OTC 19824

Managing Contraction and Stress in an Ambient Pressure Insulated 9%Ni

Subsea Cryogenic Pipeline
C. Neal Prescott and Jeff Zhang, Fluor Offshore Solutions

Copyright 2009, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 4–7 May 2009.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.

Abstract
The interest and rapid development in the transportation of LNG world-wide has prompted a fresh-look at how LNG is
transferred to/from an LNG carrier that may be moored offshore in various locations. LNG subsea pipelines are emerging
technologies that are critical to a new generation of offshore LNG loading and unloading terminals. This paper addresses a
cost-effective pipe-in-pipe design configuration which uses ambient pressure, high efficiency aerogel insulation and high
strength 9% Nickel alloys to manage the contraction forces and stresses in an end restrained cryogenic pipeline system. The
paper discusses the derivation of stresses in the pipeline and how they compare to common industry codes and recommended
practices. The paper also discusses the welding development and qualifications of welding a 9% Nickel alloy steel pipe to
achieve the industry's first use of matched strength welds to the parent material, a significant technology breakthrough, with
suitable welding consumables and techniques successfully applied in other pipeline projects.

The design discussed is based on proven industry materials and components, which have been combined together to form a
new cost effective subsea LNG pipe-in-pipe configuration. The presentation discusses the review programs employed by ABS
and DNV to certify the technology for project applications, which led to the award of "Fit for Service" certifications.

Introduction
At terminals for loading or offloading LNG, the connection piping between the LNG tank and the loading arms can sometimes
be of significant length (several miles) so that the loading/offloading jetty structure can be at sufficient water depth for tanker
access. As discussed in Ref. 1, the connection piping is traditionally supported by a trestle (Figure 1), however new
technologies with subsea LNG pipeline have been developed in recent years (Figure 2) as an alternative.
Trestles have the disadvantage of high cost, potential interruption to coastal marine traffic, and security/safety concerns. A
number of trestle structures have been built around the world for LNG and LPG handling and the lengths of these facilities
range from a few hundred meters up to 10-km. The adjusted current costs of these facilities range from US$15 million / km to
US$54 million / km (US$23 million / mile to US$87 million / mile). The installed costs shown are for the structure only and
do not include the cost of the piping, which would be in addition. This represents a significant capital cost for a project,
especially in the event there is a need to extend the jetty offshore for some distance.
In a number of proposed LNG loading terminals at present, the trestles can block access to fishing boats along the coast.
In some of the world’s LNG exporting regions, a long trestle may also be susceptible to attacks by insurgents or terrorists. In
other areas, the location may have strong wind by cyclones or hurricanes which the trestle must be designed against.
A subsea pipeline can be used to transport the LNG from / to an offshore terminal thereby eliminating the need and cost
for a connecting trestle. With current subsea cryogenic pipeline designs, LNG can be efficiently transferred over distances of
up to 20 miles. Buried subsea pipelines are inherently safer from leaks and damage. The interruption to coastal marine traffic
is minimal, the exposure to environmental forces is much smaller than trestles, and the pipelines can be much better protected
against sabotage. In addition, having buried cryogenic piping may improve the thermal performance of the pipeline in hot
climates. By adding features such as real time monitoring of the performance of the pipeline for structural integrity, thermal
performance and leaks using fiber optic technology, the safety of the subsea pipeline can be further enhanced.
2 OTC 19824

Dredged Dredged 9-km

Turning Basin Ships Channel 1..2-km Rock Groin
Breakwater

Onshore Gas
Liquefaction Cryogenic Pipelines
Facility on 6-km trestle

Offshore
Loading
Terminal

Figure 1 - Typical LNG Loading Jetty with Breakwater

Dredged
Turning Basin Dredged 9-km
Ships Channel

Offshore
Onshore Gas Loading
Liquefaction Terminal
Facility
6-km
Cryogenic 1..2-km Rock
Pipelines Groin
Pipeline Breakwater
Restraint
(bulkhead)
Pipeline
Restraint
(bulkhead)

Figure 2 - Typical Subsea LNG Pipeline with Loading Jetty

Technology Description

Configuration
The present technology (patent pending)[2] is the culmination of Fluor Corporation (Fluor) conceptual designs, which
began in the 70’s with the design of a subsea LPG pipeline and which continued into the 80’s with their first subsea LNG
pipeline for an arctic LNG ship system. This new design, however, takes advantage of recent developments in insulation
materials and 9% Nickel steel pipe technology. The configuration has the following features,
• Pipe-in-Pipe Design. The pipe-in-pipe cross section is shown in Figure 3.
• High-strength 9% Ni steel pipe for the inner pipe. EisenBäu Kramer (EBK) has produced and tested 9% Ni line pipe with
85 ksi Specified Minimum Yield Strength.
• Carbon steel outer pipe with grades of X52 to X70.
• Nitrogen filled high-efficiency Aerogel insulation. Cabot Corporation’s Nanogel® Expansion Pack™ system was used in
the design to provide satisfactory insulation.
• Syntactic foam spacers to centralize the inner pipe within the outer pipe.
• Thermally efficient multiple-legged bulkheads connecting the inner pipe and outer pipe only at the ends of the pipelines
(one at each end).
• Annulus venting accessories
• Dry Nitrogen pressurized annular space to a pressure slightly higher than hydrostatic head for leak detection and
prevention.
• Fiber-optic monitoring system for continuous real-time leak and intrusion detection as well as fatigue and health
monitoring of the pipeline at critical locations such as the bulkheads, tie-in points and high-stress areas.
• Very simple overall configuration which incorporates proven fabrication and installation techniques developed in the
offshore industry over the last 20-years.
OTC 19824 3

Aerogel Insulation
(Cabot NanogelTM
Expansion PackTM)

Concrete Weight
ASTM 553 Type 1 Coating (if required)
(9% Ni Steel)
Product Pipe
External Carbon Steel
Casing Pipe (or 9% Ni
Steel if required)

Figure 3 – Fluor Subsea LNG Pipeline

Figure 4 – Typical Bulkhead Design

The bulkheads connect the inner pipe and the outer pipe, which acts as a structural column to resist the thermal contraction
on the inner pipe. In a variation of the configuration, the ends of the pipeline are anchored to the soil, reducing contraction to
the small deflection of the anchor under load. In either case, the inner pipe experiences stress since it can not contract freely.
Many types of subsea pipeline configurations are now being considered for use in offshore applications. A major
difference between the configurations is that some configurations use 36% Nickel steel, which has ultra-low thermal expansion
coefficient, to manage thermal contraction. While this is an effective means of thermal contraction management, the high cost
36% Nickel steel and its low strength are two major issues for subsea LNG pipeline application.

Cost Advantage
Table 1 compares the relative cost of several cryogenic pipe materials. It is obvious that the 9% Ni steel based pipeline
would be at much lower cost than 36% Ni steel based pipeline. 316L stainless steel is about the same cost per unit weight as
9% Ni steel, but it is not suitable for subsea pipeline use since it has low strength combined with regular thermal expansion
coefficient. In addition, since the design pressure in LNG pipelines are not high (a typical design value is 25 barg), and pipe
sizes are large (24” to 36” or even larger), the wall thickness selection is frequently controlled by fabrication and installation
considerations rather than service conditions. The higher strength of 9% Ni steel means thinner pipe wall will be needed than
with 36% Ni steel, further the cost advantage. In the current design with 9% Ni steel, a typical wall thickness of 0.375” is used
for inner pipe size of 24” to 32”, and the wall thickness is reduced or increased depending on the pipe size, water depth, and
other design factors.
Taking advantage of the high strength of 9% Ni steel pipe, the pipe wall thickness can be easily selected for the pipe to be
safe from handling damages, collapsing under hydrostatic pressure, buckling and other risks during fabrication and
installation, without the special design features which may be needed if 36% Ni steel is used to compensate for its lower
strength. In addition, it is much easier with 9% Ni steel pipe than 36% Ni pipe for the weld to be close to the pipe on thermal
expansion coefficient, therefore eliminating the potential thermal stress concentration around the weld locations.
Figure 5 shows that, for an example offloading terminal, the subsea pipelines are all at lower cost than the trestle and the
cryogenic piping on the trestle. It also shows that the 9% Nickel steel pipeline discussed in this paper has significantly lower
cost than the 36% Nickel steel pipelines.
4 OTC 19824

Table 1 - Relative Cost by Unit Weight and Yield Strength Comparisons of Materials

Yield Strength Yield Strength

Relative Cost
Material (MPa) (MPa)
(January 2009) o
@0 C @ -196oC
TM
36% Ni (Invar or other) 14 270 650

316L Stainless Steel 5 250 400

9% Ni Steel 6 585 847

API X52 Carbon Steel 1 359

60%
Trestle + Polyfoam

36% Ni Subsea P/L

25% - 45%
Present

Figure 5 – Cost Comparison of Trestle System and Subsea LNG Pipelines. 7 KM long, dual pipelines. Fluor
and 3rd party estimates.

Technical Issues
The development of current technology focused on the following key technical issues,
• Contraction and Stress
• Pipe Material and Welding
• Bulkhead Mechanical Integrity
• Insulation
Recent technology developments on pipeline configurations, and material suppliers, have enabled satisfactory resolutions
of all issues, leading to the project readiness of the technology. American Bureau of Shipping issued a Fit for Service
certificate, and Det Norske Veritas issued a Fitness for Service certificate in 2008 after thorough reviews of the tests,
engineering design, analysis, risk assessments, and other required elements for the certification processes.

To protect the 9% Ni steel pipe during transportation and storage against corrosion, Fluor has worked with a pipe coating
supplier to develop an anti-corrosion coating that maintains its adhesiveness and integrity under cryogenic conditions. Initial
Cryogenic tests of the coating have shown it to be satisfactory.
OTC 19824 5

Contraction and Stress

The current technology utilizes an approach of limiting contraction by managing the stress, instead of avoiding stress
which has been conventional in onshore/trestle LNG piping. Due to the resistance by the outer pipe, virtual anchoring effect by
both the soil for the outer pipe and the insulation for inner and outer pipe, and/or pipeline end anchors, the pipeline contraction
is reduced to a small value. The pipe-in-pipe subsea LNG pipelines are generally large and heavy, enhancing to the soil
friction effect to reduce contraction. As will be discussed in the Case Study section below, the contraction can be easily
accommodated by a small expansion loop or the connection piping at the at the pipeline ends.
Since contraction of the LNG carrier pipe is restrained, thermal stress exists in the pipe. At the fully restrained locations,
the tensile stress is 56 ksi (386 MPa) or less in the pipeline, combining the thermal stress and the tensile stress due to internal
pressure. This is 66% of the 85 ksi (586 MPa) Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) of the 9% Ni pipe, meeting the
requirements of pipeline design codes, ASME B31.4 and DNV OS F-101, which limits the tensile stress to 80% of SMYS. The
hoop stress is much smaller, well within the code limit of 72% SMYS.
While conventional LNG piping design uses much lower percentage of SMYS by accommodating thermal contraction with
expansion loops, it is common in oil and gas pipelines, as well as high temperature liquid pipelines, to optimize wall thickness
and material by meeting the code limit on stress very closely. One example of thermally induced stress is the Shell Caroline
sulfur pipeline in Canada[3], where the pipeline was designed to 72% SMYS for thermally induced axial stress, and 90%
SMYS for combined stress from thermal and internal pressure effects.
The stresses in the bulkheads and the mechanical integrity impact were also thoroughly studied. As will be shown in Case
Study, the stresses in the bulkheads were determined to be within the code allowable limits. ASME Pressure Vessel and Boiler
Code, Section VIII, Division 2 was an applicable code for the bulkheads. The pipeline design codes were applicable to tubular
configurations, thus not suitable for the bulkheads. Fatigue, brittle fracture, and buckling checks all proved to be satisfactory.

Pipe Material and Welding

Among the enablers for the present subsea LNG pipeline technology are the breakthrough in 9% Ni steel pipe
manufacturing, and the qualification of the welding procedure for 9% Ni steel pipe which possess the required properties, such
as matching strength to the pipe and satisfactory CVN values at cryogenic service temperature. EisenBäu Kramer (EBK) has
developed a proprietary welding procedure, which has been qualified by ABS and DNV for longitudinal and girth welding.
The welding procedure has achieved the following specifications:

• Applicable Standard: ASME IX and ASME B31.3.

• Pipe Size and Material: 16"-42" OD, 0.250"-0.750" WT. ASTM A671 Class 52 Grade CH100 pipe or similar equivalent
9% nickel steel pipe with 85 KSI minimum yield strength and 100 KSI minimum tensile strength.
• Weld Consumables: To match or overmatch yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility level of pipe. (-0, + 15%
nominal).
• NDE Method: 100% Radiography or Automatic Ultrasonic
• Other Requirements including limit on the mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients between the weld and the pipe
materials.

The pipe will be delivered to the project site in 40-ft (12-m) standard lengths where it will be assembled into pipeline
strings on-site using EBK’s proprietary girth welding procedure and automatic welding machines. Figures 6 and 7 shows the
pipe in production, and cross sectional images of the welds[4].

Figure 6 – 9%Ni steel line pipe with matched strength welds. Photo: Courtesy of EBK.
6 OTC 19824

longitudinal weld girth weld

Figure 7 – 9%Ni steel pipe welds. Photo: Courtesy of EBK.

Bulkheads
Double wall bulkheads are located at either end of the pipeline. These bulkheads connect the inner and outer pies to form a
sealed annulus. The bulkhead material is to be manufactured from 9%Ni steel. The bulkheads can be forged and machined at
a specialty manufacturing facility such as Brück Pipeconnections of the Nederlands who have confirmed that the bulkheads
can be made in 2-piece design shown in Figure 4. A forging procedure has been developed to ensure the material properties of
the forged 9% Ni pieces meet the requirement. The conical sections are forged only, with no welding. The two pieces will be
welded together, and the pieces will be welded to the inner and outer pipe. A short section of 9% Ni pipe is used on the outer
pipe to be welded to the bulkhead. A carbon steel pipe section is welded to the 9% Ni pipe. The 9% Ni pipe section is long
enough for the 9% Ni – CS weld to be always at 0oC or higher temperature. Outside the outer pipe, insulation is installed
between the bulkhead and an outside cover pipe, to prevent ice formation.
The dimensions of the bulkhead is chosen so that the stress and fatigue life are within the design limit.

Insulation
Aerogel, which is used in the subsea LNG pipeline configuration to provide high efficiency insulation under ambient
pressure, has a long history as summarized below,
1931: Aerogel invented by Dr. Steven Kistler
1950: Monsanto commercialized an aerogel under trade name Santocell. Exited business in 1970 because of high
production costs using old manufacturing method.
1950: First patent issued on use of aerogel for cryogenic storage tank by Air Products
1961: Patent issued to Chicago Bridge & Iron for aerogel in cryogenic storage tanks
1996: NASA uses aerogel for thermal insulation on Mars spacecraft
1996-1998: New cost-efficient aerogel manufacturing processes developed by Cabot and others
2004: Aerogel first used in deepwater subsea oil pipelines
2008: Cabot Nanogel Compression Packs were used for world's longest aerogel-insulated subsea tieback in US Gulf
of Mexico (Helix Danny project)
The aerogel packaging selected for the subsea LNG pipeline is Cabot Corporation’s Nanogel® Aerogel Expansion Pack™
insulation system, which is similar to the Compression Packs but without the polyethylene backing. Figures 8 and 9 shows the
packs and the deployment process. The material will be manufactured in bulk form in Cabot’s German manufacturing facility
and shipped to the site in bulk containers where they will be made into packaged units utilizing molds and a vacuum process in
a controlled assembly building established for that purpose. The Nanogel® Expansion Packs™ are manufactured in a mold
with a given level of material, which allows relatively tight tolerances to be achieved in the creation of the packs. The packs
are manufactured starting with bags filled with loose aerogel beads at a thickness 25% more than pipe-in-pipe annulus gap
size, the vacuum process molds the bags to a C shell shape with thickness about 1 inch less than the pipe-in-pipe annulus gap
size. After the packs are strapped onto the inner pipe for the length of a whole pipe string (500 m – 1000 m in length), heating
wires are attached to the outer surface of the packs to cover from end to end on the pipe string. The inner pipe and the
insulation are pulled into the outer pipe. Subsequently dry nitrogen was blown through the annlus to replace the original air.
The bags are breached by heating the wire. Nitrogen permeates the pore space in the annulus. The annulus pressure will be
increased to slightly above the hydrostatic pressure through the annulus venting tubes once the pipeline is installed.
Extensive tests were performed to confirm that the insulation maintains its thermal performance and mechanical integrity
throughout the design life under the expected service conditions. These include vibration, cyclic large scale compression,
aging, cryogenic liquid submersion, etc. Figure 10 is an example showing that the aerogel beads maintains its shape after
500,000 cycles of 0.5g vibration by a scaled weight element. The bags were cut open after the test to measure various
properties of the aerogel beads, which proved to be very close to the measurements before they were packaged and tested.
OTC 19824 7

Figure 8 – Nanogel® Aerogel Expansion Pack™ insulation system.

Figure 9 – Installation of Nanogel® Aerogel Expansion Pack™ insulation.

Figure 10 – Vibration test on Nanogel® Expansion Pack™.

Case Study
A Case Study was performed for the subsea LNG pipeline technology to be applied to an LNG loading terminal. The LNG
plant and the storage tanks are located on the coast near a river mouth. The water depth increases very gradually to 8 m LAT at
about 8 km away from the coast, where the loading jetty will be built. LNG tankers navigate along a dredged channel to this
location. The subsea LNG pipelines connect with the piping onshore and on the offshore jetty. Figure 11 shows the field
layout.
There are also a number of other subsea pipelines and cables in addition to the LNG pipelines (Figure 12):
• LNG Pipelines (2)
• LPG Pipelines (2)
• LPG Cool-Down Pipeline
• LNG BOG Return Pipeline
8 OTC 19824

• Utilities Pipelines (10)

• Power and Communication Cables (2)
The LNG pipelines are 32” X 44” pipe-in-pipe design, with 9% Ni steel pipe for the LNG carrier (inner pipe), and X65
carbon steel for the casing (outer pipe). Nanogel® Expansion Pack™ are used as insulation, with spacers at centralize the
inner pipe. Two bulkheads are used, one at the shore end and the other at the offshore riser base. The pipelines are buried at
least 1 m from the top of the concrete coating.

8 KM

Figure 11 – Field Layout for the Subsea LNG Pipeline Case Study.

Figure 12 – Pipelines and typical bundle arrangement. Cross sections at spacers are shown.

Pipeline End Structures and Anchors

The LNG pipelines are anchored at both ends to restrict the contraction at low temperatures. At the onshore end, the LNG
pipelines are anchored to a concrete foundation supported on driven vertical and battered steel piles. The battered piles are
used to resists the large lateral loads and to limit horizontal displacement of foundations. Small expansion loops are
constructed between the anchor and the battery limit for the pipelines to accommodate the remaining contraction, as shown in
Figure 13. At the offshore end, a platform is built to host the risers and connection piping. The pipeline anchors at the riser
base, or pipeline end termination structures (PLETS), which are made of steel frames (Figure 13), restrict the contraction and
transfer the thermal load from the pipeline to the soil by four vertical piles.
The anchors are designed to withstand the load corresponding to no contraction at service temperature, with a typical value
of 10,675 KN (2,400 kips). In actual service conditions, the loads on the anchors are smaller than the above values because the
anchor piles will deflect slightly under load, such as 84 mm (3.3 inches) at top of the pipes under 10,675 KN load at the
offshore PLETs. This allows some in the inner pipeline contraction to occur thus reduces the thermal stress in the inner pipe,
and also allows some of the pipeline contraction force to be transferred to the casing pipe. Both effects will reduce the load on
the anchor.
Sensitivity studies for contraction and stress without pipeline anchors showed that the LNG pipelines do not have huge
contractions due to the effect of the casing pipe resisting the contraction, and the soil friction on these large pipelines. For
example, for buried pipelines with filled with LNG, contraction at the offshore end without PLET is 200 mm. This indicates
that it is possible for the tie-in piping to be designed to accommodate the contraction without the primary anchors.
OTC 19824 9

Onshore
Offshore

Figure 13 – Pipeline end structures and anchors.

Pipeline Monitoring System

A fiber-optic pipeline monitoring system was designed on the cryogenic pipelines to provide high sensitivity monitoring of
the pipeline:
• Multiple Redundancies for Highly Reliability Temperature Measurements along Pipeline
• Leak Detection by Temperature and Annulus Pressure
• Intrusion Detection
• Bulkhead Monitoring
• PLET Monitoring
The small tubes installed in the annulus can be used both monitoring the annulus pressure for leak detection, but also for
annulus venting and drying/re-pressurization after pipeline repair.

Thermal Hydraulic Performance

The pipeline configuration provided satisfactory thermal performance. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 0.107
W/m2/K including spacer effect. Transient simulations showed that commissioning can be completed within one week
duration. During shutdown, it takes one month for the pipeline to naturally warm up. Purging with LNG boil off gas or
nitrogen from the offshore end can expedite warm-up.
Finite element analysis of heat transfer at the bulkheads shows them to be free from freezing on the outside, and that the
carbon steel pipe sections at the bulkheads do not encounter damaging low temperature. The impact of the bulkhead on overall
heat gain is insignificant since only two are used. Finite element analysis showed that the spacers increased the overall heat
transfer coefficient by about 10% from that at the main pipeline cross section; however the outer pipe temperature is much
higher than 0oC (Figure 14), indicating the pipe is free from low temperature damage.

Figure 14. Temperature (oF) on outer pipe surface at and near spacers.
10 OTC 19824

Pipeline Contraction and Stress

The contraction of the pipeline between the end anchors and the resulted stress were analyzed with ABAQUS finite
element analysis software, which takes into account the pipe-in-pipe configuration, insulation friction, soil effect, and pipeline
elevation profile. In addition to the 8 km long, 32” X 44” LNG pipeline in the Case Study, parametric studies for the following
conditions were conducted:
• LNG pipe size from 16” to 48”
• LNG pipe wall thickness from 0.25” to 1.00”
• Pipeline length from 0.5 to 30 km
• Water depth from up to 50 m
• Onshore end anchored and not anchored
• Offshore end anchored and not anchored
• Pipeline buried, partially buried, and not buried
• Full and empty pipe, both at LNG temperature

The results showed that for all the parameters studied, the contractions are acceptable and the stresses are with the code
allowable limit. In addition, cryogenic uplifting of the pipeline at beach crossing, where the pipeline curvature is the smallest,
is insignificant. One example is shown in Figure 15, for the Case Study pipeline configuration but without offshore anchor.
The results are:
• Max inner pipe stress 374 MPa 64% SMYS
• Max outer pipe stress 106 MPa 24% SMYS
• Offshore end displacement 200 mm
• Onshore anchor displacement 62 mm
• Onshore anchor load 4351 kN
• Max vertical displacement 15 mm

The onshore and offshore connection piping for the Case Study pipeline configuration was analyzed with AUTOPIPE,
which showed that the connection piping can accommodate the expected contraction.

380
Stress (MPa)

360
340 Inner Pipe Stress
Onshore end anchored; Offshore end free
320
300
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
X Distance (m)
Figure 15. Stress under LNG service conditions. 32”X44” LNG Pipeline, Onshore Anchored, Offshore Free

LNG Pipeline Bulkhead

Extensive mechanical integrity assessment was performed on the LNG pipeline bulkhead. Stress limit, fatigue life, brittle
fracture, and buckling risks were checked against applicable design code or design basis requirements. Table 2 summaries the
results, which show that the bulkhead configuration satisfies the requirements with large margin.

Stress
Conservative estimate of the stresses in the bulkhead was determined with ANSYS finite element analysis software. The
boundary conditions used fixed the left side of the inner pipe (Figure 16) and the right side of the outer pipe. This creates
larger stress than the physical situation since the bulkhead is more restrained in its ability to deform at low temperature. Figure
16 shows the stresses (linearized membrane and bending stresses) are within the ASME code (Section VIII, Division 2) limits.
The maximum peak stress occurs at the location where the conical section connects to the outer pipe; however the stress is not
used by the code, instead it will be used in fatigue life analysis to be discussed below).
OTC 19824 11

Table 2. LNG Pipeline Bulkhead – Compliance with Design Codes and Design Requirements

Issue Analysis Results Applicable Codes/Notes

Pipe Stress - Max Stresses: ASME B31.4
Longitudinal Inner Pipe = 374 MPa (64% SMYS) Allowable = 80% SMYS
Outer Pipe = 120 MPa (27% SMYS)
Bulkhead Stress Max. Stress = 359 MPa ASME Sec VIII Div 2
Allowable = 3 X Sm = 100 ksi (690 MPa)
Membrane+ Bending Stresses
Small local plastic region allowed per code
Fatigue Min fatigue life: ASME Sec VIII, Appendices 4 and 5
Bulkhead 8996 Full thermal cycles Fatigue life conservatively based on carbon steel
>> Design requirement (100 cycles or less) curve.
Brittle Fracture Bulkhead radius: API 579
0.1875” deep defect allowed Bulkhead radius:
K1 = 59.2 ksi*in1/2 Allowable K1C = 105 ksi* in1/2
Bulkhead welds:
Bulkhead welds: Allowable K1C = 70 ksi* in1/2
0.09375” deep defect allowed at inner pipe
K1 = 59.2 ksi* in1/2
Buckling of Split Max stresses: ASME Code Case 2286
Sleeve Split sleeve = 74 MPa compression Max Allowable Stresses:
No buckling risk Split Sleeve = 300 MPa (local)
299 MPa (column)

Results - Full Model

Results – Partial Model

Figure 16. Finite Element Analysis results on LNG pipeline bulkhead.

12 OTC 19824

Buckling
Buckling checks were performed for both the split sleeves on the bulkhead (using ANSYS FEA analysis results), and the
main outer pipe (using the ABAQUS analysis results for the main pipeline). For the split sleeves, the maximum compressive
stress is 10817 psi, well below the design code limit of 43308 psi. For the main outer pipe, the maximum value of the left hand
side of Equation 5.23, DNV OS F-101 (2000) is 0.34 in all cases studied, much less than the limit of 1. Therefore, there is no
buckling risk in either the split sleeves or the main outer pipe along the pipeline.

Brittle Fracture Calculation

Brittle fracture analysis of the LNG bulkhead was performed per API 579. The bulkhead radius and LNG pipe-to-bulkhead
weld are critical areas due to the high local stresses and low temperature. For each component, an external 360o
circumferential flaw was assumed with a flaw depth equal to one-fourth the thickness of the component for the Liquefied
Natural Gas service. This is conservative, since the welds will be fully inspected prior to service with acceptance criteria well
below this crack threshold. In addition, a factor of 2.0 is applied at the welds for the LNG service. The 2.0 is applied to the
largest surface stress to represent a discontinuity at or near the surface of the weld. The analysis results (Table 3) showed that
the pipe and the welds should meet the following requirement: minimum average Charpy energy shall be 40 foot-pounds and
individual test specimen minimum value shall be 33 foot-pounds. Both have been satisfactorily achieved by EBK.

Table 3. Brittle Fracture Calculation Results

Crack K1 K1C CVN

Component OD (in) t (in) T (°F)
Size (in) (ksi·√in) (ksi·√in) (ft·lbs)
Bulkhead Radius 37.0 0.75 0.1875 20 59.16 105 73
Inner Pipe 32.0 0.375 0.09375 -256 59.18 70 33
Mid Bulkhead 32.5 0.75 0.1875 -256 53.48 70 33
Bulkhead
Mid Leg 38.0 0.75 0.1875 -93 40.42 70 33
Welds
Outer Casing 44.0 0.75 0.1875 37 0.112 70 33
Outer Pipe 44.0 0.75 0.1875 53 24.72 53 20

Fatigue Life
The cyclic loading is due to switching from full operation to complete shut down or full operation to recirculation. A
fatigue analysis per ASME Section VIII Division 2 was done to assess fatigue damage. No stress concentration factor (SCF) is
applied since a full 2D axisymmetric solid model includes the complete geometry. A fatigue strength reduction factor (FSRF)
of 2.0 was applied to all the welds. The carbon steel curve is used to calculate the number of cycles based on the magnitude
of the alternating stress determined from the FEM analysis. The fatigue results are presented in Table 4. Fatigue from both
full shutdown and recirculation is considered. In the former, the pipeline is assumed to completely warm up to the ambient
temperature, and cools down to LNG temperature after start-up/restart, therefore represent a severe cyclic loading event. Table
4 shows the cycles to failure are 8996, much larger than the design criterion.

Table 4. Fatigue Life Analysis Results

Maximum Stress Number of

Location FSRF Cycle Cycles to Failure
Range (psi) Design Cycles
Start-Up/Shut-Down 84665 10 12326
Bulkhead Radius 1.0
Recirculation 8517 3176 below endurance limit
Bulkhead/Casing Start-Up/Shut-Down 19460 10 97392
2.0
Pipe Weld Recirculation 2390 3176 below endurance limit
Bulkhead/Inner Pipe Start-Up/Shut-Down 54450 10 8996
2.0
Weld Recirculation 5307 3176 below endurance limit

Fabrication and Installation

The subsea pipelines are proposed to be fabricated and installed by the bottom pull method of installation. Figure 11
illustrated the general arrangement for fabrication and installation. Figures 17 and 18
Bottom pull methods have been used in the upstream oil and gas industry for decades and are considered proven
technology. The pipeline is fabricated onshore into strings and assembled into one continuous pipeline during the pipe-pull
operations by performing tie-in welds of the strings at an onshore tie-in welding station near the land-water interface.
The pipelines will be pulled offshore by a special purpose pipe-pull barge equipped with pull winches similar to the above
illustration and connected to the pipeline with a pull wire or synthetic rope. The barge will be moored along the pipeline route
with an anchor system, which includes special hold-back anchors to take the pull forces. The pipelines will be pulled along a
OTC 19824 13

launch rail that transfers the pipeline from the fabrication and make-up area by means of wheeled supports designed to cradle
the pipelines during the transport. The barge locations are approximately 4.5 KM and 8.5 KM from the shoreline, respectively,
for the first several pulls of a pipeline and the remainder.
The pipelines will be installed in a pre-trenched pipeline corridor, which is reinforced at the land-water interface with a
sheet pile cofferdam that keeps the trench open in the wave influenced zone and protects the pipeline during its transition from
land into the water. A series of gang or track-rollers will be employed at the cofferdam area to ensure the pipeline is supported
until it reaches full submersion in the water. Temporary buoyancy modules will be added to the pipeline before it reaches the
water to lighten the pipeline to achieve a submerged weight that can be installed by the pull-barge while still maintaining
enough weight for stability during the pull operations.
At the offshore tie-in point, a Pipeline End Termination Structure (PLETs) will be installed, which will incorporate the
pipeline riser connecting to an offshore Riser Platform. The topsides piping on the Riser Platform will be connected to the
offshore Marine Terminal through connecting trestles. The PLETs will be designed to be fixed to the seabed with piling
thereby preventing movements caused by thermal expansion and / or contraction. Installation of these structures will be
accomplished by an offshore heavy-lift barge following procedures common in the offshore upstream oil & gas industry.

Conclusions
Technology breakthrough on welding has enabled the application of 9% Ni steel in subsea LNG pipelines. Longitudinal and
girth welding procedures to match the plate properties have been tested and qualified. The welding procedures also satisfy the
Charpy value and other requirements. A Case Study has been performed to assess the application of the ambient pressure
insulated 9%Ni steel subsea LNG pipelines to an LNG loading terminal where the loading jetty is 8 km from shore. The study
showed that
• The stresses in the LNG pipe and bulkheads satisfy design codes with significant margins
• Contraction are acceptable
• Fatigue life is 900 times the number of thermal cycles likely to be encountered
• Thermal performance is satisfactory
Compared with both the trestle system and 36% Ni steel based subsea pipelines, the present 9% Ni steel pipeline technology
provides significant cost advantage. The pipeline technology has received Fit for Service certifications from ABS and DNV,
confirming that it is ready for project use.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Fluor Corporation management for the permission to publish this paper. Grateful
acknowledgement is given to Eisenbau Kramer for the development of their pipeline and welding manufacturing processes for
the 9%Ni used for the cryogenic pipeline solution and for their permission to publish information pertaining to this
technology. Grateful acknowledgement is also given to Brück Pipeconnections for manufacturing and assembly technology
used in the 9%Ni bulkheads and to Cabot Corporation for the development of their high efficiency Nanogel® Aerogel
insulation system used in the qualification testing program, and their permission to publish information pertaining to their
technology. Grateful acknowledgement is also given to Astro Technology, Inc. for their support in developing the monitoring
system. Last but not least, our gratitude goes to our colleagues at Fluor Corporation for their contributions and constructive
comments while writing this paper.

References
[1] OTC 18542, “Update on Subsea LNG Pipeline Technology”, Tom Phalen, C. Neal Prescott, Jeff Zhang, Tony Findlay,
Offshore Technology Conference, May 2007, Houston, Texas.
[2] US Patent Office Provisional Application No. 60/556535, Cryogenic Pipeline Configurations and Methods, Fluor –
Clifford Prescott and Jeff Zhang
[3] “A Long Buried Liquid Sulphur Pipeline with Hot Water Heat Tracing”, J.E. Lawrence et al, Pages 103-118, Proceedings
of Sulphur 96, October 1996, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
[4] Stainless Steel World America 2008, Houston, 9-10 September 2008, Paper PS08040