Motor Control / Learning

Motor Control: Overview and Definition

Motor control is defined as the “ability to regulate or direct the mechanisms essential to
movement”. Motor control refers to how the central nervous system organizes movement, how we
quantify movement, and the nature of movement.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Dynamic systems theory integrates well with occupational therapy principles. Specifically, a
child learns movement more easily and effectively if:
(1) The movement is taught as a whole (versus part);
(2) the movement is performed in variable situations;
(3) the child is allowed to actively problem solve the actions required; and
(4) the activity is meaningful to the child.
• Whole Learning
o Play activities (e.g., crafts, dress-up, cooking, dance moves)
o Games
o Themed activities
• Variability
o Vary the objects or placement
o Vary the requirements of the task
o Consider the social nature of the task
o Vary the environmental context
o Same motor movement in different forms
o Provide variety of activities or different ways to do tasks
• Problem Solving
o Set up activities with different degrees of difficulty
o Repeat movements so child must figure it out
o Wait for child to figure it out
• Meaning

Development of Motor Control

The development of motor skills occurs in three stages cognitive, associative, and autonomous.
The cognitive stage refers to the “skill acquisition stage”. In this stage the learner practices
new movements, errors are common, and movements are inefficient and inconsistent.
The associative stage involves “skill refinement”, increased performance, decreased errors,
and increased consistency and efficiency. During this stage the learner relates past experiences to the
present, thereby “associating” movements.
The autonomous stage, the learner retains the skills and can perform the movement
functionally. During this stage, skills are transferred easily to different settings and are refined.

Summary of Fitts and Posner’s (1967) Three Stages of Motor Learning

Stage Process Characteristics Other Name
Cognitive Gathering information Large gains, inconsistent Verbal motor stage
performance
Associative Putting actions together Small gains, disjointed Motor stage
performance, conscious effort
Autonomous Much time and practice Performance seems Automatic stage
unconscious, automatic, and
smooth

Strategies for Each Stage of Motor Control

Cognitive
• Use simple statements and verbal cues.
• Use catchy words or pneumonics.
• Repeat skills.
• Provide time for problem solving.
• Allow child to review progress.
Associative
• Relate new tasks to past activities.
• Use the same words or cues for similar tasks.
• Help child see links to previous successful activity.
• Allow child to review progress by relating to other activity.
Autonomous
• Set up an environment in which the child can be successful.
• Allow the child to self-reflect.
• Provide few if any cues.
• Do not correct or address quality—allow the child to self-evaluate.

Development of Motor Control

Each stage of movement involves interactions among the processes of cognition, perception,
and action.
• Cognition refers to intent or the child’s motivation to move and also to the ability to plan the
movement.
• Perception refers to how the individual receives and makes sense of a stimulus.
• The process of Action includes muscle contractions, patterns, precision, and nature of the
movement.

Factors Affecting Motor Performance

Social-Emotional Factors - Individuals are able to achieve motor challenges for which they
attribute positive feelings.
As much as possible it is important for us to use our therapeutic use of self to facilitate positive
feelings or feelings of success as the child is doing the motor performance. As much as possible we
shouldn't push the children too hard to the point that it would produce chaos rather than allowing the
child to perform that certain movement.
Physical Factors - which physical limitations will affect the ability to do the action. Range of
motion, muscle tone, and muscle strength are very important factors that can allow for the performance
of the motor skill.

Motor Learning
Motor learning refers to the acquisition or modification of motor skills. Motor learning literature
explores transfer of learning, sequencing, and adapting tasks, type and amount of practice, error-based
learning, timing, type of feedback, and mental rehearsal.

Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning, or generalization, refers to applying learning to new situations. The goal of
occupational therapy intervention is that the child transfer learning performed in the clinic or intervention
setting to a natural context.
As an OT, you have to find a way to promote the transfer of learning of the different skills you
teach the child.

Sequencing and Adapting Tasks

Grading and adapting motor tasks so that children are successful constitute part of the
occupational therapy process.
One very important reason why we do activity analysis is so that we know the baseline demand
of an activity and therefore know how to adapt it if necessary. Grading and adapting motor task allow
the children to be more successful in the activity or task that they will be doing. Generally there are
different ways that you can grade and adapt an activity

Grading and Adapting Activity

Discrete vs Continuous
Generally, discrete tasks are easier to accomplish than continuous tasks. Discrete tasks are
less complicated and continuous tasks are more complicated. Discrete tasks are those with a definite
beginning and end, whereas continuous task has no definite beginning or end.
Unimanual vs Bimanual
Tasks involving unimanual movements are often learned or mastered before bimanual
movements.
Stationary vs Dynamic
Skills manipulating stationary objects develop before skills with moving objects
Closed vs Open
Closed tasks are those in which the environment is stationary during task performance,
whereas open tasks are ones in which the environment is changing or in motion and involve some
intertrial variability. Closed tasks are generally simpler for most children to accomplish.
One-step vs Multi-step
Tasks with fewer steps are accomplished more readily than those with multiple steps.
Simple vs Complex
Children acquire tasks that require less precision more easily than those that require more
precision.

Uncomplicated Example More Difficult Example

Discrete Jump over rope × 1 Continuous Jumping rope
Unimanual Grasp toy in one hand Bimanual Grasping toy with two hands
Stationary Hold toy Dynamic Catching a moving ball
Closed Scribble on paper Open Following with pen moving target on
computer
One-step Write name Multistep Writing name and drawing picture
Simple Place ball in container Complex Playing a game of mini-golf

Practice Levels and Types

Massed practice (also known as blocked) is defined as practice in which the period performing
the movement is greater than the rest period. This type of practice works best during the cognitive
stage, as the subject is just beginning to learn the movements. Much more useful when you are the
child is still within the cognitive stage learning to certain motor skill. So, when the child is still learning a
lot you have to let the child practice a lot and has lesser breaks in between.
Distributed practice is defined as practice in which rest between trials is greater than the time
of the trial and is most useful during the associative stage. Lesser performance in the task and more
breaks in between.
Variable or random practice is most effective during the autonomous stage. Variable practice
requires that learners repeat the same patterns but make small changes as necessary
Mental practice includes performing the skill in one’s imagination, without any action involved.
It consists of role playing, watching a video, or imagining. Mental practice is effective in teaching motor
skills and retraining the timing and coordination of muscle group activity.

Error-Based Learning
Children learn movement by making errors or mistakes and self-correcting. It's important for
our child to be able to understand his own mistakes so that he can learn from it better. instead of giving
out the correct answers, or spoon feeding the child with what to do and always giving assistance, it's
important to allow them to make errors so that they can identify their own mistakes and explore other
ways to problem solve or do the activity.

Feedback
Intrinsic feedback, which allows the child to self-correct, is most effective for sustaining motor
performance and should be the goal of intervention sessions. Intrinsic feedback may be elicited through
discovery, a situation in which the therapist sets up the environment and the child is allowed to explore
and discover, make errors, and consequently learn new ways of moving.
Extrinsic feedback consists of providing verbal cueing or physical guidance. you can do hand
over hand system or giving cues to the child as to that task.
Demonstrative feedback refers to modeling or imitating movements. Demonstrative feedback
is best if it is provided before the child actually practices the movement, as well as throughout early
stages of skill acquisition.

Feedback
Knowledge of Performance - Therapists may provide descriptive feedback to the child about
performance of a specific task. You will be explaining to the child how he or she should be doing a
certain task.
 Knowledge of Results - Feedback related to the desired outcome helps children understand
movement. Instead of allowing the child to perform the activity and giving praises, what you can do is
give the child an idea what to expect as the outcome during the activity.
Verbal Feedback - Verbal feedback is best if provided immediately after completion of the task.
It's very important that you give feedback after the task so that the child label to identify or pinpoint the
problems or the good points that he has done in a certain activity.