The Concept of Research and

the Scientific Method

Week 1& 2

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 Meaning of Research
• In a layman’s position, research implies probing into
the unknown in order to find out something or
discover a new situation.
• The word research is composed of two syllables, re and
search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix
meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test
and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken
to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993).

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 INTRODUCTION

• Grinnell further adds: ‘research is a structured

inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and creates new
knowledge that is generally applicable.’ (1993)
• Research is the systematic process of collecting
and analyzing information to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
It is the function of the researcher to contribute
to the understanding of the phenomenon and to
communicate that understanding to others.

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 Concept of Research
• Some experts had tried to defined research in
the following ways.
• Burns (1997) defines research as ‘a systematic
investigation to find answers to a problem’.
• Kerlinger (1986), ‘scientific research is a
systematic, controlled empirical and critical
investigation of propositions about the
presumed relationships about various
phenomena’.

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 Concept of Research….
• According to Kumekpor (1995), research is a process
that is planned and usually carried out through stages,
each stage being devoted to specific aspect of the
method utilized. Research can, therefore, be conceived
as a systematic application of procedures through
carefully planned and executed stages of observation
and analysis in an attempt to seek new answers to a
problem, discover new facts, seeks an understanding of
and or an explanation for an unknown issue, event,
and phenomenon or to obtain additional information
to enrich existing knowledge.

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 Concept of Research…..
• From our definition so far, we can state the following
about research:
1. All research activity is planned and well thought out.
It is not a spontaneous activity or thing of the
moment. It requires some investment of time and
brainstorming to plan and design.
2. A research activity is purposeful and is aimed at
achieving well defined and specific objectives.
3. A research activity is ordered, systematic and follows
well known and clearly laid down procedure.
Adhering to a systematic procedure ensures that
the research activity can be rejected or verified.

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Characteristics of Research Process

• For a process to qualify as a research, it must

be
1. Rigorous
2. systematic
3. valid and verifiable,
4. empirical
5. critical.

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 Importance of Research
• We do research to improve our knowledge and
understanding of the world live in.
• Most times, research involves finding out
something new.
• The importance of research lies in the fact that it
is the most important tool for advancing
knowledge, for promoting progress and for
enabling man to relate more effectively to his
environment, to accomplish his purpose and
resolve his conflicts
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 Methods of Inquiry/Sources of
Knowledge
• Kerlinger and Lee (2000), using definitions
discuss four approaches to finding answers, or
methods of knowing:
• Authority
• tenacity
• intuition
• science

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 1. Method of Authority
• We accept statements by experts without question. This
suggest that we don’t check the accuracy of our sources or
even consider looking for a second opinion.
• The method of authority promotes a belief in something
because a trusted source, such as a parent, a news
correspondent, or a teacher, says it is true. The emphasis is
on the source, not on the methods the source may have used
to gain the information. For example, the claim that
“consumers will spend money to receive news updates via fax
machine because producers of the information say so” is
based on the method of authority.

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 Method of Authority………

• In the method of authority, a person finds answers by

seeking out an authority on the subject.
Limitations
• Answers from experts may represent their subjective,
personal opinions rather than true expert knowledge

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 2. Method of Tenacity

• A user of the method of tenacity follows the logic that

something is true because it has always been true. An
example is the storeowner who says, “I don’t advertise
because my parents did not believe in advertising.”
• The idea is that nothing changes—what was good,
bad, or successful before will continue to be so in the
future.

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 3. Intuition Method

• In the method of intuition, or the a priori approach, a

person assumes that something is true because it is
“self-evident” or “stands to reason.” Some creative
people in advertising agencies resist efforts to test
their advertising methods because they believe they
know what will attract customers.

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 4. Scientific Method
• The scientific method approaches learning as
a series of small steps. That is, one study or
one source provides only an indication of
what may or may not be true; the “truth” is
found only through a series of objective
analyses. This means that the scientific
method is self-correcting in that changes in
thought or theory are appropriate when
errors in previous research are uncovered.
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 Characteristics of scientific method

1. Science is Empirical
• Answers are obtained by making observations
• An answer may be “obvious” by commonsense
• May be perfectly logical
• Experts in the field may support it but it is not scientifically
accepted until it has been empirically demonstrated

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 1. Science is Empirical……

• The method of science involves structured or

systematic observation. These are determined by
the procedures and techniques that are used in the
research study

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 2. Science is Public
• Replication or repetition of observation
allows verification of findings.
• It is only public observations that can be
repeated and thus only public observations
are verified.

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 3. Science is Objective
• Structured observation
• Elimination of researchers biases and beliefs
which may influence the outcome of the
study
• Objectivity also requires that scientific
research deal with facts rather than
interpretations of facts.
• Science rejects its own authorities if
statements conflict with direct observation.
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 4. Systematic and Cumulative
Science is systematic and cumulative. No single
research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall
by itself. Astute researchers always use previous
studies as building blocks for their own work. One
of the first steps in conducting research is to review
the available scientific literature on the topic so
that the current study will draw on the heritage of
past research. This review is valuable for identifying
problem areas and important factors that might be
relevant to the current study.

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 5. Science is predictive
• Science is concerned with relating the present to
the future. In fact, scientists strive to develop
theories because, among other reasons, they are
useful in predicting behavior. A theory’s
adequacy lies in its ability to predict a
phenomenon or even successfully. A theory that
offers predictions that are not borne out by data
analysis must be carefully reexamined and
perhaps discarded. Conversely, a theory that
generates predictions that are supported by the
data can be used to make predictions in other
situations.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Types of research can be looked at from three

different perspectives (Figure 1.1):
1. applications of the findings of the research
study;
2. objectives of the study;
3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the
study.

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 Types of research: application
perspective
• Basic research advances fundamental
knowledge about the social world.
• It focus on refuting or supporting theories
that explain how the social world operates,
what makes things happen, why social
relations are a certain way and why society
changes.
• It application appear many years or decades
later.
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 Applied Research

• Applied research is designed to address a specific

concern or to offer solutions to problems identified
by an employer, club, agency, social movement, or
organization.
• People employed in businesses, government offices,
health care facilities, social service agencies, political
organizations, and educational institutions often
conduct applied research and use the results in
decision making.

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 Applied Vs. Basic Research

• Applied research is intended to answer practical questions or

solve practical problems. Research studies intended to
answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for
the sake of new knowledge are classified as basic research.

• The most basic distinction between the two research is that

basic research is research that has no immediate application,
whereas applied research is research that does.

• However, such distinctions are somewhat ambiguous as

almost all basic research eventually results in some
worthwhile application in the long range.

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 2. Types of research: objectives
perspective
• Descriptive study: A research study classified as
a descriptive study attempts to describe
systematically a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or programme, or provides
information about, say, the living conditions of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an
issue.
• The main purpose of such studies is to describe
what is prevalent with respect to the issue/
problem under study

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 2. Types of research: objectives
perspective
• Correlational study: The main emphasis in a
correlational study is to discover or establish the
existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence
between two or more aspects of a situation.
• What is the impact of an advertising campaign on
the sale of a product? What is the relationship
between stressful living and the incidence of
heart attack? What is the relationship between
fertility and mortality?

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 2. Types of research: objectives
perspective
• Explanatory research attempts to clarify why
and how there is a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
• This type of research attempts to explain, for
example, why stressful living results in heart
attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed
by a fertility decline; or how the home
environment affects children’s level of
academic achievement

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 2. Types of research: objectives
perspective
• Exploratory research: This is when a study is
undertaken with the objective either to explore
an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research
study.
• When a study is carried out to determine its
feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a
pilot study. It is usually carried out when a
researcher wants to explore areas about which
s/he has little or no knowledge.

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3. Types of research: mode of enquiry
perspective
• Qualitative study primarily describes a
situation, phenomenon, problem or event;
information is gathered through the use of
variables measured on nominal or ordinal
scales (qualitative measurement scales); and
the analysis is done to establish the variation
in the situation, phenomenon or problem
without quantifying it.

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 Types of research: mode of enquiry
perspective
• Quantitative research quantify the variation in a
phenomenon, situation, problem or issue;
information is gathered using predominantly
quantitative variables; and the analysis is geared
to ascertain the magnitude of the variation.
• Examples of quantitative aspects of a research
study are: How many people have a particular
problem? How many people hold a particular
attitude?

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