotation sensing. Crocus’ magnetic sensors are designed to
provide superior performance in all of these applications.

 Magnetic Sensors for PDU

The PDU (Power Distribution Unit) is a critical part of the data centre infrastructure. PDU
equipment uses to supply AC or DC electrical power to servers. Typically, the PDU provides
power filtering and intelligent load balancing together with remote monitoring.

 Robotics and Factory Automation

In factory automation, both linear and angular position sensing are imperative to carry out
complex motor movements with high precision, repeatability and accuracy. With the need
for faster more efficient production lines, magnetic sensors are also used for linear and
angular sensing, safety switches, and proximity detection.

 White Goods
New regulatory requirements for energy and water conservation in appliances can
accomplish through additional intelligent sensing. Crocus magnetic sensors provide the
added intelligence for open/close door detection, fluid level, and contactless current
sensing.

 Used in Green Energy

When it comes to alternative energy such as with wind and solar, magnetic sensors provide
contactless current sensing, angular position sensing and switches. For wind power, the
angular position sensing allows for optimal wind power generation, while contactless
current sensors provide solutions for power inverters and solar combiner boxes. Switches
can also assist with safety applications in high voltage environments.

PNP and NPN Sensor Concept and Interfacing to PLC:

Proximity sensors are used to detect objects without making physical contact. There are 2-
wire and 3-wire proximity sensors, and 3-wire proximity sensors are more popular. There
are two main types of proximity sensors based on their output type: NPN and PNP.
Selecting the correct type of proximity sensor for a particular application can ensure the
correct operation of a system. This article aims to provide an outline of the two main output
types and a guide on how to connect a proximity sensor to a PLC.

What Is an NPN Proximity Sensor?

NPN proximity sensors provide an active LOW output. This means that when an object
enters the detecting range of the sensor, the output of the sensor is connected with the
ground. This type of sensor is also known as ‘sinking’ sensor.

What Is A PNP Proximity Sensor?

PNP proximity sensors provide an active HIGH output. When an object enters the detecting
range of the sensor, the output of the sensor is connected with +24V. When connected to a
PLC input, it detects this as a logic HIGH signal. PNP proximity sensors are also known as
‘sourcing’ sensors.

NPN And PNP Sensor Wiring:

To easily remember the wiring of a 3-
wire DC proximity sensor, use the
following analogy:

PNP = Switched Positive

NPN = Switched Negative

Proximity sensors are digital sensors.

Therefore, they must always be
connected to a 24V power source to
function.

In the PNP sensor wiring, the load

is always connected to
Negative. The Positive is switched
when the proximity sensor detects an
object. But, in the NPN sensor wiring,
the load is always connected to
Positive, and the Negative is switched
when an object is detected.
PNP vs NPN for 3 Wire Connection of A Sensor:
Almost all the industrial proximity sensors are solid-state devices, meaning that they do
not have moving parts inside. The most popular type of proximity sensor is the 3-wire type.
They use PNP or NPN type transistors to switch the output when an object is detected.

Two of the wires are used to provide the sensor with power to operate, while the other
wire is the output from the sensor.

At this point, t’s worth mentioning that being a PNP or NPN type sensor, does not imply if
the sensor output is normally open (N/O) or normally closed (N/C). This is dependent only
on the application. (I.e., a PNP sensor can be either N/O or N/C as can an NPN be either N/O
or N/C)

Let’s have a look at a relay-type circuit, where a relay is operated directly by a proximity
sensor.

The difference between the two wirings is that in the PNP type wiring, the relay is always
connected to 0V, and +24V is switched by the sensor. But in the NPN type wiring, the relay
is always connected to +24V and the sensor switches the 0V connection. Regardless, the
sensor is connected to +24 and 0V to supply power to it.

How To Connect NPN/PNP Proximity Sensor To PLC

Identifying The Color Code Of A 3-Wire Proximity Sensor

On a 3-wire sensor, the wiring color code is as follows: (Brown: +24V, Blue: 0V, Black:
output)
Wiring An NPN Type 3-Wire Proximity Sensor to a PLC

Before connecting the sensor to the PLC, make sure that the PLC is configured to
the ‘sourcing’ type. For an example on a Siemens S7-200 PLC, this can be done by
connecting input 1M to +24V. This means that the PLC will ‘source current’ out of the input,
and the NPN sensor will ‘sink current’ when it detects an object.

If the input is fed to the PLC through an input card, it must be a sourcing type input card,
or else a configurable one. The SIMATIC S7-1200, Digital Input SB 1221 is such a sourcing-
type input card.

Wiring A PNP Type 3-Wire Proximity Sensor to A PLC

For a PNP type sensor, the PLC needs to be configured as a ‘sinking’ type. Connecting the
input 1M to 0V will configure the PLC as input sinking. With this configuration, the sensor
can ‘source current’ and the PLC will ‘sink current’ to detect sensor output.

For a PNP type proximity sensor, if an input card is used, it must be a ‘sinking’ type card.
The S7-1200, Digital Input SM 1221 input card for S7-1200 PLCs is a sink/source
configurable input card and it can interface with either type of sensor.
How to Choose A PNP or NPN Sensor?
Selecting PNP vs NPN depends mostly on the application and the availability. As Arrow
Electronics mentions, NPN sensors are more common in the automation industry in the
Asia region. PNP sensors are more popular in Europe and America.

NPN sensors are used in high-speed applications because they are faster than PNP sensors.
They also find more applications in relay circuits than PLC circuits. PNP sensors are more
popular in PLC circuits as they can prevent false-positive signals if damaged and shorted
with the ground.

How to Know If Proximity Sensor Is NPN or PNP?

The easiest way to identify the sensor type is by observing the sticker on the body of the
sensor. This sticker can sometimes have a wiring diagram printed on it as well. If the sensor
is not marked and is installed, a multimeter can help identify the sensor type. Power on the
system and carefully measure the voltage between 0V and the black wire. If there is a
voltage of +24V when the sensor is active, it is a PNP-type sensor. If there is a 0V reading
on the multimeter when the sensor is active, it is most likely an NPN sensor.
4 – 20mA Current Loop:

The DC current loop is used extensively in the instrumentation field to transmit process
variable to indicators and controllers (PLC, DCS, Standalone controllers etc). It is also used
to send control signals to field device to manipulate process variables such as temperature,
level and flow. This can be done by sending signals from a controller (PLC, DCS, or other
control equipment) to final control element such as control valve, pumps etc.

The standard current range used in these loops is 4 to 20 mA (milli ampere) and this value
is normally converted to 1 to 5 VDC by a 250-ohm resistor at the input to controllers and
indicator. These instruments are normally high input impedance electronic devices that
draw virtually no current from the instrument loop.

Why to use 4-20 ma or What are the advantages of using current loop?

1.Only two wires are required for each remotely mounted field transmitter. So cost saving
is one of the advantage.

2.Current loop is not affected by electrical noise.

3.Current loop is not affected by changes in lead wire resistance caused by temperature
changes.

HART Protocol:

HART is a bi-directional communication protocol that provides data access between

intelligent field instruments and host systems. A host can be any software application from
technician's hand-held device or laptop to a plant's process control, asset management,
safety or other system using any control platform. Communication occurs between two
HART-enabled devices, typically a smart field device and a control or monitoring system.
Instrumentation grade wiring and standard termination practices assure reliable
communication.
HART provides two simultaneous communication channels, one analog, the other digital: A
4-20mA signal communicates the primary measured value (PV) as an analog value of
current using the wiring that provides power to the instrument. The host system then
converts the current value to a physical value according to parameters defined by HART
Software. For example, 7 mA = 80 degrees F.

Digital device information is communicated by encoding a digital signal, generally using a

technique known as Frequency Shift Keying on the same 4-20mA wiring used for analog
communications. The digital signal contains information from the device including PV,
device status, diagnostics, and additional measured or calculated values, etc.

Together, the two communication channels provide a complete field communications

solution that is easy to design, simple to use, low cost and extremely reliable.

How HART Works

“HART” is an acronym for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. The HART Protocol
makes uses Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard to superimpose digital communication
signals at a low level on top of the 4-20mA. This enables two-way field communication to
take place and makes it possible for additional information beyond just the normal process
variable to be communicated to/from a smart field instrument.

The HART Protocol communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the 4-20mA signal and
allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second from a
smart field device. As the digital FSK signal is phase continuous, there is no interference
with the 4-20mA signal. The HART Protocol provides two simultaneous communication
channels: the 4-20mA analog signal and a digital signal. The 4-20mA signal communicates
the primary measured value (in the case of a field instrument) using the 4-20mA current
loop - the fastest and most reliable industry standard. Additional device information is
communicated using a digital signal that is superimposed on the analog signal.

The digital signal contains information from the device including device status, diagnostics,
additional measured or calculated values, etc. Together, the two communication channels
provide a low-cost and very robust complete field communication solution that is easy to
use and configure.

Modes of HART Protocol:

HART devices can operate in one of two network configurations—point to point or

multidrop.

POINT-TO-POINT

In point-to-point mode, the traditional 4–20 mA signal is used to communicate one process
variable, while additional process variables, configuration parameters, and other device
data are transferred digitally using the HART protocol (Figure 2). The 4–20 mA analog
signal is not affected by the HART signal and can be used for control in the normal way. The
HART communication digital signal gives access to secondary variables and other data that
can be used for operations, commissioning, maintenance, and diagnostic purposes.

The HART Protocol provides for up to two masters (primary and secondary). This allows
secondary masters such as handheld communicators to be used without interfering with
communications to/from the primary master, i.e. control/monitoring system.
The HART Protocol permits all digital communication with field devices in either point-to-
point or multidrop network configurations:
Multidrop Configuration
There is also an optional “burst” communication mode where a single slave device can
continuously broadcast a standard HART reply message. Higher update rates are possible
with this optional burst communication mode and use is normally restricted to point-to-
point configuration.

The multidrop mode of operation requires only a single pair of wires and, if applicable,
safety barriers and an auxiliary power supply for up to 15 field devices. All process values
are transmitted digitally. In multidrop mode, all field device polling addresses are >0, and
the current through each device is fixed to a minimum value (typically 4 mA).