Mechatronics Sensors

By
Dr. Hassanein Shaban
Today Class Objectives
 Revision of last lectures
 Sensors?
 Commonly Detectable Phenomenon
 Need for Sensors
 The role of sensor in mechatronic systems
 Examples of sensors in mechatronic systems
 Mechatronics sensors (Applications examples)
 Sensor Selection
 Examples

1
 Sensors?
• American National Standards Institute
– A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand

• A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal

suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
• Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical
phenomena into an electrical signal

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 Transducer?
A device which converts one form of energy to another
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Sensor
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator

e.g. Piezoelectric:

Sensors Actuators Force -> voltage

Electrical Voltage-> Force

Physical
parameter Input

=> Ultrasound!
Electrical Physical
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Output Microphone, Loud Speaker
4
Output
Commonly Detectable Phenomena
•Biological
•Chemical
•Electric
•Electromagnetic
•Heat/Temperature
•Magnetic
•Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
•Optical
•Radioactivity
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 Need for Sensors
• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in
our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial
plants and countless other applications.

• Without the use of sensors, there would be no

automation !!
– Imagine having to manually fill Poland Spring
bottles
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The Role of Sensor in Mechatronic Systems

Actuators Mechanical
Sensors
System

Microprocessor
System
For control

Signal
Signal
Conditioners
Conditioners
 The Role of Sensor in Mechatronic systems

Mechatronic sensors are elements of a mechatronic

system, responsible for converting a quantity being
measured into an electrical signal input after
conditioned to the microprocessor based controller.

Quantity Being Measured Electrical Signal

Sensors

• Temperature • Resistance change

• Pressure • Capacitance change
• Displacement • Inductance change
• ? • ?
 The Role of Sensor in Mechatronic systems

Example
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Temperature Resistance change

Examples of Sensor in Mechatronic Systems

http://www.airtexve.com

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Automotive Sensors
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 Examples of Sensor in Mechatronic Systems

The engine management system of a car is responsible for

managing the ignition and fuelling requirements of the engine.

Four-stroke sequence- mechanical system.

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1
Examples of Sensor in Mechatronic Systems

Sensors

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Elements of an Engine Management System

1
 Sensors:
Position sensors- Potentiometer, LVDT,
incremental Encoder; Proximity sensors-Optical,
Inductive, Capacitive; Temperature sensor-RTD,
Thermocouples; Force / Pressure Sensors-Strain
gauges; Flow sensors-Electromagnetic
 Sensors

 Position Sensors:

 Potentiometer

 LVDT

 Encoders
 Potentiometer
 A rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance device that can
be used to measure angular position
 Through voltage division the change in resistance can be used
to create an output voltage that is directly proportional to the
input displacement.
Potentiometer
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 ‘LVDT’ is a transducer for measuring linear displacement
 It must be excited by an AC signal to induce AC response on
secondary.
 The core position can be determined by measuring secondary
response.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 Encoders

 Digital Optical Encoders

 Absolute Digital Optical Encoders

 Incremental Digital Optical Encoders

 Digital Optical Encoders

Schematic Diagram Typical Construction

Simple Rotary Encoder
Quadrature Encoder
Binary Encoder
Grey Code Encoder
Absolute Encoder
Absolute Encoder (Gray Code)
Incremental Encoder
 Proximity sensors

 Proximity sensors:

 Optical

 Inductive

 Capacitive
Proximity sensors
Application of Proximity sensors
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Photoelectric sensors are able to detect both metallic and non-metallic
targets. They uses in many applications like in mobile phones and for
level sensing.
 The main components of this sensor are emitter, detector and associated
electronics. Emitter (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode) sends a beam of
light. The detector (photo diode or phototransistor) detects emitted
light. An associated electronics required to amplify the detected signal.
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 The emitter sometimes called the sender transmits a beam of
either visible or infrared light to the detecting receiver.

 All photoelectric sensors operate under similar principles.

Dark-on and light-on classifications refer to light reception
and sensor output activity. With no reception of light, the
output produces then the sensor is dark-on. If output from
light received then it is light-on.
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Sensing Methods or Working Principle of Photoelectric
Proximity Sensor
There are three main sensing methods of the photoelectric
proximity sensor and they are,
1. Through beam method
2. Retro-reflective method
3. Diffuse or Reflective method
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Through beam method
In this type of method, an emitter sends out a beam of light directly in
the line-of-sight of the emitter to a receiver. When an object breaks this
beam of light, it detects as a presence. This type of setup requires two
components they are an emitter and a separate detector, which makes it
a bit more complex to install and wire. However, the advantage is that
it’s the most accurate of the sensing methods with the longest sensing
range.
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Through beam method
New laser diode emitter models can transmit a well-collimated beam
60m for increased accuracy and detection. At these distances, some
through-beam laser sensors are capable of detecting an object the size of
a fly, at close range, that becomes 0.01 mm. One ability unique to
through beam photoelectric sensors is effective sensing in the presence
of thick airborne contaminants.
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Retro-reflective method
In this method, detection occurs when the light path breaks or disturbs. Both
the light emitting and light receiving elements are in same housing. The light
from the emitting element hits the reflector and returns to the light receiving
element. When a target is present, the light gets interrupt.

One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam sensor is

for the convenience of one wiring location, the opposing side only requires
reflector mounting.
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Diffuse or Reflective method
As in retro-reflective sensors, emitters and receivers located in the
same housing. In this Diffuse method, Both the light emitting and
light receiving elements contain in a single housing. The sensor
receives the light reflected from the target

Diffuse photoelectric sensors are similar in some respects to reflective

sensors. This is because like reflective sensors they emit a light beam in the
direction of the object to be detected. However, instead of a reflector used
to bounce the light back to a detector, the object to be sensed functions as
the reflector, bouncing some of the light back to be detected and register
an object’s presence
 Inductive Proximity sensors
• Detects metal object
• Uses an electro-magnetic field to detect a conductive target
• Sensing coil in the end of the sensor probe
• When excited creates an alternating magnetic field which induces small
amounts of eddy current in the target object
• Eddy currents create an opposing magnetic field which resists the field
being generated by the sensor probe coil.
• The interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance
between the sensor probe and the target.
• Comparatively inexpensive but conducting targets sensing
Inductive Proximity sensors
 Capacitive Proximity sensors
 Can be used for nonmetallic materials such as paper, glass,
liquids, and cloth
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance
between the sensing object and the Sensor. As per the name,
capacitive proximity sensors operate by noting a change in the
capacitance read by the sensor.
 The amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and
distance of the sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive Proximity
Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two parallel plates, where
the capacity of the two plates detected.
 Capacitive Proximity sensors
 One of the plates is the object being measured (with an
imaginary ground), and the other is the Sensor’s sensing surface.
It detects the changes in the capacity generated between these
two poles. The detection of the object depends on their dielectric
constant, but they include resin and water in addition to metals.
Working Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensor
 The capacitive proximity sensor consist a high-frequency
oscillator along with a sensing surface formed by two metal
electrodes. When an object comes near the sensing surface, it
enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the
capacitance of the oscillator.
 Capacitive Proximity sensors
 As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the
output state of the sensor when it reaches certain amplitude. As
the object moves away from the sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude
decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial state.
 A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a
few millimeters up to about 1 inch. (or 25 mm), ), and some
sensors have an extended range up to 2 inch.
Capacitive Proximity sensors
• Temperature Sensor:

• RTD

• Thermocouples
 Temperature measurement

• EMF based

• Thermocouple

• Resistance based

• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

 Thermocouples
 A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature.
Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from different
metals. The wires legs are welded together at one end, creating a
junction. This junction is where the temperature is measured.
When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage
is created.
 Thermocouples
 If two different metals ‘A’ and ‘B’ are connected as in Figure,
with a junction and a voltmeter, then if the junction is heated the
meter should show a voltage.
 This is known as the Seebeck effect.
 Thermocouples
 Seebeck effect.
The Seebeck effect occurs when a temperature difference between two
different metals generates an electric voltage.
 Problem:
A thermocouple is made of two different metals. The hot junction is at
200°C, and the cold junction is at 30°C. If the Seebeck coefficient of the
materials is 40 µV/°C, what is the voltage generated?
 Solution:
We use the formula:
V=S⋅ΔT
Where:
S=40 µV/°C = 40 × 10⁻⁶ V/°C
ΔT=200−30=170°C
V=(40× 10⁻⁶ )×170 =6.8 mV
The generated voltage is 6.8 mV.
 Types of thermocouples
Sr. Type Thermocouple Material Sensitivity Useful
No in (µV/oC) temperature
range
1 T Copper-Constantan 20 – 60 -180 to +400
2 J Iron-Constantan 45 – 55 -180 to +850
3 K Chromel-Alumel 40 – 55 -200 to +1300
4 E Chromel-Constantan 55 – 80 -180 to +850
5 S Platinum-Platinum/10% Rhodium 5 – 12 0 to +1400
6 R Platinum-Platinum/13% Rhodium 5 – 12 0 to +1600
7 B Platinum/ 30% Rhodium-Platinum/6% Rhodium 5 – 12 +100 to +1800
8 W5 Tungsten/5% Rhenium-Tungsten/20% Rhenium 5 – 12 0 to +3000

Constantan = copper/nickel; Chromel = nickel/chromium; Alumenl = nickel/aluminium

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Uses the phenomenon that the resistance of a metal changes with

temperature.
Are linear over a wide range and most stable.
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are
temperature sensors generally made from a pure (or
lightly doped) metal whose resistance increases with
increasing temperature (positive resistance
temperature coefficient).
• The most popular RTD is the platinum film PT100 (DIN
43760 Standard), with a nominal resistance of 100 Ω ±
0.1 Ω at 0ºC.

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 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
• Platinum is usually used for RTDs because of its stability
over a wide temperature range (–270ºC to 650ºC) and its
fairly linear resistance characteristics.
• Tungsten is sometimes used in very high temperature
applications.
• High resistance (1000 Ω) nickel RTDs are also available.

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 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
Linearity of RTDs
• In comparison to other temperature measuring devices such as
thermocouples and thermistors, the change in resistance of an RTD
with respect to temperature is relatively linear over a wide temperature
range, exhibiting only a very slight curve over the working temperature
range.
• Since the error introduced by approximating the relationship between
resistance and temperature as linear is not significant, manufacturers
commonly define the temperature coefficient of RTDs, known as alpha
(α), by the expression:

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 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

• From the expression of alpha (α) it is easily derived that the resistance
RT of an RTD, at temperature T can be found from the expression:

RT=R0(1+αT)

• Where: R0 = Resistance at 0ºC

• For example, a PT100 (DIN 43760 Standard), with nominal resistance

of 100 Ω ± 0.1 Ω at 0ºC has an alpha (α) of 0.00385 Ω / Ω / ºC. Its
resistance at 100ºC will therefore be 138.5 Ω.

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Advantages of platinum as RTD
 The temperature-resistance characteristics of pure platinum
are stable over a wide range of temperatures.
 It has high resistance to chemical attack and contamination
 It forms the most easily reproducible type of temperature
transducer with a high degree of accuracy .
 It can have accuracy ± 0.01 oC up to 500 oC and ± 0.1 oC
up to 1200 oC.
Comparison: Thermocouple vs RTD
 Force/Pressure Sensor
 Stress measurement using strain
 Strain is change in length (dl) per unit length (l)
 Strain gauge is primary sensing element used in pressure, force
and position sensors

l dl
 Strain Gauge

 Based on the variation of resistance of a conductor

or semiconductor when subjected to a mechanical
stress.
 The electric resistance of a wire having length l,
cross section A, and resistivity ρ is:
l
R
A
 When the wire is stressed longitudinally, R
undergoes a change.
 Passing small amount of current through such wire
will, thus, help measure voltage change.
 The sensing element of the strain gage is made of
copper-nickel alloy foil. The alloy foil has a rate of
resistance change proportional to strain with a
certain constant.
  Strain gauges are the most widely used devices
for the measurement of force, or more
particularly strain resulting from force. The most
common type of strain gauge is the bonded
resistance strain gauge, which consists of a
resistive material, usually metal film a few
micrometers thick, bonded to a polyester
Strain gauges backing plate. A typical strain gauge is shown in
Figure.

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  The amount of strain can be measured by detecting
changes in the resistance. Provided the change in
length of the strain gauge is small, the relationship
between resistance and strain is linear.
 The ratio of the percentage change in resistance to the
percentage change in length is known as the ‘gauge
factor’ (GF).

Strain gauges

 The gauge factor, typically lies between 2 and 4 with

nominal resistance of 120 Ω, 350 Ω and 1 kΩ.
 Thus, if a 350 Ω gauge with a gauge factor of 2.0 is
stretched by 1%, then its resistance will change by 2%
or 7 Ω.

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 Strain Gauge Measurement
 Due to the sensitivity of strain gauges, the Wheatstone
bridge circuit is a commonly used circuit for the
measurement of small changes in electrical resistance.
 Wheatstone comprises four resistive elements and can
be excited by either a voltage or current source. The
standard Wheatstone bridge configuration is shown in
Strain gauges Figure.
The output voltage V0 is
given by the equation:

When the ratio of resistances R1 to R2 is equal to the ratio of

resistances R3 to R4, then the measured output voltage is 0
V, and the bridge is said to be balanced.

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 Example: Wheatstone Bridge.
Determine the value of unknown resistor, Rx in the circuit of
Figure assuming a null exist, current through the galvanometer is
zero.

Strain gauges
Solution:
From the circuit, the product of the resistance in opposite arms of
the bridge is balance, so solving for Rx
R2R3
Rx 
R1
R x R1  R 2 R 3 15 K  * 32 K 
  40 K 
12 K 

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 Strain gauges where they form the active elements
• The quarter bridge
configurations
(Low sensitivity),

• Half bridge
Strain gauges configurations
(medium
sensitivity)

• Full bridge
configurations
(higher sensitivity),

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 Strain Gauge Circuit

Voutput 1
Quarter Bridge :   GF  
Vinput 4
Voutput 1
Half Bridge :   GF  
Vinput 2
Voutput
Full Bridge :  GF  
Vinput
In above eqns :
R
R l
GF  
 l
 Temperature Consideration:
 Changes in the resistance can be caused by changes in
the stress applied, as well as variations in
temperature.
 Typical resistive changes for metal foil gauges due to
temperature and strain are 0.015% /ºC.
Strain gauges  Using a second strain gauge (unstressed), in the same
arm of the bridge, gives significant reduction in the
errors. This is because the change in resistance due to
temperature is the same for each of the strain gauges
and therefore has a canceling effect.

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Effect of Temperature on Output of Gauge

 Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to

change only in response to applied strain.

 However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen

material to which the gauge is applied, will also respond to
changes in temperature.

 Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to

temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate for
the thermal expansion of the specimen material; compensated
gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not totally
remove it.
 Temperature compensation
• By using two gauges

• One gauge is active, and a second gauge

is placed transverse to the applied strain.

• The strain has little effect on the second

gauge, called the dummy gauge.

• Because the temperature changes are

identical in the two gauges, the ratio of
their resistance does not change, the
voltage does not change, and the effects
of the temperature change are
minimized.
 Strain Gauge Type

Types:
 Semiconductor Strain Gauge

 Thin Film Strain Gauge

 Diffused Semiconductor Strain

Gauge
 Bonded Resistance Gauge

Selection Criterion
 Operating Temperature, Nature
of Strain, Stability Requirement
 Electromagnetic Flow sensor
 Magnetic flow meters operate based upon Faraday's Law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that a voltage will be
induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic field.

 Faraday's Law: E=kBDV

 The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly

proportional to the velocity of the conductor V, conductor
width D, and the strength of the magnetic field B.

 Magnetic field coils are placed on opposite sides a pipe to

generate a magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic Flow sensor
 As the liquid moves through the
field with average velocity V,
electrodes sense the induced
voltage.

 An insulating liner prevents the

signal from shorting to the pipe
wall.

 The output voltage E is directly

proportional to liquid velocity,
resulting in the linear output of a
magnetic flow meter.
 Hall effect sensors

V = KH (BI/t)

V potential difference
B is the magnetic flux density at right angles to the plate,
I the current through the plate
KH constant

Thus if a constant current source is used with a particular sensor, the Hall voltage is a measure of
the magnetic flux density.
Hall effect sensors: (a) linear

The linear output Hall effect sensor 634SS2 gives an

output which is fairly linear over the range 240 to 140
mT (2400 to 1400 gauss) at about 10 mV per mT (1 mV
per gauss) when there is a supply voltage of 5 V.

Hall effect sensors: (b) threshold

The threshold Hall effect sensor Allegro

UGN3132U gives an output which switches
from virtually zero to about 145 mV when the
magnetic flux density is about 3 mT (30 gauss).
 As an illustration, such a sensor can be
used to determine the level of fuel in
an automobile fuel tank.
 A magnet is attached to a float and as
the level of fuel changes so the float
distance from the Hall sensor changes
(Figure 2.25).
 The result is a Hall voltage output
which is a measure of the distance of
the float from the sensor and hence the
level of fuel in the tank.
Sensor Selection
On what basis should you select a
sensor for a mechatronic system?

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Sensor Selection
1-The nature of the measurement required
• the variable to be measured,
• its nominal value,
• the range of values,
• the accuracy required,
• the required speed of measurement,
• the environmental conditions under which the measurement is to
be made.

2-The nature of the output required from the sensor

• this determining the signal conditioning requirements in order to
give suitable output signals from the measurement.

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Sensor Selection

3- Then possible sensors can be identified, taking into

account such factors as :-
• their range,
• accuracy,
• linearity,
• speed of response,
• maintainability,
• power supply requirements,
• ruggedness,
• integration with the system
• cost.
• availability,
• lifetime,

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 Choosing a Sensor

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80
 fuel level sensor
mirror sensor
accelerator pedal angle sensor
transmission sensor
headlight range sensor
chassis level sensor
motor position sensor
differential non-contacting angle sensor
throttle position sensor
HVAC sensor
steering sensor

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