Chapter 1

Scientific Research
1. Concepts of Research
2. Characteristics of scientific method
3. Research Procedures
4. Sectors of Research: Academic and
Private
5. Types of research
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 Concepts of Research
Theory: is a set of statements that explain a set of phenomena.
Hypothesis: is a testable statement derived from a theory.
✓A hypothesis is not a theory!
Research isn’t information gathering:
Gathering information from resources such as books or magazines isn’t research.
➢No contribution to new knowledge.
Research isn’t the transportation of facts:

➢Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesn’t constitute research.

➢No contribution to new knowledge although this might make existing knowledge
more accessible.
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 Definition
➢Scientific research may be defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed/assumed relations among observed phenomena.
Research is;
➢“…the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about
which we are concerned or interested.”
Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard
protocol.
Research: is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to
answer a certain question or solve a problem.
A process of generation of new information and testing of ideas.
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 Cont…
Systematic – ordered, planned and disciplined

•Follows clear procedure, well structured plan with specific objectives.

Controlled – Chance has no place in scientific research all actions and

observations are controlled through well- defiend methods and rules.

Empirical – putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to a test.

Critical – many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of
subsequent research.

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 Cont….
All research begins with a basic question or proposition about a specific phenomenon. For
example:

✓Why do viewers select one television program over another?

✓What sections of the newspaper do people read most often?

✓What types of magazine covers attract the widest number of readers?

✓Which types of advertising are most effective in selling specific types of products?

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 Cont…
➢Each of these questions could be answered to some degree with a well-
designed research study.

➢The difficulty, in many cases, is to determine which type of study, or which

method of collecting data, is most appropriate to answer the specific
question(s).

➢The user of the method of tenacity(tradition) follows the logic that

something is true because it has always been true. The basic idea is that
nothing changes; what was good, bad, or successful before will continue to be
so in the future. It is old belief or myth w/c is untested opinion.
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 Cont….
➢In the method of intuition (“gut” feeling), the a priori approach, one assumes
that Something is true because it is "self-evident" /obvious or "stands to
reason."

➢The method of authority/experts seeks to promote belief in something because

a trusted source, such as a relative, news correspondent, or teacher, says it is
true. The emphasis is on the source, not on the methods the source may have
used to gain the information.

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 Cont….
➢The scientific method approaches learning as a series of small steps. That is,

one study or one source provides only an indication of what may or may not be

true; the truth is found only through a series of objective analyses.

➢This means that the scientific method is self-correcting in that changes in

thought or theory are appropriate when errors in previous research are

uncovered.

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 1.1 Characteristics of scientific method
➢There are five basic characteristics, or tenets, distinguishes the scientific
method from other methods of knowing.
1.Scientific research is public,2. Science is objective , 3. Science is empirical ,
4. Science is systematic and cumulative , 5. Science is predictive
➢A research approach that does not follow these tenets cannot be considered to
be a scientific approach.

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 I. Scientific research is public:
➢ Scientific advancement depends on freely available information. A researcher especially in the academic sector,
cannot plead/beg private knowledge, method, or data in arguing for the accuracy of his or her findings; scientific
research information must be freely communicated from one researcher to an other.
➢ Researcher, therefore, must take a great care in published reports to include information on their use of sampling
methods, measurements, and data gathering procedures. Such information allows other researchers to verify
independently a given study and to support or refute/disprove the initial research findings.

➢Researchers also need to save their descriptions of observations (data) and their research materials
so that information not included in a formal report can be made available to other researchers on
request.

➢It is common practice to keep all raw research material for 5 years. This material is usually provided
free as a courtesy to other researchers or for a nominal fee if photocopying or additional materials are
required.
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 II. Science is objective:

➢Science tries to rule out/find eccentricities of judgment by researchers.

➢When a study is undertaken, explicit rules and procedures are constructed and the
researcher is bound to follow them, letting the chips/imperfections fall where they
may.

➢Rules for classifying behavior are used so that two or more independent observers
can classify particular patterns of behavior in the same manner.

➢For example, if the attractiveness of a television commercial is being measured,

researchers might count the number of times a viewer switches channels while the
commercial is shown.
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 Cont….
➢This is considered to be an objective measure because a change in channel

would be reported by any competent observer.

➢Conversely, to measure attractiveness by observing how many people make

negative facial expressions while the advertisement is shown would be a
subjective approach, since observers may have different ideas of what
constitutes a negative expression.

➢Objectivity also requires that scientific research deal with facts rather than
interpretations of facts. Science rejects its own authors if their statements are
in conflict with direct observation. 12
 III. Science is empirical:

➢Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and

potentially measurable.

➢They must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to
reject metaphysical/abstract and nonsensical explanations of events.

➢For example, a newspaper publisher's claim that declining

subscription rates are "God's will" would be rejected by scientists —
such a statement cannot be perceived, classified, or measured.
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 Cont….
➢This does not mean that scientists avoid abstract ideas and notions -
they encounter them every day. But they recognize that concepts
must be strictly defined to allow for observation and measurement.

➢Scientists must link abstract concepts to the empirical world

through observations, which may be observed either directly or
indirectly via various measurement instruments. Typically this
linkage is accomplished by framing an operational definition.
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 IV. Science is systematic and cumulative:

➢No single research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall by itself.

➢Smart researchers always utilize previous studies as building blocks for their
own work.

➢One of the first steps taken in conducting research is to review the available
scientific literature on the topic so that the current study will draw on the
heritage/history of past research.

➢This review is valuable for identifying problem areas and important factors
that might be relevant to the current study. 15
 Cont….
➢In addition, scientists attempt to search for order and consistency among their findings.
In its ideal form, scientific research begins with a single, carefully observed event and
progresses ultimately to the formulation of theories and laws.
➢A theory is a set of related propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena
by specifying relationships among concepts.
➢Researchers develop theories by searching for patterns of uniformity to explain the
data that have been collected.
➢When relationships among variables are invariant under given conditions; that is, when
the relationship is always the same, researchers may formulate a law.
➢Both theories and laws help researchers search for and explain consistency in behavior,
situations, and phenomena.
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 V. Science is predictive
➢Science is concerned with relating the present to the future. (eg.
climate change)
➢In fact, scientists attempt to develop theories because, for one
reason, they are useful in predicting behavior.
➢A theory's adequacy lies in its ability to predict a phenomenon or
event successfully.
➢If a theory suggests predictions that are not borne out by data
analysis, that theory must be carefully reexamined and perhaps
discarded.
➢Conversely, if a theory generates predictions that are supported by
the data, that theory can be used to make predictions in other
situations. 17
 1.2. Research Procedures

➢The use of the scientific method of research is intended to

provide an objective, unbiased evaluation of data.

➢To investigate research questions and hypotheses

systematically, both academic and private sector researchers
follow a basic eight- step developmental chain of procedures.
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 Cont….
➢However, merely following the eight research steps does not guarantee that

the research is good, valid, reliable or useful.

➢An almost countless number of intervening variables (influences) can destroy

even the most well-planned research project.

➢It's similar to someone assuming he or she can bake a cake just by following

the recipe. The cake may be ruined by an oven that doesn't work properly,

spoiled ingredients, high or low altitude, or numerous other problems.

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 Cont…
The typical eight-step research process includes:
1. Select a problem.

2. Review existing research and theory (when relevant).

3. Develop hypotheses or research questions.

4. Determine an appropriate methodology/research design.

5. Collect relevant data.

6. Analyze and interpret the results.

7. Present the results in appropriate form.

8. Replicate the study (when necessary).

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 Formulating a research problem
What is a research problem?

• The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.

• Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of
either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
At a minimum, a problem statement should include :
• What is the problem or defect ?
• Where is the problem ?
• Why is it important to work on this problem ?
Problem statements can be formatted as a bulleted list or as paragraph:
• What is the problem : High defect rates
• Where is the problem : Assembly Line 1
• Why is it so important: Reducing defects is critical to improve customer satisfaction.
 How Do We Know We Have A Research Problem?
• Customer complaints
• Conversation with company employees
• Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions in the
firm
• Deviation from the business plan
• Success of the firm’s competitor’s
• Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
• Company records and reports.
 The step in the research process
The first step in the research process – definition of the problem
involves two activities:
1. Identification / Selection of the Problem
This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of
one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain
selection criteria.
2. Formulation of the Problem
Formulation of a research problem means to state the problem in a
way that is researchable. It means to shape the research topic in a
manner that it becomes ready for scientific investigation.
 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
• Reading
• Academic Experience
• Daily Experience
• Exposure to Field Situations
• Consultations
• Brainstorming
• Research
• Awareness
Technique involved in defining a problem are:
• Statement of the problem define in a general way
• Understanding the nature of the problem

• Surveying the available literature

• Developing the ideas through discussions
• Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition
The characteristics of a very good research problem
• The problem is significant
• The problem will lead further research
• The problem is researchable (it can be investigated
through the collection of data)
• The problem is suitable (it is interesting and suits
the researchers skills and available resource
• The problem is ethical (it will not cause harm to
subjects)
 1.3 Sectors of Research: Academic and Private
• The practice of research is divided into two major sectors:
• Academic
• Private
• Academic and private researches are sometimes referred to as "basic" and
"applied" research.
• Both sectors of research are equally important, and in many case the two works
together to solve problems.
• Academic sector research is conducted by scholars from colleges and
universities. It also generally means that the research has a theoretical or
scholarly approach; that is, the results are intended to help explain research
problems.
• Private sector research is conducted by non-governmental businesses and
industries or their research consultants.
 Cont…
Another difference between academic and private sector
• Research involves the amount of time allowed to conduct the work.
• Academic researchers generally do not have specific deadlines for their research projects
(except when research grants are received).
• Private sector researchers, however, nearly always operate under some type of deadline.
• The time frame may be specified by management or by an outside agency that requires a
decision from the company or business.
• Private sector researchers rarely have an opportunity to pursue research questions in a
casual manner; a decision is generally waiting to be made on the basis of the research.
• Also, academic research is generally less expensive to conduct than research in the private
sector.
• Academicians perform many studies for the industry, and private sector groups conduct
research that can be classified as theoretical.
• Research in both sectors, although differing occasionally in terms of cost and scope, uses
similar methodologies and statistical analyses.
• In addition, both sectors have common research goals: to understand problems and to predict
the future.
 1.4. Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows :
1.Descriptive vs. Analytical; Based on how it is done
2.Applied vs. Basic(Fundamental):Based on purpose
3.Quantitative vs. Qualitative; Based on data type
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical; Based on how it is done
5. Some Other Types of Research
 1.Descriptive vs. Analytical
➢The distinction between descriptive and analytical research is based on the question
it asks.

➢Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify what is, while

analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be.

➢The descriptive research uses description, classification, measurement, and

comparison to describe what of the phenomena.

➢The analytical research usually concerns itself with cause-effect relationships.

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 2. Applied vs. Basic

• An attempt to find solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm,

an industry, a business organization, or the Society is known as Applied
Research
• Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is ‘Pure’ or ‘Basic’ or
‘Fundamental’ Research
• Basic research - Theoretical problems
- Advancement of knowledge
• Applied research - Practical application of science
- Solve practical problems
• Applied research aims to find a solution to an immediate problem facing a
country/ society/ organization etc.
 3.Quantitative and Qualitative
➢The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or
even both.

Quantitative research
➢is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
➢The result of this research is essentially a number or a set of numbers.
➢The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
➢It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.
 Quantitative and Qualitative
Qualitative research

➢is concerned with qualitative phenomenon.

➢ This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires using in depth
interviews for the purpose.

➢Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behavior.

➢It is non-numerical, applies reasoning and uses words

➢Qualitative data cannot be graphed

➢It investigates the why and how of decision making

 4.Conceptual vs. Empirical
➢Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

➢Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,

➢It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment.

➢We can also call it as experimental type of research

➢Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way.
 5. Some Other Types of Research

All other types of research are variations of

one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the
time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on
the basis of some other similar factor.