Learning Objectives

• List the various approaches of natural and

mechanical ventilation in buildings
• Explain the application of refrigeration cycle in
air conditioning systems
• Identify the application of various air distribution
systems
• Identify the concerns of maintaining air
conditioning systems
• Select suitable type of air conditioning systems
in different building applications
2
 1. Ventilation
Ventilation is the process where there is
of air within an space.

Ventilation is important due to:

– dilute metabolic pollutants (CO2 and odour)

– maintaining good indoor air quality by diluting and
removing other pollutants emitted within a space

– removal of heat produced by internal and solar gains

– provision of air movement to increase human thermal
comfort
– removal of moisture through evaporation.
3
 1. Ventilation
Two ventilation strategies for buildings
ventilation
energy required
– Depends on prevailing wind (
orientation)
– Depends on passive design for stack
effect or cross ventilation
• Mechanical ventilation
– Depends on fans to create
the required air flows.

4
 2. Mechanical Ventilation
In Singapore, it is mandatory for all public buildings to
comply to the air changes regulations as stated in the code
of practices.
• CODE OF PRACTICE ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

minimum of 15 air At least 20 air changes

changes per hour in toilet per hour in kitchen

5
Source: http://www.nea.gov.sg
 2. Mechanical Ventilation
SINGAPORE STANDARD SS553:2009
CODE OF PRACTICE for Mechanical Ventilation and Air-Conditioning in buildings

6
 3. Air Conditioning
• Air conditioning system helps to maintain
thermal comfort conditions
• Can be or cooling systems
• Heating systems are commonly used in
temperate climates such as during winter.
Whereas in tropical climates cooling systems air
conditioning is usually adopted.

7
 3. Air Conditioning
: 2009 Code of Practice for Mechanical
ventilation and air conditioning in building stated
that the indoor thermal condition for sedentary
occupants should be maintained within:
• Dry bulb temperature: 24°C to 26°C
• Wet bulb temperature: RH  65% (new bldg) and
RH  70% (existing bldg)

8
 3. Air-Conditioning
• Cooling load is the hourly amount of that
must be from a building to maintain
indoor comfort.
• Thermal energy is measured in British Thermal
Units, BTUs (Imperial units) or joules, Js (SI).
• Two types of cooling loads:
– sensible cooling load
– latent cooling load

9
 3. Air Conditioning
• Sensible heat
–Dry bulb temperature of the building measure
by thermometers. Unit in °C or °F
–Direct influence on air temperature.
–Heat gains from
– occupants,
– lights,
– machines,
– processes,
– infiltration,
– solar heat gain through windows & other parts of
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façade
 3. Air Conditioning
• Latent heat
–thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a
thermodynamic property of a mixture of air &
water vapor. Relative Humidity ( ) is
expressed in %.
–Do not directly influence surrounding
temperature, but influence content
in space.
–Moisture gains from infiltration, occupants and
processes.
11
 3. Air Conditioning
• Air conditioning system helps to maintain the
desire indoor thermal comfort conditions.
processes are used in air
conditioning system.
• The process is known as .
• Refrigerant is used as media in the process. It
has point, e.g. -25 or -40
deg C.

12
 3. Air Conditioning
• Refrigerant properties can cause
effects to the
– Depleting the ozone layer
– Greenhouse gases contributing to global
warming
• To avoid further damage to the
environment & adverse climate change,
proper refrigerant selection is important:
– ozone depletion potential ( )
– global warming potential ( )
• Refrigerant such as R134a has low ODP
and GWP.
13
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
The purpose of the refrigeration cycle is to

Transfer the heat generated space

to
The basic components in the vapour compression
refrigerant cycle are:
• Compressor
• Condenser coil
• Expansion valve
• Evaporator coil
14
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
Liquid State Reduces Pressure & Temperature

EXPANSION
Liquid Refrigerant Liquid refrigerant
VALVE Low P & T
High P & T

Gives up Absorbs
heat to REFRIGERATION EVAPORATOR
Heat from
Outdoor CONDENSER CYCLE Indoor
(gaseous to liquid) (liquid to vapour)

COMPRESSOR Gaseous refrigerant

Gaseous Refrigerant Low P & T
High P & T
Raises Pressure & Temperature

Gas State
 4. Refrigeration Cycle

Compressor
Condenser

Expansion
Valve

Source: http://www.achrnews.com
Evaporator
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
At the evaporator:
liquid refrigerant enters &
flow thro evaporator coil
• Cool air is generated when a fan
across coil.
• As air passes thro evaporator
coil, refrigerant in evaporator coil
heat; refrigerant temp is
lower than indoor temp.
• Refrigerant changes state from
.
• Besides, supplying cool air into
indoor space,
due to at evaporator
coil.. . .
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
At the compressor:
refrigerant enters
compressor.
• Refrigerant is to
_______ pressure & high temp.
• High-pressure & high-temp
gaseous state refrigerant is
necessary so that heat exchange
can take place at condenser
coil.
• Heat exchange only possible
at next stage where refrigerant
temp is higher than outdoor
temp. . .
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
At the condenser:
• Construction of condenser coil is
similar to evaporator coil.
• High pressure & high temp refrigerant
enters & flow thro condenser coil.
• Warm air is generated when a fan
blows across coil.
• As outdoor air passes thro condenser
coil, refrigerant in condenser coil gives
up heat; refrigerant temp is higher than
outdoor temp.
• Refrigerant changes state
(condenses) from ;
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
At the expansion valve:
• After passing through the expansion valve, the
refrigerant .
• An example, when spraying an aerosol can or
operating a fire extinguisher, the discharged liquid is
cold; due the reduction in pressure.
• At the expansion valve controls the amount of
refrigerant entering the evaporator.
 4. Refrigeration Cycle
Reduces Pressure & Temperature

EXPANSION
Liquid Refrigerant Liquid refrigerant
VALVE Low P & T
High P & T

Gives up Absorbs
heat to REFRIGERATION EVAPORATOR
Heat from
CONDENSER CYCLE Indoor
Outdoor
(gaseous to liquid) (liquid to vapour)

Gaseous refrigerant
COMPRESSOR Low P & T
Gaseous Refrigerant
High P & T
Raises Pressure & Temperature
 4. Refrigeration Cycle

Expansion
Outdoor space Valve Indoor space

Warm Air Cooled Air

Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor

22
 We have discussed…
• The purpose of ventilation requirement in built
environment.
• Various types of ventilation methods.
• Air flow rate requirements.
• Design indoor thermal conditions.
• Thermal energy units of cooling loads.
• Function of refrigerant.
• Refrigeration cycle of air conditioning system.
• 4 basic components of refrigeration cycle

Next lecture…
Application of refrigeration cycle in various air
conditioning systems
23
6.Types of Air-Conditioning Systems
• Unitary systems (direct refrigerant, DX system)
– Window unit
– Single Split Air-conditioning System Small residential,
– Multi Split Air-conditioning System offices, shops.

Bigger capacity than

• Package Units DX system. For
– Air-cooled Package Unit commercial use,
– Water-Cooled Package Unit such as restaurants,
offices.

Use in large
• Centralized systems commercial building
– Air cooled chilled water system such as office
– Water cooled chilled water system building, shopping
mall, hotel, hospital.
24
 6.1 Unitary systems

Expansion
Outdoor space Valve Indoor space

Warm Air Cooled Air

Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor

Window unit
25
 6.1 Unitary systems
Expansion
Valve

Warm Air Cooled Air

Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor

Condensing unit or Fan coil unit or

outdoor unit indoor unit

Single split unit 26

 6.1 Unitary systems

Expansion
Valve

Warm Air Cooled Air

E-6 Evaporator Evaporator

1 2
Compressor

Condensing unit or Fan coil unit 1 or Fan coil unit 2 or

outdoor unit indoor unit 1 indoor unit 2
Multi-split unit
27
 6.2 Package systems

Expansion
Ducted Valve
Outdoor Air

Cooled Air

Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor
Ducted
Warm Air

Air-cooled Package Unit 28

 6.2 Package systems

Source:
https://www.google.com.sg/search?q=com
mercial+building+singapore&hl=en&prmd

Source: Howstuffworks.com

29
 6.2 Package systems
Condenser Water Return
Cooling Tower (CWR)

Expansion
Valve

Condenser
Cooled Air

Evaporator
Condenser Water Supply
(CWS) Compressor

Water-cooled Package Unit 30

 6.3 Centralised Systems
• It is more economical to use centralized systems
are used in large commercial buildings.
• There are 4 major sections in centralized system
– Chiller
– Chilled water system
– Air system
– Heat dissipation

31
 6.3 Centralised Systems

Chiller
Chilled Water Supply Air Side:
(CHWS)
Ducted Expansion AHU or FCU
Outdoor Air Valve

Evaporator

AHU 1 AHU n FCUs

Condenser
Compressor
Ducted
Warm Air
Chilled Water Return
(CHWR)

Air-cooled Chilled Water System 32

Air- Cooled Chiller

33
 6.3 Centralised Systems

Condenser Water Return

Chiller
Cooling Tower (CWR)
Chilled Water Supply Air Side:
(CHWS) AHU or FCU
Expansion
Valve

Condenser Evaporator

AHU 1 AHU n FCUs

Condenser Water Supply

Compressor
(CWS)

Chilled Water Return

(CHWR)

Water - Cooled Chilled Water System

34
Water - Cooled Chiller

35
 6.3 Centralised Systems

Outdoor air Condenser Water Refrigerant Chilled Water Ducted cooled air

Warmed Cooling Cooled

Cooling
Air to Condenser Evaporator Coils at air to
Tower
outdoor Condenser Evaporator AHUs indoor

FCUs

Chiller
 6.3 Centralized System
Water cooled chilled water system
COOLING
TOWERS

CONDENSER
WATER
PIPING

CHILLERS

CHILLED
WATER
PIPING

CHILLED
WATER TO
LOCAL
FCU OR AHU
37
 We have discussed…
• Application of refrigeration cycle
• Various air conditioning systems
• Heat exchange stages (heat absorption and
heat rejection)

Next …
• Various type of chilled water systems.
• Various type of air delivery systems
• Various air distribution systems 38
 7. Chilled Water Systems
Types of Chilled Water Systems
• Constant flow
• Primary-Secondary circuits
• Variable Primary flow

39
7. Chilled Water System

40
 7. Chilled Water Systems
• Old CHW systems due to constraint in chiller
design that only cater constant flow.
• Not energy efficient due to fixed pump speed.
Cooling Tower
Chiller 1

Condenser 1 Evaporator 1

AHU AHU
Condenser 2 Evaporator 2
Bypass Bypass
valve valve

Condenser Water
Pumps Chiller 2 Constant Speed
Primary Pumps

Constant Flow Chilled Water System 41

 7. Chilled Water Systems
• Save more energy than constant flow system
due to VSD secondary pumps, however need
more pumps set. Variable Speed
Secondary Pumps
Cooling Tower
Chiller 1
Bypass
pipe
Condenser 1 Evaporator 1
Production Distribution
Loop Loop

AHU AHU
Condenser 2 Evaporator 2 Two way Two way
valve valve

Condenser Water
Pumps Chiller 2 Constant Speed
Primary Pumps

Primary-Secondary Chilled Water System

42
 7. Chilled Water Systems
• Energy efficient due to reduce in pump energy. However
chiller must be able to handle variable flow.

Cooling Tower
Chiller 1
Bypass
line
Condenser 1 Evaporator 1

Modulating AHU AHU

valve Two way
Condenser 2 Evaporator 2 Two way
Valve Valve

Condenser Water
Pumps Chiller 2 Variable Speed
Primary Pumps

Variable Primary Flow Chilled Water System

43
 8. Air Delivery Systems
• CHW flows through the cooling coil of
AHU(Air Handling Unit) or FCU( Fan Coil
Unit).
• Cooled air is distributed into the indoor
spaces via air ducts.
• There are various air systems, such as:
– Constant Air Volume (CAV) System
– Variable Air Volume (VAV) System
– Fan Coil Systems

44
AHU FCU

Installed beyond
Installed in AHU
False Ceiling
Room

45
 8. Air Delivery Systems
Constant Air Volume (CAV)
• Supply air flow rate is constant, but the supply
air temperature is varied to meet the thermal
loads of a space.
Outdoor
Fresh Air Mixed Air

CHWS

Supply Air
CHWR AHU

Room 1 Room 2

Exhaust Air Return Air

46
Constant Air Volume (CAV) System
 8. Air Delivery Systems
Variable Air Volume (VAV)
• The supply air flow rate is variable, but the
supply air temperature is maintain to meet the
thermal loads of a space.
Outdoor
Fresh Air Mixed Air

CHWS
Supply Air

VAV VAV
Box Box
CHWR AHU T T

Room 1 Room 2

Exhaust Air Return Air

47
Variable Air Volume (VAV) System
 8. Air Delivery Systems
Fan Coil Unit (FCU)
• Fan coil unit (FCU) is a simple device consisting
of a cooling coil and fan. It is used in cooling
smaller spaces as compare to AHU.
CHWS
CHWR

FCU FCU FCU

Room 1 Room 2 Room 3

Fan Coil Unit (FCU) System

48
 8. Air Delivery Systems
CHWS
CHWR
Outdoor
Fresh Air Mixed Air

CHWS
FCU FCU FCU
Room 1 Room 2 Room 3
Supply Air
CHWR AHU
Fan Coil Unit (FCU) System
Room 1 Room 2

Exhaust Air Return Air • Chilled water to every room

Constant Air Volume (CAV) System • Each room has a separate
• One AHU to many FCU (bigger room has >1
rooms. FCU).
• From AHU air duct to • better independent control
rooms
• Require less ceiling space
• control less effective,
but VAV can overcome 49
 9. Air Distribution

Airflow in spaces generally can be classified into

two types:
• mixing (or dilution)
• displacement

50
 9. Air Distribution
Mixing or Dilution systems:
• supply air is usually distributed from an Air Handling Unit
(AHU) or Fan Coiled Unit (FCU) at high velocity where the
entire room is fully mixed.
• inducing room air to provide mixing & temp equalization.
• most often, the air outlets (diffusers) and inlet (return grill) are
placed in the ceiling via air ducts.

Grill - return Diffuser – air supply outlet

51
www.architechweb.com
 9. Air Distribution
Displacement systems:
• air is brought into the room at low velocities to cause
minimal induction and mixing.
• compare to mixing system, this system has smaller fan
capacity, less energy usage.
• supply air outlets are usually located at or near the floor.
• heat is removed from the occupied zone to the return or
exhaust grilles which are placed at high-level.

www.energydesignresources.com

www.architechweb.com 52
Floor Diffuser

53
 10. Maintenance
Tripping of Air-conditioning Unit
1. High Pressure
• Refrigerant after compressor and before
expansion valve
• Condenser

2. Low Pressure
• Refrigerant after expansion valve and
before compressor
• Evaporator
54
 10. Maintenance
High pressure tripping of chiller
Results: Insufficient cooling
• Air lock in the condenser water system
• Condenser fins choked up
• Leaking of condenser water system
• Break down of condenser water pump
• Strainer choked at Cooling Tower or condenser water
pump
• Scale formation at the inner surface of the condenser
tubes
55
 10. Maintenance

Low Pressure Tripping

Results: Insufficient cooling
• Refrigerant leaking causing insufficient
refrigerant in system
• Power assembly broken
• Low or no water flow
• Insufficient cooling load - Chiller
56
 10. Maintenance
Air-lock In Condenser Water System
Result: inefficient heat dissipation
• Faulty auto purging valve
• Unbalance water level at the cooling towers

Improper starting sequence of Chilled Water

System
Result: Tripping of electrical system due to overload
• No electricity.
57
 10. Maintenance
Result:
Room Temp is Too Cold or Too Warm
• Thermostat temp set too low or too high
• VAV box faulty
• AHU temp set point too low or too high
• Over design or under design of air-conditioning system
• AHU fan did not start up
• Faulty Variable Speed Drive

58
 Appendix - Chiller
• The
refrigeration
cycle happens
within the
chiller.
• It consists of
evaporator,
compressor,
expansion valve
and condenser.
59
 Appendix--Chiller
Appendix Chiller
• At evaporator, heat exchanges between
refrigerant & chilled water (CHW).
• CHW flows to desire location to cool indoor
space, where heat is absorbed from indoor
environment. CHW pump ensure flow rate of
CHW is met.
 Appendix - Chiller

• At condenser, heat exchanges between

refrigerant and condenser water (CW).
• CW flows to cooling tower where heat is rejected
to outdoor environment. CW pump ensure flow
rate of CW is met.
 Appendix - Cooling Tower
• CW enters cooling tower (CT), &
is sprayed at top of CT.
• CT fan circulates air, & CW is
cooled.
• Cooled CW is collected at
bottom of CT & flows back to
chiller’s condenser.
• Circulation of CW is an open
loop, as water contacts with
outdoor environment.
Appendix - ACMV System

~End of Topic 3~

64