CHAPTER - 2 - Refrigeration - 1

Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

CHAPTER_ TWO
Refrigeration
2
2.1. Basic Concepts
Refrigeration
3
Refri. and Air Cond.
Refrigeration
 the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the
surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to the required
temperature.
 a continued extraction of heat from a body whose temperature is already below the
temperature of its surroundings.
 The heat is then rejected to some natural sink such as:
The atmospheric air

Surface water
Refrigeration effect
 Amount of heat, which is required to extract in order to provide and maintain lower
temperature than that of atmosphere

AAiT School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering - SMIE 4
Unit of refrigeration
Refrigeration system
 A combination of components, equipment and piping connected in a sequence to
produce the refrigeration effect.
Refrigeration Cycle:
 When a refrigerant undergoes a series of processes like evaporation, compression,
condensation, throttling and expansion, it is said to have undergone a refrigeration
cycle.

Unit of refrigeration
Ton of refrigeration (TR)
• The rating of refrigerating machine is given by standard unit of refrigeration
• The amount of refrigeration effect produce by uniform melting of one tones (1000
kg) of ice from and at 00C in 24 hours.
• Since the latent heat of ice is 335kJ/kg,
𝟏𝐓𝐓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∗ 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐤 𝐢𝐢 𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡
𝟏𝐓𝐓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟔 𝐊𝐊/𝐦𝐦𝐦
𝐊𝐊
Practically 𝟏𝐓𝐓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝐊𝐊
𝐦𝐦𝐦

2.2. Methods of producing
Low Temperature
7
Methods of producing Low Temperatures
The objectives of this lessons are to discuss methods of producing low temperature, using
1. Sensible cooling using cold medium 8. Evaporative cooling
2. Endothermic mixing of substances 9. Cooling by rapid expansion
3. Phase change processes (Joule - Thomson effect)
4. Expansion of liquids
5. Expansion of gases
6. Thermoelectric refrigeration
7. Adiabatic demagnetization

Define
• Refrigeration:- the production of low temperature
• Cryogenics – the physics of the production and use of low temperature
• To achieve refrigeration - to produce temperature low enough for heat transfer to take
place from the system being refrigerated to the system producing refrigeration
Low temperature
• The production and measurement of temperature between absolute zero and ice point
and interpretation of natural phenomenon at these temperatures

1. Endothermic mixing of substances (Dissolution of Certain Salts in Water) :
• Low temperatures can be obtained when certain salts are dissolved in water.
• Mixing of certain substance produces very low temperatures due to the endothermic nature of
the mixing process- when certain salts are dissolved in water , they absorb heat . This
property is used to Produce refrigeration .
 -210C by dissolving NaCl in water
 -510C by dissolving CaCl2 in water
• When a solute dissolves in a solvent, an enthalpy change occurs.
Limitations
This Method is not feasible for Commercial purpose -
• The refrigeration effect produced by endothermic mixing is typically small and recovery of
salt for reuse is very difficult

2. Phase Change Processes
• Low temperatures can be produced using substances that undergo endothermic phase change
processes
• Sublimation - sublimation of CO2 at -78.50C: 573 KJ/kg – when a solid carbondioxide
sublimate at this temperature – 573 KJ of heat is transferred – frozen food storage
• Melting– latent heat of fusion
• Evaporation – latent heat of vaporization – vaporization of ammonia at -200C: 1330
KJ/kg
• Liquid N2 is sprayed inside the cargo space of a truck . Liquid N2 changes phase from liquid to
gas and produce refrigeration effect
• Expendable refrigeration system – at the end of the process normally the water or
carbondioxide gas is not recovered

• Both water ice and dry ice are widely used to provide refrigeration in several
applications
Ex. Transport refrigeration
• Evaporation is the most commonly used phase change process in practical refrigeration
systems as it is easier to handle fluids in cyclic devices
• For all phase change processes, the amount of refrigeration produced is given by
𝑄 = 𝑚 ∆ℎ𝑝𝑝
• Apart from the latent heat, the temperature at which the phase change occurs is also
important

• For liquid- to – vapor phase change, the natural boiling point (the saturation temperature at
one atmosphere pressure) is a good indication of the usefulness of a particular fluid for
refrigeration applications
how the normal boiling point will tell you about the operating pressures?
• For example water has a normal boiling point of 100C- to use water as a refrigerant then you have
to reduce the pressure - a refrigeration system uses water then it will be operating at pressures
very much below the atmospheric pressure.
• The latent heat of vaporization and normal boiling point are related by what is known as a
Trouton's rule (the entropy of vaporization is almost the same value, about 85–88 J/(K·mol),
for various kinds of liquids at their boiling points)

• The entropy of vaporization is defined as the ratio between the enthalpy of vaporization
and the boiling temperature- Frederick Thomas Trouton
• substances having lower molecular weight will give rise to higher specific latent heat of
vaporization
Ammonia 17 -33.3 C 1370 KJ/kg
Carbondioxide 44 -78.44 C 574 KJ/kg
Sulfur dioxide 64 -10 C 382KJ/kg
• Refrigerants should have low boiling pressure so that they vaporize at low temperatures,
however, if the normal boiling pressure is too low then the operating pressures will be high
3. Expansion of Liquids
a. Turbine – extracting useful work output – isentropic process - reversible

• When a high pressure liquid flows through a turbine delivering a network output. Its
pressure and enthalpy decreases
b. Restrictions – porous media, valve, orifice…. – isenthalpic process -
irreversible
• The passage of a higher pressure fluid through a narrow constriction - pressure falls

• The throttling process is commonly used for
 Determining the condition of steam (dryness fraction)
 Controlling the speed of the turbine
 Refrigeration plants
 Liquefaction of gases
What is the throttling process?
• Throttling is a process of reducing the pressure of the fluid significantly by passing it through flow-
restricting devices.
What happens to temperature in the throttling process? Does internal energy change in throttling?
I. Te (exit temp) > Ti (inlet temp) - friction
II. Te = Ti – ideal gas ( h = h(T))
III. Te < Ti
• The magnitude of rise or drop in temperature is decided by the Joule-Thomson coefficient.
What is Joule-Thomson coefficient?
• It is a measure of the rate of change of temperature with respect to pressure during a constant
enthalpy process.
 The throttling process the pressure always drops. So, the denominator is always negative

What is constant in the throttling process? Is the throttling process an adiabatic process?
• Enthalpy is constant in the throttling process - the isenthalpic process.
• The heat transfer is negligible in the throttling process because
 it happens in a very short period of time
 the surface area available for heat transfer is low.
• capillary tubes can be the exception to this because they provide a higher surface area for heat
transfer.
Why temperature does not drop when ideal gas is throttled?
• Enthalpy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only. h=h(T), which requires that temperature
remains constant when the enthalpy remains constant. Therefore, the throttling process can not be
used to lower the temperature of an ideal gas.

• The temperature drop in isentropic/ isenthalpic expansion depends on
 Pressure drop
 The initial state of the liquid
 The nature of the liquid
• If the initial condition
 Saturated liquid then expansion (the turbine or a throttling device) produces
significant temperature drop due to flashing of some liquid into vapor
 Subcooled liquid – the exit condition is a liquid – the temperature drop due to
expansion will be small

4. Expansion of Gases
• Refrigeration effect can be obtained by expansion of a gas through a turbine or behind
a piston. If a gas at pressure P1 and T1 expands behind a piston to pressure P2 (P2<P1),
the temp, T2 after expansion is lowered
𝟏−𝟏�𝜸
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏

5. Thermoelectric Refrigeration :
• Thermoelectric thermometers are based on the principle of thermoelectricity- when two
junctions of a thermocouple are kept at different temperature, thermo electromagnetic force
(emf) is produced
• A change in thermo emf is proportional to a change in temperature difference between
thermo junction of a thermocouple.
• The thermocouple is
 a thermodynamic transducer used for temperature measurement.
 An active transducer that converts the change temperature (thermal energy)
directly into electrical energy
 Two dissimilar metals are connected to each other to form two junctions and these
are subjected to different temperature – an electric current flows through it

5. Thermoelectric Refrigeration : Seebeck Effect
• The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seebeck Effect.
 when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two junctions, and
junctions are maintained at different temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.)
is induced/generated in this closed circuit.
 The conversion of temperature difference directly into electricity
• The amount of induced e.m.f. is different for different metal combinations and is proportional
to the temperature difference of the junctions.

• One end is exposed to a hot source
(such as a flame) and the other end is
kept cold (such as in ice water). The
temperature difference between the
ends creates a voltage across the wires,
which can be measured by a voltmeter.

5. Thermoelectric Refrigeration : Peltier Effect
• When a battery is added in between the two conductors A and B whose junctions are initially
at same temperature, and a current is made to flow through the circuit, the junction
temperatures will change, one junction becoming hot (T1) and the other becoming cold (T2).
• The Peltier effect is a way of turning electricity into heat or cold, depending on the direction
of the current and the materials used.
• When two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two junctions and emf is applied
within the circuit, it causes temperature difference b/n the junctions of the two materials
• Refrigeration effect is obtained at the cold
junction and heat is rejected to the
surroundings at the hot junction. This is the
basis for thermoelectric refrigeration systems.

5. Thermoelectric Refrigeration : summary
• The Peltier effect is
• the cooling of one junction and the heating of the other when electric current is
passed through a circuit of two different conductors or semiconductors.
• the reverse of the Seebeck effect, which is the generation of electric current by a
temperature difference.
• can be used to create cooling or heating devices by controlling the direction and
magnitude of the electric current.
• can be used to create thermoelectric coolers or heaters, which have no moving
parts. They are often used to cool electronic devices, such as CPUs, sensors, and
cameras.
• is the absorption or release of heat when an electric current passes through a
circuit of two different conductors

6. Adiabatic Demagnetization
• When a paramagnetic substance is magnetized, certain amount of external work is done
on it and its temperature rises. When the substance is demagnetized, work is dene by
the substance. Hence, if the substance is demagnetized adiabatically, its temperature
falls
• Maximum cooling can be produced by applying strong magnetic field and low initial
temperatures.
• Adiabatic?
• Demagnetization?

• When adiabatically demagnetization occurs In the parametric substance – obtain very
low temperatures ( nearly 0.01K) – has very much important in low temperature
production
• Debye and Giauque in 1926 independently developed to obtain low temperature by
using adiabatic demagnetization of parametric materials

• The principle of adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic materials is in which a paramagnetic
material contains molecules which are lying in disorderly manner ( different directions) so that, the
resultant magnetic moment is zero.
• Placed in a magnetic field gets magnetized and the molecules of the parametric material sets in the
direction of the magnetic field –
 has some magnetic moment – Intensity of magnetization –
 Some work is done in this process which is added to
internal energy of the substance (to move to the direction
of magnetic field) –
 If the magnetization takes place in adiabatic process -
temperature slightly increases

• If the magnetization takes place in isothermal process the temperature of the substance
remains the same
• When a paramagnetic substance is suddenly demagnetized the molecules again gets
disorderly manner – the energy required for demagnetization is taking from paramagnetic
substance itself – temperature decreases
• If the substance is at sufficiently low temperature the fall in temperature is
remarkable/considerable
• Final temperature depends on
 The nature of paramagnetic substance
 Intensity of magnetic field

• The experimental setup of adiabatic
demagnetization
• The paramagnetic material (salt) – Gadolinium
Sulphate (Compressed powder)
• Suspended in a vessel A connected to a
vacuum pump
• Surrounded by liquid helium at a
temperature of 10K by using Dewar flask
B and both are surround by liquid
hydrogen in Dewar flask C

• The entire arrangement is placed between
the magnetic pole NS of a strong magnetic
field.
• The coil M around A are used to measure the
temperature by susceptibility measurements
1. Initially a vessel A is filled with helium gas so
that the paramagnetic substance P comes in
thermal contact with liquid helium and cools to
1K
2. When the magnetic field is switched on, the
substance P is magnetized and becomes warmed

• The Heat due to magnetization flows
through helium gas into liquid helium – the
paramagnetic material regains its
temperature 1K
3. Helium gas is pumped out from the vessel A with
a high vacuum pump, so that the paramagnetic
substance becomes thermally isolated
4. Switched off – adiabatic demagnetization of the
substance takes place – the temperature
decreases

• Giauque and Dougall obtained a
temperature of 0.25K
• White and Hass (double sulphate of
potassium and Aluminum) obtained a
temperature of 0.002K
• Stenland and Gorter using Crystals of
Chromium aluminum alum – 0.0014K

• If paramagnetic substance is magnetized by placing it in a magnetic flux density B, its
molecules try to align in the direction of magnetic field and work is done
• B is depend on
 Temperature T
 Intensity of magnetization I
Assume
• Change of intensity of magnetization dI
• The work done by the field on the substance BdI
• When the substance is demagnetized – the same work is done by the substance -BdI

• From first law of thermodynamics dQ = dU + dW
Resultant work done dW = PdV –BdI
dQ = dU + PdV – BdI (1)
• Adiabatic demagnetization, volume = constant (dV =0)
dQ = TdS = dU – BdI (2)
• Compare with equation for open system
TdS = dU + PdV (3)
𝛛𝛛 𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝛛 𝛛𝑰
From the Max Well equation = =−
𝛛𝛛 𝐬 𝛛𝐒 𝐏 𝛛𝑩 𝐬 𝛛𝛛 𝑩

𝛛𝛛 𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝛛 𝛛𝑰
• From the Max Well equation
𝛛𝛛 𝐬
=
𝛛𝐒 𝐏 𝛛𝑩 𝐬
=−
𝛛𝛛 𝑩
𝛛𝛛 𝛛𝑰/𝛛𝛛
• Multiply and divide by dT
𝛛𝑩 𝐬
=−
𝛛𝛛/𝛛𝛛 𝑩
𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏 𝑻
𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏 𝑩
=− 𝑩
=−
𝝏𝝏 𝑺
𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏 𝑺
𝒎𝑪𝑩
𝝏𝝏 𝑩
𝟏 𝝏𝝏 𝑻 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏
𝑪𝑩 = = 𝑻 = 𝐦𝑪𝑩
𝒎 𝝏𝝏 𝑩
𝒎 𝝏𝝏 𝑩 𝝏𝝏 𝑩

𝛛𝛛 𝜕𝜕 𝐓 𝜕𝐈
𝐓 =−
𝜕𝜕 𝛛𝛛 𝐁 𝜕𝜕 𝐒 𝐦CB 𝜕𝐓 𝐁
=−
𝜕𝜕 𝐒
𝐦𝐂𝐁
𝐓 𝛛𝛛
𝜕𝜕 = − 𝛛𝛛
𝐦𝐂𝐁 𝛛𝛛 𝐁
• This gives the decrease in temperature of the substance due to adiabatic
demagnetization Intensity of magnetization I

X= =
Intesity of magnetic field B
• According to Curie’s law the susceptibility is inversely proportional to its absolute
temperature 𝟏 𝑪
𝐗𝛂 𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐗 =
𝑻 𝑻
• This gives the decrease in temperature of the substance due to adiabatic demagnetization
Intensity of magnetization I 𝟏 𝑪
X= = 𝐗𝛂 𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐗 =
Intesity of magnetic field B 𝑻 𝑻
𝑪 𝑰 𝑪𝑪
𝐗= = 𝐈=
𝑻 𝑩 𝑻
𝑩𝒇
𝑪𝑪
𝐓 𝛛 𝐓 𝑪𝑪
𝜕𝜕 = − 𝑻 𝛛𝛛 𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 = − � − 𝟐 𝛛𝛛
𝐦𝐂𝐁 𝑻
𝐦𝐂𝐁 𝛛𝛛 𝐁 𝑩𝒊
𝑩𝒇
𝑩𝒇 𝑪𝑪 𝐂
𝐓 𝛛 𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 = � 𝐁 𝛛𝛛
𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 = − � 𝑻 𝛛𝛛 𝐦𝐂𝐁 𝐓
𝐦𝐂𝐁 𝛛𝛛 𝐁 𝑩𝒊
𝑩𝒊

What is the difference between magnetic and paramagnetic?
 Magnetic means anything that can be influenced or attracted by a magnet. A
paramagnetic material, on the other hand, is only weakly influenced by an external
magnetic field.
How do you know if an element is paramagnetic?
 One way to determine if an element is paramagnetic is to check its electronic
configuration. If all the electrons are paired in all orbitals, then the element is most
probably diamagnetic. If there are unpaired electrons, then there is a high possibility
that the element is paramagnetic.
What is a paramagnetic property?
 A paramagnetic material has a small but positive magnetic susceptibility. It can be
slightly attracted to an external magnetic field but it does not retain its magnetic
properties when the source of the magnetic field is removed.

2.3. Refrigerants
39
Refrigerants
Objectives
• The specific objectives of this lecture are to discuss
• Primary and secondary refrigeration's
• Refrigerant selection criteria based on their properties
• Classification of primary refrigerants
• Designation of refrigerants with examples
• Comparison of various synthetic and natural refrigerants
• Important features of refrigerant mixtures

Refrigerants
Introduction
• The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration system depends mainly on its operating
temperatures (heat source and sink temperature).
• Practical issues (system design, size, initial and operating costs, safety, reliability, and
serviceability etc.) depend very much on the type of refrigerant selected for a given
application.
• The selection of suitable refrigerant has become one of the most important in design
refrigeration systems.

Refrigerants
Introduction
• Refrigerant :
• the primary working fluid used for absorbing and transmitting heat in a
refrigeration system
• absorb heat at low temperature and pressure and release heat at a higher
temperature and pressure
• Most refrigerants undergo phase changes during heat absorption (evaporation) and
heat releasing (condensation)

Refrigerants
Classification of Refrigerant
• Primary refrigerants Working Principle

 fluids, which are used directly as working fluids.
 These fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase change process in the
evaporator.
 Theses refrigerants directly absorb heat from a system and take part of refrigerant
cycle. In case of Primary refrigerant latent heat transfer takes place.
 Those that pass through the processes of compression, cooling or condensation,
expansion and evaporation or warming up during cyclic processes. Ammonia, R12, R22,
carbon dioxide come under this class of refrigerants.
Ex.-refrigerant used in VCC and VAR systems.

Refrigerants
• Secondary refrigerants
Working Principle
 liquids, which are used for transporting thermal energy from one location to other.
 Does not undergo phase change process
 Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name brines or antifreezes.
 Used when refrigeration is required at sub-zero temperatures
 Used in large refrigeration units.
Ex. Water (chilled water system) and brines ( cold storage/ food processing)
 The medium which does not go through the cyclic processes in a refrigeration
system and is only used as a medium for heat transfer

Refrigerants
• Secondary refrigerants
 Avoidance of secondary refrigerant will improve energy efficiency, while use of secondary
refrigerant system provides freedom from design complication and can be managed easily.
For example
 air is considered direct refrigerant in air refrigeration system.
 In steam jet refrigeration systems, water is used as a direct refrigerant.
 In air conditioning applications,
 air and water are cooled firstly in order to be used for cooling processes in the conditioned
zones.
 In cold stores, evaporators cool air and air is distributed in the stores to cool the products.

Refrigerants
• Pure water can be used as a refrigerant in large air conditioning – the operating temperatures are
above zero degree centigrade
Ex. Water is widely used in chilled water systems for AC
• Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration is required at sub-zero temperatures
freezing point.
• An important property of a secondary refrigerant
• A brine freezing point will be lower than its constituents freezing point.
• The temperature at which freezing of a brine takes place its depends on its concentration.
Eutectic point.
• The concentration at which a lowest temperature can be reached without solidification

Refrigerants
Selection of Refrigerant
 Selection of refrigerant for Physical Properties
Thermodynamic Properties a particular application is
based on the following a. Low Sp. volume
a. Low boiling point requirements:
 Thermodynamic and b. Low sp. heat
b. Low freezing point thermo-physical properties
 Environmental and safety
c. High thermal conductivity
c. High saturation temperature properties
 Economics
d. Low viscosity
d. High latent heat
Other Properties e. High electrical insulation
Chemical Properties
a. Ease of leakage location
a. Non-toxicity
b. Availability and low cost
b. Non-flammable
c. Ease of handling
c. Non-corrosiveness
d. High C.O.P
d. Non-irritating and odorless
e. Low power consumption/TR
Refrigerants
Critical temperature
• The critical temperature of refrigerators should be higher than normal operating condensing
temperatures in order to have a greater heat transfer at a constant temperature- prevent unduly large
power requirements.
Vapor Specific Heat
• The specific heat of vapors should be high so that the degree of superheating will be small.
Liquid Specific Heat
• the specific heat of liquid should be low in order to limit the degree of sub cooling will be large
leading to smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator inlet.

Refrigerants
Enthalpy of vaporization
• A high latent heat of vaporization means a high refrigerating effect (refrigerant
capacity) per pound of refrigerant circulated so that the required mass flow rate per
unit cooling capacity will be small.
𝑹𝑹 = 𝒎̇ 𝒙 𝑹𝑹

Refrigerants
Thermal conductivity (K)
• Thermal conductivity in both liquid as well as vapor phase should be high for higher
heat transfer coefficients, because it helps to reducing the size of evaporator and
condenser
𝛛𝛛
𝐐 = 𝐊𝐊
𝛛𝛛
Evaporator (suction pressure)

• At a given evaporator temperature, the saturation pressure should be above
atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture ingress into the system and ease of leak
detection.
• Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to smaller compressor displacement.

Refrigerants
Condenser pressure (discharge pressure)
• At a given condenser temperature, the condenser pressure should kept at some moderate
value to permit the use of light weight equipment and piping on the high pressure side of the
system.
Pressure ratio:
• Should be as small as possible for high volumetric efficiency and low power consumption.
• for given condenser and evaporator temperatures as the latent heat of vaporization increases,
the pressure ratio also increases. Hence a trade-off is required between the latent heat of
vaporization and pressure ratio

Refrigerants
Selection of Refrigerant (Advantages of Secondary Refrigerant)
Freezing Point
• Low freezing point is desirable so that solidification of the refrigerant cannot occur during normal
operation.
• Freezing point of water 0C, below 0C it convert into solid state and its flow is not possible

Refrigerants
Action with oil A system using

 an immiscible refrigerant must be
equipped with an efficient oil
• R + fully miscible with oil – R-11, R-12, R-21, R-113
separator after compressor.
• R + fully immiscible with oil – NH3, CO2, R-14, R-13  a miscible refrigerant must be
designed for sufficient velocity of
• R + partially miscible with oil – R-22 flow in evaporator and suction lines.
» Reaction of refrigerants with oils is important in several ways.
 Oil carried out the compressor into other parts of the system may reduce the heat
transfer in the condenser and the evaporator.
 The lubrication of the compressor may be affected, since viscosity of the oil
changes by dilution with the refrigerant

Refrigerants
Action with material of construction
• NH3 corrodes copper, suitable for wrought iron
• Hydrocarbon corrodes Aluminum, suitable for copper
Boiling Temperature:
• The boiling temperature of the refrigerant should be low to reduce the capacity of
the compressor

Refrigerants
Environmental and safety properties
• At present the environment friendliness of the refrigerant is a major factor in deciding the
usefulness of a particular refrigerant.
a. Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP):
• According to the Montreal protocol, the ODP of refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they
should be non-ozone depleting substances.
• Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already been phased-out (e.g. R 11, R 12)
or will be phased-out in near-future(e.g. R22).
• Since ODP depends mainly on the presence of chlorine or bromine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs)
in the molecules cannot be used under the new regulations.

Refrigerants
Environmental and safety properties
b. Global Warming Potential (GWP):
• Is a measure of how much effect the given refrigerant will have on global warming (GW) in
relation to CO2, has a GWP of 1.
• Refrigerants should have as low a GWP value as possible to minimize the problem of GW.
• Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value of GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in
future.
c. Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI):
• The factor TEWI considers both direct (due to release into atmosphere) and indirect (through
energy consumption) contributions of refrigerants to global warming.
• Naturally, refrigerants with as a low a value of TEWI are preferable from global warming point
of view.
Refrigerants
Designation of Refrigerant
I. Saturated hydrocarbon Refrigerant :
• These refrigerants are derivatives of alkanes (CnH2n+2) , such as methane (CH4),
ethane (C2H6).
• The refrigerants are internationally designated as R (or by the manufacturers
trade name Freon or Genetron ) followed by certain numbers such as R-11, R-12,
R-114, etc.
• All two-digit number are derived from methane base while a three-digit number
are derived from ethane bases.
• The numbers assigned to hydro-carbon and halo- and refrigerants have a special
meaning.
Refrigerants
I. Saturated hydrocarbon , halogenated Refrigerant :
• The chemical formula CmHnFpClq
• The designation of the refrigerant is : R- (m-1) (n+1) p

Where
n + p + q = 2m + 2
m = Number of carbon atoms,
n = Number of hydrogen atoms,
P = Number of fluorine atoms,
q = Number of chlorine atoms.

Refrigerants
Example R- (m-1) (n+1) p
a. R-22 b. R-11 c. R-134

Solution
Solution Solution
R-134
R-022 R-011
m-1 = 1; m = 2
m-1 = 0; m = 1
m-1 = 0; m = 1 n+1 = 3; n = 2
n+1 = 1; n = 0
n+1 = 2; n = 1 P=4
P=1
P=2 n + p + q = 2m + 2
n + p + q = 2m + 2
2 + 4 + q = 2*2 + 2; q= 0
n + p + q = 2m + 2 0 + 1 + q = 2*1 + 2; q = 3
1 + 2 + q = 2*1 + 2; q = 1 C2H2F4
CFCl3
CHF2Cl Derived from Methane base Derived from Ethane base
Derived from Methane base
Refrigerants
 R-134, which is C2H2F4 , is known as ecofriendly refrigerant.
 The chlorine element which are present in commonly used refrigerant attacks the ozone layer
and reduce ozone layer thickness, which is situated in stratosphere.
Ozone Layer –
 an isotope of oxygen with three atoms instead of normal two.
 It is naturally occurring gas which is created by high energy radiation from the Sun.
 The greatest concentration of ozone are found from 12 km to 50km above the earth forming a
layer in the stratosphere
 This layer, which forms a semi-permeable blanket, protects the earth by reducing the
intensity of harmful ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the sun.

Refrigerants
II. Unsaturated hydrocarbon Refrigerant :
• The chemical formula CmHnFpClq
• The designation of the refrigerant is : R- 1(m-1) (n+1) p

Where
n + p + q = 2m

Refrigerants
III.Inorganic (Natural ) Refrigerants:

• The designation of the refrigerant is : R- (700 + Molecular Weight)

Refrigerants
II. Azeotropes:
• the refrigerants belonging to this group consist of mixtures of different substances.
• These substances cannot be separated into components by distillations
Example
• R- 500 ( 73.8% R-12 + 26.2% R-152)

Refrigerants
Comparison between different refrigerants
Synthetic refrigerants
• were commonly used for refrigeration, cold storage and air conditioning applications
Example
• R 11 (CFC 11), R 12 (CFC 12), R 22 (HCFC 22), R 502 (CFC 12 + HCFC 152a) – these
refrigerants have to be phased out due to their Ozone depletion potential (ODP).
• replacements for the older refrigerants are: R-134a (HFC-134a) and blends of HFCs.
• Non-toxic, non-flammable and are compatible with various materials of construction
• Lower performance and higher global warming potential (GWP) compared to natural
refrigerants

Refrigerants
Comparison between different refrigerants
Ammonia
» The oldest and most commonly used natural refrigerant
• Has excellent thermal properties
• Has the highest refrigeration effect/ kg of refrigerant
• Low cost
However
• Highly Toxic and is not compatible with some construction material like copper/brass
» Other natural refrigerants that are being suggested are hydrocarbons (HCs) and carbon dioxide (R-
744). Widely used in the early days of refrigeration – flammability and high critical temperature-
Problem of ecofriendly

2.4. Refrigeration
System Components
66
2.5. Air cycle Refrigeration
System: Reversed Carnot and
reversed Brayton cycle
67
Air Refrigeration systems
The specific objectives of the lesson:
» This lesson discusses various gas cycle refrigeration systems based on air, namely:
• Reverse Carnot cycle and its limitations
• Reverse Brayton cycle – Ideal and Actual
• Aircraft refrigeration cycles, namely
 Simple system,
 Bootstrap system,
 Regenerative system, etc.

At the end of the lesson the student should be able to:
• Describe various air cycle refrigeration systems.
• State the assumptions made in the analyses of air cycle systems.
• Show the cycles on T-s diagrams.
• Perform various cycle calculations.


INTRODUCTION
» The air refrigeration system is one of the earliest methods of cooling.
» Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general class of gas (working fluid) cycle
refrigeration systems.
Air (Gas)
• Is used as working fluid in air refrigeration system
• It dose not change in its phase throughout the cycle
• all the internal heat transfer processes are SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER processes

Air standard cycle :-
» A simplification of the real cycle that includes the following assumptions:
• Air is considered as working fluid.

Throttling process
• Air (fixed mass) has constant specific heat. • The analysis fails
• Air behave as ideal gas. • Temperature drop during throttling is
zero for an ideal gas

• All processes in cycle as internally reversible.
• For air Change in K.E.= 0, Change in P.E.= 0
• No internal heat generation.

• Combustion process replaced by heat addition, heat is
added and rejected externally.
• The cycle is closed and processes are non-flow processes.
• There is no frictional losses.

Ideal Cycles
» Idealization and simplifications
• Cycles does not involve any friction
• All expansion and compressions processes are quasi-equilibrium processes
• Pipes connecting components have no heat loss
• Neglecting changes of in kinetic and potential energy ( except in nozzles and
diffusers)

Basic Concepts
» Temperature of an ideal gas can be reduced by:
• Expanding the gas to do work – isentropic process
• Sensible heat exchanger with a cooler environment
» When the gas does an adiabatic work ( no heat transfer but doing work with its own
energy) in a system
• Internal energy drops in a closed system 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = m𝐶𝑣 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
• Enthalpy drops in an open system 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚 ℎ1 − ℎ2 = m𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
» Internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases are function of temperature only
• Gas Temperature decreases

Reversed Carnot cycle employing a gas
» A Carnot refrigerator works on reversed Carnot engine
cycle. It consists of the following processes.
 Isothermal heat addition at low temperature
 Isentropic Compression from low temperature to
high temperature
• Isothermal heat rejection at high temperature
• Isentropic expansion from high temperature to
low temperature
𝑞4−1 𝑇𝐿
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = =
𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
Limitations of Carnot cycle
» difficulty of achieving isothermal compression and expansion
» For a gas to have heat transfer isothermally, it is essential to carry out work transfer from or to
the system when heat is transferred to the system (process 4 - 1) or from the system (process 2
- 3). This is difficult to achieve in practice especially when we are dealing with high speed
turbines or compressors.
» High speed turbines or compressors will be operating closer to adiabatic condition than
isothermal condition, so it is not possible to achieve isothermal compression and expansion.
» adiabatic compression and expansion machine (Turbine or compressor) should operate at high
speed while during isothermal compression and expansion machine should operate at low speed.
This is practically impossible.

Limitations of Carnot cycle
» The volumetric refrigeration capacity of the Carnot system is very small so amount of gas
to be handled by system is large leading to large compressor displacement, which gives
rise to large frictional effects.
» All actual processes are irreversible, hence completely reversible cycles are idealizations
only and cannot be used in practice.
» This cycle is used as a reference or a standard to compare the actual cycles. (i.e. to
check how good is our actual cycle with the best possible cycle).

Bell-Coleman/
Reverse Brayton Cycle/Joule Air refrigeration cycle

Reversed Brayton Cycle
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
compression in compressor
 Air is compressed isentropically from volume 1-2. during
this process heat rejected is zero. W1−2 = m h2 − h3 = mCp T2 − T3
o P: Increases from P1 to P2 P1 V γ = P2 V γ
o V: Decreases from V1 to V2
T1 V γ−1 = T2 V γ−1
γ−1�
γ
o T: Increases from T1 to T2 T2 P2
=
T1 P1
o S: Remains same
𝛄 𝒎𝒎𝜸
𝐖𝟏−𝟐 = 𝐏 𝐕 − 𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝟏
𝛄−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝛄−𝟏 𝟐
Process 2-3: Isobaric Heat Rejection in a cooler
 Hot and high pressure gas flows through a heat exchanger
and rejects heat sensibly and isobarically to a heat sink

W1−2 = m h2 − h3 = mCp T2 − T3
o Enthalpy and temperature of the
gas drops during the process due to 𝑻𝟐

𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟑 = 𝑪𝑷 𝒍𝒍
heat exchanger 𝑻𝟑
o No work transfer
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟑
o Entropy decreases

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
expansion in Expander
 Air is compressed isentropically from volume 1-2. during
this process heat is zero. W3−4 = m h3 − 4 = mCp T3 − 4
o P: Decreases from P3 to P4 γ−1�

γ
T3 P3
=
o V: Increases from V3 to V4 T4 P4
o T: Decreases from T1 to T2
o S: Remains same
𝛄 𝒎𝒎𝜸
𝐖𝟑−𝟒 = 𝐏𝟑 𝐕𝟑 − 𝐏𝟒 𝐕𝟒 = 𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒
𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
Process 4-1: Isobaric Heat Addition in a Refrigerator
 Cold and low pressure gas from turbine through the low
temperature heat exchanger and extracts heat sensibly and

W4−1 = m h4 − h1 = mCp T4 − T1
isobarically to a heat source
o Enthalpy and temperature of the

𝑻𝟒
𝑺𝟒 − 𝑺𝟏 = 𝑪𝑷 𝒍𝒍
gas rises during the process due to 𝑻𝟏
heat exchanger
𝑷𝟒 = 𝑷𝟏
o No work transfer
o Entropy increases

Derivation of expression for COP of a reverse

Brayton cycle
Refrigeration Effect 𝑄1−4
COP = =
work net 𝑄2−3 − 𝑄1−4
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
COP =
𝐶𝑃 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 − 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
1
COP = 𝑄1−4
T2 − T3 COP =
−1
T1 − T4 𝑊𝑐 − 𝑊𝐸𝐸𝐸
1 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
COP = COP =
γ−1� 𝑛 𝛾−1
rP γ −1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 − 𝑇3 − 𝑇4
𝑛−1 𝛾
What is the reason’s for using isentropic expansion instead of
throttling in gas refrigeration cycle?
• In isentropic expansion:- there is a temperature drop and
hence during this expansion as the refrigerant temperature is
low it can absorb heat from storage space.
• Throttling (refrigerant is an ideal gas):- there is no
temperature change i.e. There is no temperature drop (joule-
Thomson coefficient for an ideal gas is zero). Thus, refrigerant
cannot pickup heat from the product and hence refrigeration
effect is not obtained, therefore isentropic expansion is used

Actual reverse Brayton cycle:

• The actual reverse Brayton cycle differs from the ideal
cycle due to:
• irreversibility's
I. Non-isentropic compression and expansion
processes
II. Pressure drops in cold and hot heat exchangers
• The compressor work input increases

• Expander work out put decreases
• Refrigeration effect decreases
• Design of efficient
compressors and
COPact B. < COPIdeal turbines plays a major
role in improving the
COP of the system
Brayton cycle can be open or closed
Open systems Closed systems
– Cold air at the exit of the turbine flows
• the air in the system does not get mixed
into the cold space
with the outside air
– Do not have low temperature heat
exchanger • Same air flows through the cycle
– No guarantee that the same air is repeatedly
flowing through the compressor • Low side pressure can be above
• Low side pressure will be atmospheric atmospheric (dense air systems)
(typically occupied space pressure • Gases other than air can be used
should be close to the atmospheric)
• Have two heat exchangers
Example
an air craft cooling directly release the cold air
into the cabin of the air craft , So the air gets Advantage
heated up as it picks the heat from the cabin • Low side pressure higher than the atmospheric
and send to the compressor ( typically three to four bar) – air quite dense
• Volumetric flow rate of air decreases
Advantage considerably (The density increases as the
 its simplicity pressure increases and the specific volume
 the total weight of the system will be decreases )
reduced (due to do not have a cold HX)
• Heat exchanger and compressor size decreases

Brayton cycle can be open or closed
In bell-coleman refrigeration plant, air enters the compressor at a pressure of 0.1Mpa and
temperature of 4C. It is then compressed to pressure of 3Mpa with an isentropic efficiency
of 72%. It then cooled in the cooler to a temperature of 55C and then expanded to a
pressure of 0.1Mpa with an isentropic efficiency of 78%. Assume air is an ideal gas and the
lower temperature air absorbs a cooling load of 3TR
a. Mass flow rate in kg/sec
b. Power consumption in KW
c. COP

Aircraft Cooling systems
why do we need first of all air conditioning or cooling in an air craft?
 Aircraft fly at attitude of 10000 m where the ambient temperature is -50C and pressure is about
0.15 bar
 The higher we go up the temperature as well as pressure decreases
 Even though the outside temperatures are very low at high altitudes. Cooling is required in an
aircraft due to:

why do you need a cooling system ?
 Large internal heat generation
 Heat generation due skin friction
Due to high velocity of the surrounding air the air entering the system is rammed.
 Ram effect During this process the kinetic energy of entering air is convert into enthalpy, the
 Solar radiation enthalpy of air rises which leads increases in temperature


Air cycle refrigeration systems are preferred in aircraft as
why do we use air cycle refrigeration system in aircraft ?
 Air is cheap, non-toxic and non-flammable
 Air is light in weight per tone of refrigeration
 Leakage of air is not a problem- an open system can be employed eliminating the
cost of a separate evaporator
What is the advantage of not having a cold heat exchanger?
 Main compressor of the aircraft engine can be used for compression – less weight
 Since the pressure in the system is quite low, therefore the piping, ducting design
and maintenance are simpler
• weight per kilowatt of an air cycle system will be much lower than a comparable vapor
compression system

Different types of systems used on aircraft cooling are:
there are different types of systems used in different situations and for different types of
aircrafts
 Simple system
 Bootstrap system
 Regenerative system
 Reduced ambient system

Aircraft Cooling systems Simple air cooling system

 The main components of this system are the main compressor driven by a gas turbine, a heat
exchanger, a cooling turbine and a cooling air fan.
 Open system
 The air required for refrigeration system is

bled off from the main compressor
 The high pressure and temperature air is

cooled initially in the heat exchanger where
ram air is used for cooling
 cooling in the cooling turbine by the process of

expansion – work output is used to drive the
cooling fan – which draws cooling air through
the heat exchanger
 This system is suitable for Ground cooling, low

flight speed, low altitude aircraft


 The compressor used in the unit is that the

main compressor of the aircraft engine,
which is driven by the gas turbine.
 The planes are supplied with rams to
change the kinetic energy into an increase
in the pressure before entering to the
compressor.


1. Ramming Process
 1-2 Ideal ramming process
1 (Isentropic)
3 2  1-2’ Actual ramming process (not
5
isentropic due to internal friction
4
due to irreversibility's
 Assume ramming process to be isentropic
unless mentioned in problem
 During the ideal or the actual ramming
process, the total energy or enthalpy
remains constant
𝒉𝟐 = 𝒉𝒉𝟐 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝑻𝟐

1. Ramming Process
Using steady flow energy equation for
1
ramming process
3 2 6 𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
ℎ1 + + 𝑔𝑔1 + 𝑞̇ = ℎ2 + + 𝑔𝑔2 + 𝑤̇𝑐𝑐
4 2000 2000
5
𝑽𝟐 ≪≪≪ 𝑽𝟏
• W, q, KE and PE are negligible
𝑉1 2
ℎ2 − ℎ1 =
2000
𝑉1 2 𝑉1 2
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇1 =
2000 2000𝐶𝑝


1. Ramming Process
Using steady flow energy equation for
ramming process
𝑉1 2
𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇1 =
2000𝐶𝑝
𝑇2 𝑇𝑇2 𝑉1 2
= =1+
𝑇1 𝑇1 2000𝐶𝑝 𝑇1
𝑇2 𝑇𝑇2 𝑉1 2 𝛾 − 1
= =1+
𝑇1 𝑇1 2𝛾𝛾𝑇1
• a = local or sonic velocity at the ambient air conditions
𝑇2 𝑇𝑇2 𝛾−1 2 𝑇2 𝑇𝑇2 𝑉1 2 𝛾 − 1

= =1+ 𝑀 = =1+
𝑇1 𝑇1 2 𝑇1 𝑇1 2𝑎2
 the simple air-cooling system gives a maximum cooling effect on the ground surface and
decreases as the speed of the aircraft increases.
2. Compression process
 2’-3’ actual compression process
Wc = ṁ a Cp T3′ − T2′
3. Cooling process
 3’-4 actual cooling process in heat
exchanger
Q c = ṁ a Cp T3′ − T4
4. Expansion process
5. Refrigeration process
 4-5’ expansion of cooled air in
 5’-6 refrigeration effect
turbine
RE = h6 − h5′ = ṁ a Cp T6 − T5′
WT = ṁ a Cp T4 − T5′
Net power required 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 𝑇6 − 𝑇5′
COP =
Power = 𝑚̇𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛 = ṁ a Wc − 𝑊t 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 𝑇3′ − 𝑇2′
Aircraft Cooling systems Bootstrap air cooling system

 The main components of this system are the main compressor driven by a gas turbine, a two
heat exchanger (air cooler and after cooler), and a cooling turbine.
 Open system
 A secondary compressor driven by the cooling

turbine
 Ram air is used as a sink in primary and secondary

heat exchanger
2 1  Suitable for high speed aircraft- the velocity of the
3 air craft provides the necessary airflow for the heat
exchanger
4  Ramming pressure quite sufficient to cause enough

6 circulation of air across heat exchanger
 it is not suitable for ground cooling – no fan

5  general ground cooling is normally done by an
7
external air conditioning system
 The main components of this system are the main compressor driven by a gas turbine, a two
heat exchanger (air cooler and after cooler), and a cooling turbine.
 Has two heat exchanger and the turbine drives the

second compressor rather than a fan
The primary purpose
 To provide an additional cooling capacity when the

primary source of air does not have a sufficient high
2 1 pressure to provide the amount of cooling required
3
 Is used for high speed aircraft where in the velocity
of aircraft provides the necessary airflow for the
4 6 heat exchangers, as a result a separate fan is not
required
5
7
1. Ramming Process
 1-2’ Ramming effect
𝑇2 𝑇𝑇2 𝛾−1 2
= =1+ 𝑀
𝑇1 𝑇1 2
2. Compression process(main compressor)

 2’-3’ actual compression process
Wc = ṁ a Cp T3′ − T2′
3. Cooling process
5. Refrigeration process  5’-6 actual cooling process in heat exchanger
 5’-6 refrigeration effect
Q c = ṁ a Cp T5′ − T6
RE = h8 − h7′ = ṁ a Cp T8 − T7′
4. Expansion process
Coefficient of performance  6-7’ expansion of cooled air in turbine
COP = 𝑅𝑅�𝑊 WT = ṁ a Cp T6 − T7′
𝑐
With evaporative cooling
 requires the airplane to be in flight so that the
ram air can be used for cooling in the heat
exchangers
 overcoming this drawback of the boot-strap
system is to use part of the work derived from
the turbine to drive a fan that pulls air over
the secondary heat exchanger, thus combining
the features of a simple and bootstrap system.
 As the speed of the aircraft increases, the

temperature of the ram cooling air rises, and
the ram air becomes less effective as a coolant
in the heat exchanger. In such cases, a suitable
evaporant is used with the ram air so that the
cabin temperature does not rise
Aircraft Cooling systems Regenerative air cooling system
 The main compressor driven by a gas turbine, a two heat exchanger (air cooler and after
cooler), and a cooling turbine.
 Is used when the cooling turbine discharge  Open system

temperature of a simple system is too high  Does not required ram air for secondary heat
exchanger air cooling
 a modification of the simple system
 the air from the primary heat exchanger is

1 further cooled with a portion of the
2 refrigerated air bled after expansion in the

7 turbine
4  provides lower turbine discharge temperatures

3 5 but at the expense of additional weight and
design complexity.
6
 used for ground cooling as well as high speed
aircrafts.
Aircraft Cooling systems Regenerative cooling system

Aircraft Cooling systems Regenerative cooling system

Aircraft Cooling systems Reduced Ambient cooling system
 two expansion turbines -one in the cabin air
stream and the other in the cooling air
streams.
 Both turbines are connected to the shaft

driving the fan which absorbs all the power.
 The turbine for the ram air operates from

the pressure ratio made available by the ram
air pressure.
 The cooling turbine reduces the temperature

of cooling air to level of static temperature
of ambient air .
 Thus, primary compressed air can be cooled

to, say T4 below the stagnation temperature
T2 and a little above the static temperature
T1.
It is used in Supersonic aircraft and Rockets.


Dry Air Rated Temperature (DART)
• Is the temperature of the air at the exit of the cooling turbine in the absence of
moisture condensation
• is the index used to compare different air craft refrigeration cycle
𝑻𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 ≫ 𝑻𝑫𝑫𝑫


 DART increases with monotonically

with Mach number
 Simple system is adequate at low

Mach number
 At high Mach number BSS or REG-S is

used –supersonic speeds however,
regenerative system is better than
bootstrap system
 Reduced ambient system is almost

suitable for very high Mach number,
hence it is only suitable for
supersonic aircrafts

 the simple air-cooling system gives a

maximum cooling effect on the
ground surface and decreases as the
speed of the aircraft increases

2.5. Vapor Compression
Refrigeration System: Ideal
and Cascade
110
2.6. Vapor Absorption
Refrigeration System
111

CHAPTER - 2 - Refrigeration - 1

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Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

temperature of its surroundings.

 The heat is then rejected to some natural sink such as:

The atmospheric air

temperature than that of atmosphere

 A combination of components, equipment and piping connected in a sequence to

produce the refrigeration effect.

 When a refrigerant undergoes a series of processes like evaporation, compression,

condensation, throttling and expansion, it is said to have undergone a refrigeration

AAiT School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering - SMIE 5

Ton of refrigeration (TR)

• The rating of refrigerating machine is given by standard unit of refrigeration

kg) of ice from and at 00C in 24 hours.

• Since the latent heat of ice is 335kJ/kg,

𝟏𝐓𝐓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ∗ 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐤 𝐢𝐢 𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡

𝟏𝐓𝐓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟔 𝐊𝐊/𝐦𝐦𝐦

AAiT School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering - SMIE 6

1. Sensible cooling using cold medium 8. Evaporative cooling

2. Endothermic mixing of substances 9. Cooling by rapid expansion

3. Phase change processes (Joule - Thomson effect)

AAiT School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering - SMIE 8

• Refrigeration:- the production of low temperature

• Cryogenics – the physics of the production and use of low temperature

and interpretation of natural phenomenon at these temperatures

AAiT School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering - SMIE 9

1. Endothermic mixing of substances (Dissolution of Certain Salts in Water) :

property is used to Produce refrigeration .

 -210C by dissolving NaCl in water

 -510C by dissolving CaCl2 in water

• When a solute dissolves in a solvent, an enthalpy change occurs.

This Method is not feasible for Commercial purpose -

salt for reuse is very difficult

2. Phase Change Processes

• Sublimation - sublimation of CO2 at -78.50C: 573 KJ/kg – when a solid carbondioxide

sublimate at this temperature – 573 KJ of heat is transferred – frozen food storage

• Melting– latent heat of fusion

• Evaporation – latent heat of vaporization – vaporization of ammonia at -200C: 1330

gas and produce refrigeration effect

carbondioxide gas is not recovered

2. Phase Change Processes

Ex. Transport refrigeration

systems as it is easier to handle fluids in cyclic devices

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2. Phase Change Processes

very much below the atmospheric pressure.

for various kinds of liquids at their boiling points)

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2. Phase Change Processes

and the boiling temperature- Frederick Thomas Trouton

Ammonia 17 -33.3 C 1370 KJ/kg

Carbondioxide 44 -78.44 C 574 KJ/kg

Sulfur dioxide 64 -10 C 382KJ/kg

a. Turbine – extracting useful work output – isentropic process - reversible

pressure and enthalpy decreases

b. Restrictions – porous media, valve, orifice…. – isenthalpic process -

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