MFG Eng II

RAYA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Technology

Manufacturing Engineering -II /Meng3182 /
FOR
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3rd YEAR
BY G/GIORGIS B.
RAYA UNIVERSITY
MAICHEW-ETHIOPIA
FEBRUARY 2020
MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 1
Chapter 1.
Fundamentals of shearing process
• Parts can be manufactured by casting, forming and
shaping processes
• They often require further operations before the product
is ready for use
Machining Processes and Machine Tools
• Machining is the removal of material and modification of
the surfaces of a workpiece
• Machining involves secondary and finishing operations
Major types of material removal processes:
1. Cutting
2. Abrasive processes
3. Advanced machining processes
Machining operations is a system consisting of the
1. Work-piece
2. Cutting tool
3. Machine tool
4. Production personnel
1.1. Fundamentals of cutting
• Cutting processes remove material from the surface of

a workpiece by producing chips
• Common cutting processes:
1. Turning (workpiece rotates;
tool moves left, removes
layer of material)
2. Cutting off (cutting tool moves radially inward)
3. Slab milling
(rotating cutting tool
removes material
from workpiece)
4. End milling (rotating
cutter; produces cavity) 4
MEng3182 By G/giorgis B.
1.1. Fundamentals of cutting/ cont…
• In the turning process, the cutting tool is set at a
certain depth of cut [mm] and travels to the left (with a
certain velocity) as the workpiece rotates
• Feed, or feed rate, is the distance the tool travels
horizontally per unit revolution of the workpiece
[mm/rev]
– This tool movement
produces chips,
which move up the face
of the tool
• Major independent variables in the cutting process:
1. Tool material and coatings
2. Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
3. Workpiece material and condition
4. Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut
5. Cutting fluids
6. Characteristics of the machine tool
7. Work holding and fixturing
• Dependent variables in cutting (influenced by changes
in independent variables):
1. Type of chip produced (studied since early 1940’s)
2. Force and energy dissipated during cutting
3. Temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool and the chip
4. Tool wear and failure
5. Surface finish and surface
MEng3182 integrity
By G/giorgis B. of the workpiece 7
Chip Formation
• Merchant model is known as orthogonal cutting
• It is two dimensional and the forces involved are perpendicular to
each other
• Cutting tool has a rake angle () and a relief or clearance
angle
• Shearing takes place in a shear zone at shear angle ()
Velocity diagram
showing angular
Basic relationship
mechanism among 3 speeds
of chip in cutting zone:
formation by V: cutting speed
shearing Vs: shearing
speed
Vc: chip velocity
Chip Formation/ cont…
• Imagine shearing: “deck of cards” sliding along each other
• Below shear plane, workpiece: undeformed
• Above shear plane: chip moves up rake face (tool)
• Dimension d (distance between shear planes, OC)
– highly exaggerated to show mechanism
– It is only in order of 10-2 to 10-3 mm
• Some materials shear in a zone
– e.g. cast iron
– this leads to surface defects in workpiece
Cutting Ratio (or chip-thickness ratio, r )
• The ratio is related to the two angles
– shear angle,  r cos t0 sin 
rake angle,  tan   r  
–
1  r sin  tc cos   
• Chip thickness tc is always > than the depth of cut, to
– ⇒ the value of r is always less than unity (i.e. <1)
• Reciprocal of r (i.e. 1/r ) is known as the
chip-compression ratio or chip-compression factor
– It’s a measure of how thick the chip has become
– Always > 1
• Making use of cutting ratio in evaluating cutting conditions:
• depth of cut, to: machine setting (i.e. indep. variable)
• chip thickness, tc can be measured using micrometer
• cutting ratio, r can then easily be calculated
• rake angle,  is also known for cutting operation
– It is function of tool and workpiece geometry
• Cutting ratio and rake angle can be used to find shear
angle, 
Shear Strain
• The shear strain (i.e. deformation relative to original
size) that the material undergoes can be expressed as
   cot   tan    
AB AO OB
  
OC OC OC
• Large shear strains (≥5) are associated with low shear
angles or with low or negative rake angles
• Based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts
itself to minimize the cutting force,
  β = friction angle, related to μ :
  45   μ = tanβ  coefficient of –dynamic – friction
2 2
μ usually: 0.5 – 2
  45     Note, first form is more generally used
• Chip encounters friction as it moves up the rake face
• Large variations in contact pressure and temperature are
encountered at the tool-chip interface (rake face)
• This causes big changes in μ and it is thus called “apparent
mean coefficient of friction”
• Equation thus indicates:
– As rake angle ↓ or friction at rake face ↑
⇒ shear angle ↓ and chip becomes thicker
– Thicker chip ⇒ more energy lost because shear strain is
higher
– Because work done during cutting is converted into heat ⇒
temperature rise is higher
Velocities in the Cutting Zone
• Since tc > to ⇒ Vc (velocity of chip) < V (cutting speed)
• Since mass continuity is maintained,
V sin 
Vt 0  Vc tc or Vc  Vr  Vc 
MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. cos    12
• From Velocity diagram, obtain equations from trigonometric
relationships (Vs velocity at shearing plane):
V Vs Vc
 
cos    cos sin 
• Note also that
t0 Vc
r 
tc V
Figure: More realistic
view of chip
formation, showing
shear zone rather
than shear plane.
Also shown is the
secondary shear
zone resulting from
tool-chip friction.
1.2. Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
All Chips
• Chip has two surfaces:
• Surface in contact with rake face
– Shiny and polished
– Caused by rubbing of the chip on the tool
surface
• Outer surface from the original surface of the
workpiece
– Jagged, rough appearance
– Caused by shearing mechanism
– Note, this surface remains exposed to the
environment, and does not come into contact
with any other surface
A. Discontinuous Chip
• Brittle work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• High tool-chip friction
B.Continuous Chip
• Ductile work materials
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge
• Low tool-chip friction
C. Continuous with BUE
• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
• BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically
D. Serrated Chip
• Semicontinuous - saw-tooth
appearance
• Cyclical chip forms with alternating
high shear strain then low shear
strain
• Associated with difficult-to-
machine metals at high cutting
speeds MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 16
1.2. Types of Chips Produced in...
Chip Breakers
• Long, continuous chips are undesirable since:
– become entangled and greatly interfere with machining
– potential safety hazard action of chip breaker
• chip-breaker: breaks
chips intermittently clamped chip breaker
with cutting tools

• Traditionally are clamped to
rake face: bend and
break the chip
• Modern tools: built-in chip Grooves in tools act as
chip breakers
breakers
• Ideal chip: “C” or “9” shape 17
1.2. Types of Chips Produced in...
Chip Breakers/ cont…
• Chips can also be broken by changing the tool
geometry to control chip flow
Chips produced in turning
Tightly curled chip Chips hits workpiece Continuous chip Chip hits tool
and breaks moving radially shank (body) and
away from the breaks off
workpiece
1.3. Tool Geometry
Single Point Cutting Tool
Chip breaker
1.3. Tool Geometry/ cont…
Multi-Point Cutting Tool
Plain/ Peripheral Milling Cutter

1.3. Tool Geometry/ cont…
Multi-Point Cutting Tool
Twist dill
• The "business end" of a twist drill has two cutting edges The
included angle of the point on a conventional twist drill is 118°
• Margins are the outside tip of the flutes and are always
ground to the drill diameter
1.3. Tool Geometry/cont…
Twist Drills
• An essential feature of drilling is the variation in cutting speed along the
cutting edge. The speed is maximum at the periphery, which generates
the cylindrical surface, and approaches zero near the center-line of the
drill where the cutting edge is blended to a chisel shape.
• Drills are slender, highly stressed tools, the flutes of which have to be
carefully designed to permit chip flow while maintaining adequate
strength.
Twist Drill Operation - Problems
• Chip removal
– Flutes must provide sufficient clearance to allow chips to be extracted
from bottom of hole during the cutting operation
• Friction makes matters worse
– Rubbing between outside diameter of drill bit and newly formed hole
– Delivery of cutting fluid to drill point to reduce friction and heat is
difficult because chips are flowing in opposite direction
1.4. Cutting Forces and Power
Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal
force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal
force to shear Fn
Resultant Forces
• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
– R' must be equal in magnitude to R
– R’ must be opposite in direction to R
– R’ must be collinear with R
1.4. Cutting Forces and Power/ cont…
Coefficient of Friction
F
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip: 
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction
as follows:   tan 
Shear Stress
Fs
Shear stress acting along the shear plane: S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material
during cutting
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
• F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly
measured
• Forces acting on the tool that can be
measured:
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
• Equations can be derived to relate the
forces that cannot be measured to the
forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction canMEng3182
be determined
By G/giorgis B. 25
The Merchant Equation
• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can occur,
the work material will select a shear plane angle  that minimizes
energy, given by  
  45  
2 2
• Derived by Eugene Merchant
• Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-D
machining
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
• To increase shear plane angle
– Increase the rake angle
– Reduce the friction angle (or
coefficient of friction)
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which
means lower shear force, cutting forces, power, and
temperature
Figure: Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a

resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a
corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake
angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle
according to the Merchant equation
Power
• The power input in cutting is Power  FcV
• Power is dissipated in
– shear plane/zone (due to energy required to shear material)
– Rake face (due to tool-chip interface friction)
• Power dissipated in shearing is Power for shearing  FsVs
• Denoting the width of cut as w, (i.e. area of cut: wt0), the
specific energy for shearing, is FsVs
us 
wt 0V
• The power dissipated in friction is Power for friction  FVc
• The specific energy for friction, uf is
FVc Fr
uf  
wt 0V wt 0
• Total specific energy, ut is
ut  us  u f
Power
 Prediction of forces is
based largely on
experimental data
(right)
 Wide ranges of
values is due to
differences in
material strengths
 Sharpness of the tool
tip also influences
forces and power
 Duller tools require
higher forces and
power
Measuring Cutting Forces and Power
• Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted on
the cutting-tool holder
• It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the
power consumption during cutting (provided mechanical
efficiency of the tool can be determined)
• The specific energy (u, last slide) in cutting can be used
to calculate cutting forces
EXAMPLE1
Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to=0.13 mm, V=120 m/min, α=10° and
the width of cut 6 mm. It is observed that tc=0.23 mm, Fc=500 N and
Ft=200 N. Calculate the percentage of the total energy that goes into
overcoming friction at the tool–chip interface.
Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
The percentage of the energy
Friction Energy FVc Fr
can be expressed as  
Total Energy FcV Fc
t0 0.13
where r   0.565
tc 0.23
We have F  R sin  , Fc  R cos    and

R Ft
2

 Fc2  2002  5002  539 N
Relative Energies in Cutting 500  539cos  10    32
Thus, F  539sin 32  286 N
Hence 2860.565
Percentage   0.32 or 32%
500
1.5. Tool Life, Wear and Failure
• Tool wear is gradual process; created due to:
1. High localized stresses at the tip of the tool
2. High temperatures (especially along rake face)
3. Sliding of the chip along the rake face
4. Sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece surface
• The rate of tool wear depends on:
– tool and work-piece materials
– tool geometry
– process parameters
– cutting fluids
– characteristics of the machine tool
1.5. Tool Life, Wear and Failure/ cont…
Three Modes of Tool Failure
1. Fracture failure
– Cutting force becomes excessive at the tool point, leading
to brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
– Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material
causing softening of tool point. This leads to plastic
deformation and loss of sharp edge.
3. Gradual wear
– Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool
shape, reduction in cutting efficiency. Finally tool fails in a
manner similar to temp failure
Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
• Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures (how
can u avoid these failures to occur?)
• Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest possible
use of the tool
• Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
– Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
– Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
Tool Wear
Notch wear occurs
Crater wear occurs because because of tool rubbing
of tool chip flow on top against original work
rake face. High friction, surface, which is harder
temp and stresses at the than machined one
face/chip interface are
responsible. Measured as
area or depth of dip
Flank wear results from
rubbing of flank (& or relief)
face to the newly generated
surface. Measured by width
of wear band called wear
land.
Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of wear that occur.
Mechanisms of Tool Wear
Abrasion: This is a mechanical wearing action due to hard
particles in w/p. These hard particles cause gouging and
remove small portions of the tool. It occurs in both crater and
flank wear.
Adhesion: When 02 metals Crater wear
are forced into contact
under high pressure & temp,
adhesion or welding occurs
b/w them. This mechanism
occurs in crater wear. The
chip material welds on rake
face and later this welded
mass is removed due to
subsequent chip flow, hence
producing dips into the rake
face. MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 36
Mechanisms of Tool Wear/ cont…
Diffusion: This is a process in which an exchange of atoms
take place across a close contact boundary (like chip-rake
face) . At high temp, the atoms responsible for tool hardness
diffuse from tool into chip, thus softening top surface of tool.
Later this promotes both abrasion and adhesion at rake face.
Diffusion causes crate wear.
Chemical Reactions: At high speeds, due to high temp at
the chip-rake interface, oxidation layer form. This layer is
sheared down and a new layer is formed. This process
continues and causes crater wear.
Plastic Deformation: At high Flank wear
temp, the plastic deformation of
tool nose and cutting edge takes
place. This further promotes
abrasion. This is major reason for
flank wear. MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 37
Tool Wear vs. Time
-The tool performance
is dictated by uniform
wear rate (or slop of
steady state region).
-The slop of steady state
region changes with
change in cutting
conditions.
- Speed is the major
influential parameter
Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank wear (FW) is used

here as the measure of tool wear. Crater wear follows a similar
growth curve.
Effect of Cutting Speed on Wear
Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting
speeds
Tool Life
• Length of cutting time that the tool can be used.
- Time till tool fracture?
- If so, tool needs to re-sharp again and again. This is not so easy in
production. Also, re-sharpening will affect surface finish
- Better to define a level of tool wear ( say 0.5)
- Tool life against each
curve is shown in Fig.
Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed
Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.
Cutting Fluids
Any liquid or gas applied directly to machining operation to
improve cutting performance
• Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:
1. Heat generation at shear and friction zones
2. Friction at tool-chip and tool-work interfaces
• Other functions and benefits:
– Wash away chips (e.g.,
grinding and milling)
– Reduce temperature of
workpart for easier
handling
– Improve dimensional
stability of workpart
Classification of Cutting Fluids by Functions
Cutting fluids can be classified according to function:
• Coolants - designed to reduce effects of heat in machining
• Lubricants - designed to reduce tool-chip and tool-work friction
Coolants
• Water is used as base in coolant-type cutting fluids
• Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat generation
and high temperatures are problems
• Most effective on tool materials that are most susceptible to
temperature failures (e.g., HSS)
Lubricants
• Usually oil-based fluids
• Most effective at lower cutting speeds
• Also reduce temperature in the operation
Tool Life Criteria in Production
Practically, it is not always easy to measure flank wear (0.5mm)
and time to know TOOL LIFE. Therefore, in shops any of these
criterion can be used for changing a tool:
Complete failure of cutting edge
1. Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater wear) by the machine
operator
2. Fingernail test across cutting edge
3. Changes in sound emitted from operation
4. Chips become ribbon-like, stringy, and difficult to dispose off
5. Degradation of surface finish
6. Increased power
7. Work-piece count: Dispose off tool after certain no of pieces
8. Cumulative cutting time
Taylor Tool Life Equation
Relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor
where v = cutting speed; T =
vT  C tool life; n is the slope of the
n
plot; C is the intercept on

C the speed axis at one
minute tool life
n n and C are parameters that
depend on feed, depth of
cut, work material, tooling
material, and the tool life
criterion used
n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut,

work material, tooling material, and the tool life criterion used
Typical Values of n and C
Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)
High speed steel:

Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
vT n  C
Tool-condition Monitoring
• It is v. important to continuously monitor the condition of
the cutting tool to observe wear, chipping, gross failure
• Tool-condition monitoring systems are integrated into
computer numerical control (CNC) and programmable
logic controllers (PLC)
• Classified into 2 categories:
1. Direct method 2. Indirect methods
1. Direct method for observing the condition of a cutting tool
involves optical measurements of wear
– e.g. periodic observation of changes in tool using
microscope
– e.g. programming tool to touch a sensor after every
machining cycle (to detect broken tools)
Tool-condition Monitoring
2. Indirect methods of observing tool conditions involve the
correlation of the tool condition with certain parameters
– Parameters include forces, power, temp. rise,
workpiece surface finish, vibration, chatter
– e.g. transducers which correlate acoustic emissions
(from stress waves in cutting) to tool wear and chipping
– e.g. transducers which continually monitor torque and
forces during cutting, plus measure and compensate for
tool wear
– e.g. sensors which measure temperature during
machining
1.6. Material Removal Rate
Primary Machining Parameters
• Cutting Speed – (v)
– Primary motion
– Peripheral speed m/s ft/min
• Feed – (f)
– Secondary motion
– Turning: mm/rev
in/rev
– Milling: mm/tooth in/tooth
• Depth of Cut – (d)
– Penetration of tool below original work surface
– Single parameter mm in
• Resulting in Material Removal Rate – (MRR)
MRR = v f d mm3/s in3/min
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
1.6. Material Removal Rate/ cont…
Machining Operations & Parameters
Operation Type Speed Feed Depth of Cut

Turning: Surface speed Parallel to the Tool penetration
(periphery) of workpiece axis* below original
workpiece rotates
workpiece (except parting/grooving) work surface
single point cutting
Drilling: Surface speed Parallel to the Tool penetration

(periphery) of tool axis below original
tool rotates
tool work surface
single pass cutting (depth of hole)
Milling: Surface speed Perpendicular to Tool penetration

(periphery) of the tool axis below original
tool rotates
tool work surface
multi-point cutting
Cut Types: Roughing & Finishing
Number
Cut Type of Speed Feed Depth of Cut
Passes
Roughing: 1+ Low High High
removes large 0.4 - 1.25 mm/ 2.5 - 20 mm
amounts to get .015 - .050 in/ .100 - .750 in
close to shape
Finishing: 1-2 High Low Low
achieves final 0.125 - 0.4 mm/ 0.75 - 2.0 mm
dimensions, .005 - .015 in/ .030 - .075 in
tolerances, and
finish
Machining Calculations: Turning
v
• Spindle Speed - N N (rpm)
• v = cutting speed
π Do
• Do = outer diameter
• Feed Rate - fr fr  N f (mm/min -
or- in/min)
• f = feed per rev
• Depth of Cut - d Do  Df (mm/rev -or-

d
in/rev) 2
• Do = outer diameter
• Df = final diameter
• Machining Time - Tm L (min)
Tm 
• L = length of cut fr
• Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR MRR  v f d (mm3/min -or-
in3/min) MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 52
Machining Calculations: Drilling

• Spindle Speed - N v (rpm)
N
• v = cutting speed πD
• D = tool diameter
• Feed Rate - fr fr  Nf (mm/min -or- in/min)
• f = feed per rev
• Machining Time - Tm t  12 Dtan 90 - θ2  (min)

– Through Hole : Tm 
fr
• t = thickness
•  = tip angle d
Tm 
– Blind Hole : fr
• d = depth
πD 2f
• Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR MRR  (mm3/min -or- in3/min)
4
Machining Calculations: Milling
• Spindle Speed - N v (rpm)
N
• v = cutting speed πD
• D = cutter diameter
• Feed Rate - fr
fr  N nt f (mm/min -or- in/min)
• f = feed per tooth
• nt = number of teeth
• Machining Time - Tm L  d D - d  (min)
– Slab Milling: Tm 
fr
• L = length of cut
• d = depth of cut
– Face Milling: L  D -or- 
L  2 w D -w 
• w = width of cut Tm  Tm 
• 2nd form is multi-pass
fr fr
• Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR MRR  w d fr (mm3/min -or- in3/min)
Power and Energy Relationships

• Power requirements to perform machining can be computed
from:
Pc = Fc v N-m/s (W) ft-lb/min
where: Pc = cutting power;
Fc = cutting force; and
v = cutting speed
• Customary U.S. units for power are Horsepower
(= 33000 ft-lb/min)
Power and Energy Relationships
• The Gross machine power (Pg) available is: Pc = Pg• E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
• Typical E for machine tools =  80 - 90%
Note: Alternate relationships for the same –
Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E
Unit Power in Machining
• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of metal
cut called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, Hpu
P or HPu  HPc
Pu  c
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate

Specific Energy in Machining
• Unit power (Pu) is also known as the specific energy (U), or the
power required to cut a unit volume of material:
Pc Fc
U  Pu  
MRR t ow
where t0 = un-deformed chip thickness;
w = width of the chip; and
Fc = cutting force
• Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 (same as
J/mm3) or as in-lb/in3
• Table on Materials page approximates specific energy for
several materials based on estimated hardness
1.7. Surface Finish and Machinability
Surface Finish and Integrity
• Surface finish:
– this influences the dimensional accuracy of machined parts, as
well as properties and performance in service
– this refers to geometric features of a surface
• Surface integrity
– this refers to material properties
– e.g. fatigue life, corrosion resistance
– this is greatly affected by the nature of the surface produced
• The following discussion pertains to showing the different
factors that affect surface finish and surface integrity
1.7. Surface Finish and Machinability/ cont…
• The built-up edge has the greatest influence on surface
finish (due to large effect on tool-tip surface); see below
– Damage shown below is due to BUE
– It appears as “scuffing” (i.e. scratching) marks
– In normal machining: marks would appear as straight grooves
– Note: diamond, ceramic tools have best surface finish (no BUE)
Machined surfaces
produced on steel
(highly magnified)
a) turned surface
b) surface
produced by
shaping
• A dull tool has a large R along its edges (like dull pencil) ↓
– although tool in orthogonal cutting has +ve rake angle (),
– for small depths of cut:  can become –ve
– ⇒ tool overrides workpiece (i.e. no cutting) and burnishes
surface (i.e. rubs on it), and no chips are produced
– ⇒ workpiece temp. ↑ and this causes residual stresses
– ⇒ surface damage: tearing, cracking
– this occurs when tip radius of tool
is large in relation to depth of cut
– solution is to choose:
depth of cut > tip radius
• In a turning operation, the tool leaves a spiral profile
(feed marks) on the machined surface as it moves
across the workpiece.
– as feed (f ) ↑ + tool nose (R) ↓⇒ marks become more distinct
– typical surface roughness is expressed as
f2
Rt 
8R
where, Rt: roughness height
– Feed marks are important to
consider in finish machining
(not rough machining)
• Vibration and chatter
– adversely affects workpiece surface finish
– tool vibration ⇒ variations in cutting dimensions
– chatter ⇒ chipping, premature failure in brittle tools (e.g.
ceramics, diamond)
• Factors influencing surface integrity (adversely) are:
1. Temperatures generated during processing
2. Surface residual stresses
3. Severe plastic deformation and strain hardening of the
machined surfaces, tearing and cracking
– note, each of these factors can be controlled by carefully
choosing and maintaining cutting tools
Rough machining vs. Finish machining
• Rough machining
– focus: removing a large amount of material at a high
rate
– surface finish is not emphasized since it will be
improved during finish machining
• Finish machining
– focus is on the surface finish to be produced
– note, it is important that workpiece has developed no
subsurface-damage due to rough machining
Machinability
• Machinability is defined in terms of:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity of machined part
2. Tool life
3. Force and power required
4. The level of difficulty in chip control
• Good machinability indicates
– good surface finish and surface integrity
– a long tool life
– and low force and power requirements
• Note, continuous chips should be avoided for good
machinability
Machinability
Machinability ratings (indexes)
• these have been used also to determine machinability
• available for each type of material and its condition
• not used much anymore due to misleading nature
• e.g.: AISI 1112 steel with a rating of 100:
– for a tool life of 60 min,
– choose 30 m/min cutting speed (for machining this
material)
• these are mostly qualitative aspects ⇒ not sufficient to
guide operator to machining parts economically
• Other guides for various materials should include:
cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, cutting tools and shape,
cutting fluids MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 65
Machinability
• Machinability here discussed for the following:
– Ferrous Metals (e.g. steels, stainless steels, cast iron, etc.)
– Nonferrous Metals (e.g. aluminum, copper, magnesium)
– Miscellaneous Materials (e.g. thermoplastics, ceramics)
– Thermally assisted machining
Machinability of Ferrous Metals: Steels
• Carbon steels have a wide range of machinability
– If a carbon steel is too ductile, chip formation can produce
built-up edge, leading to poor surface finish
– If too hard, it can cause abrasive wear of the tool because of
the presence of carbides in the steel
– Cold-worked carbon steels: preferred machinability
Machinability of Ferrous Metals
Steels (cont)
• Free-machining steels: contain sulfur + phosphorus
Sulfur forms: manganese sulfide inclusions
– Important to choose size, shape, distribution of
inclusions
– These act as stress raisers in primary shear zone
– ⇒ chips are small, break easily (i.e. machinability ↑)
Phosphorus has two major –desirable– effects
1. Strengthens ferrite ⇒ better chip formation, surface
finish ↑
2. Increases hardness ⇒ short (non-continuous chips)
– Note, soft steels have low machinability since have
BUE ⇒
tendency to formMEng3182 poorB.surface finish
By G/giorgis 67
Steels (cont)
• Leaded steels (e.g. 10L45 steel)
– high percentage of lead solidifies at the tips of manganese
sulfide inclusions
– Lead acts as a solid lubricant (due to low shear strength) at
tool-chip interface during cutting
– It also acts: liquid lubricant when temp. is high in front of
tool
– It also ↓ shear stress at primary shear zone ⇒ ↓ forces and
↓ power consumption
– Lead is, however, dangerous environmental toxin ⇒ there’s
trend to eliminate use of lead in steel: “lead-free steels”
– Good substitutes: bismuth, tin (but performance is lower)
Steels (cont)
• Calcium-deoxidized steels
– they contain oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSO)
– these reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone
– they also decrease tool–chip interface friction and wear
– ⇒ temp. increases are lower ⇒ less crater wear (why?)
• Alloy steels
– They have a large variety of compositions and
hardnesses
– ⇒ machinability can’t be generalized
– but they have higher hardness and other properties
– Can be used to produce good surface finish, integrity,
dimensional accuracy
Effects of Various Elements in Steels
• Presence of aluminum and silicon is harmful in steels
– Reason: combine with oxygen to form aluminum
oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive
– ⇒ tool wear increases and machinability is reduced
• Note that as machinability↑, other properties may ↓
– e.g. lead causes embrittlement of steel at high temp.
(although has no effect at room temp.)
– e.g. sulfur can reduce hot workability of steel
Stainless Steels
• Austenitic (300 series) steels are difficult to machine
(needs machine tool with high stiffness to avoid chatter)
• Ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good
machinability
• Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form
BUE
• Precipitation-hardening stainless steels: strong and
abrasive, ⇒ require hard, abrasion-resistant tool
Cast Irons
• Gray irons: machinable, but abrasive (esp. pearlite)
• Nodular, malleable irons: machinable with hard materials
Machinability of Non-ferrous Metals
• Aluminum
– very easy to machine
– but softer grades: form BUE ⇒ poor surface finish
– ⇒ recommend high cutting speeds, high rake and relief
angles
• Beryllium
– requires machining in a controlled environment
– this is due to toxicity of fine particles produced in machining
• Cobalt-based alloys
– abrasive and work hardening
– require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials, and low
feeds and speeds
• Copper
– can be difficult to machine because
MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. of BUE formation 72
Machinability of Non- Ferrous Metals
• Magnesium
– very easy to machine, good surface finish, prolonged tool
life
– Caution: high rate of oxidation and fire danger
• Titanium and its alloys
– have very poor thermal conductivity
– ⇒ high temp. rise and BUE ⇒ difficult to machine
• Tungsten
– brittle, strong, and very abrasive
– ⇒ machinability is low
• Zirconium
– Good machinability
– Requires cooling cutting fluid (danger of explosion, fire)
Machinability of Miscellaneous Materials
• Thermoplastics
– Machining requires sharp tools with positive rake angles, large
relief angles, small depths of cut and feed and high speeds
– Cooling also required to keep chips from sticking to tools
• Polymer-matrix composites:
– Very abrasive ⇒ difficult to machine
– Also, requires careful handling; avoid touching, inhaling fibers
• Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites
– can be difficult to machine depending on the properties of the
matrix material and the reinforcing fibers
• Graphite
– Abrasive
– Requires sharp, hard, abrasion-resistant tools
Machinability of Miscellaneous Materials
• Ceramics
– Have steadily improving machinability (e.g.
nanoceramics)
– Require appropriate processing parameters
• Wood
– Properties vary with grain direction
– ⇒ type of chips and surfaces vary significantly
depending on the type of wood and its condition
– Basic requirements: sharp tools, high cutting speeds
Chapter 2
• Given as assignment
Chapter 3
Fundamentals of metal-forming process
3.1. Forming and Shaping Processes and
Equipment
Metal forming:
• A large group of manufacturing processes in which
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal work-pieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry
of the die
3.1. Forming and Shaping Processes and
Equipment /cont…
Stresses in Metal forming:
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually
compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)
3.1. Forming and Shaping Processes and 79
Equipment /cont…
Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:
– Low yield strength
– High ductility
• These properties are affected by
temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
• Other factors:
– Strain rate and friction
80
3.2. Basic Types of Deformation Processes
1. Bulk deformation (stock has high V/A)

– Rolling
– Forging
– Extrusion
– Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking (stock has low V/A)
– Bending
– Deep drawing
– Cutting
3.2. Basic Types of Deformation 81
Processes/ cont…
3.2.1. Bulk Deformation Processes
• Characterized by significant deformations
and massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to work-parts with relatively
low surface area to volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical
billets and rectangular bars
/cont…
Rolling
Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

/cont…
83
Forging
Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

/cont…
84
Extrusion
Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

/cont… 85
Wire and Bar Drawing
Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

3.2. Basic Types of Deformation 86
Processes/ cont…
3.2.2. Sheet Metalworking
• Forming and related operations performed
on metal sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area to volume ratio of
starting metal, which distinguishes these
from bulk deformation
• Often called press-working because
presses perform these operations
– Parts are called stampings
– Usual tooling: punch and die
3.2.2. Sheet Metalworking/ cont…
87
Sheet Metal Bending
Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending

3.2.2. Sheet Metalworking/ cont… 88
Deep Drawing
Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing

3.2.2. Sheet Metalworking/ cont…
89
Shearing of Sheet Metal
Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing
3.3. Material Behavior in Metal 90
Forming
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary focuss
of interest because material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by
the flow curve:
Y f  K n
where K = strength
coefficient; and n =
strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve based on true
stress and true strain
Flow Stress 91
• For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material Y f  K n
where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as a
function of strain
Average Flow Stress
• Determined by integrating the flow curve equation
between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest
_ K  n
Yf 
_ 1 n
where Y f = average flow stress; and  = maximum strain during
deformation process. n = strain hardening exponent
Temperature in Metal Forming 92
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
– Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at
higher temperatures
– In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished
with lower forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working
93
1. Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly above
• Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• No heating of work required
Disadvantages of Cold Forming 94
• Higher forces and power required in the

deformation operation
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount
of forming that can be done
– In some cases, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
2. Warm Working 95
• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

below recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working
often expressed in terms of melting point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
Advantages of Warm Working
• Lower forces and power than in cold working
• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Low spring back
Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
96
3. Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
– In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level
Why Hot Working? 97
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of

the metal - far more than possible with cold
working or warm working
• Why?
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room
temperature
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
Advantages of Hot Working 98
• Work-part shape can be significantly altered

• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No work hardening occurs during forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk forming
• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy
to heat the work-piece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool life MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 98
4. Principles of selected joining
and assembling process
4.1. Introduction
• Components can be joined together by temporary or
permanent methods.
• Temporary joints may be assembled and dismantled as
often as is required without damage to the members
being joined or the joining device (e.g. a nut and bolt).
• Permanent joints cannot be dismantled after assembly
without damage to, or the destruction of, the joint
device (e.g. drilling out a rivet) or the members being
joined (e.g. flame cutting a welded joint.
4.1. Introduction/ cont…

Welding
• Welding is a joining process in which two or more parts are
coalesced by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.
• Some processes are accomplished by heat alone ,with no
pressure; others by a combination of heat and pressure; and
others by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence.
• The assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is called
a weldment.
• Welding is most commonly associated with metal parts, but
the process is also used for joining plastics.

• A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be
joined combine and form one piece when heated to a
temperature high enough to cause softening or
melting.
• Welding is used extensively in all sectors or
manufacturing, from earth moving equipment to the
aerospace industry.
• A localized coalescence of metal wherein coalescence
is produced by either heating to suitable temperatures,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone, and with or without the
use of filler metal.
Advantages of welding
• Welding provides a permanent joint. The welded parts
become a single entity.
• The welded joint can be stronger than the parent
materials if a filler metal is used that has strength
properties superior to those of the parents, and if proper
welding techniques are used.
• Welding is usually the most economical way to join
components. Alternative mechanical methods of assembly
require more complex shape alterations (e.g., drilling of
holes) and addition of fasteners (e.g. rivets or bolts). The
resulting mechanical assembly is usually heavier than a
corresponding weldment.
• Welding is not restricted to the factory environment. It
can be accomplished ‘‘in the field.’’
Limitations and drawbacks of welding
Most welding operations are performed manually and are
expensive in terms of labor cost. Many welding operations
are considered ‘‘skilled trades,’’ and the labor to perform
these operations may be scarce.
Most welding processes are inherently dangerous because
they involve the use of high energy.
 Since welding accomplishes a permanent bond between
the components, it does not allow for convenient
disassembly. If the product must occasionally be
disassembled (e.g., for repair or maintenance), then welding
should not be used as the assembly method.
 The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects
that are difficult to detect. The defects can reduce the
strength of the joint.
Types of welding
• Welding processes can be broadly classified into
(i) fusion(non-pressure) welding, and (ii) solid state
welding(pressure welding)
i. Fusion welding:
• Heat is applied to melt the base metals.
• A filler metal is most of the time added to facilitate
the process and provide strength to the welded joint.
• When no filler metal is used, that fusion welding
operation is referred to as Autogenous weld.
• Types: Arc welding, Resistance welding, Gas
welding, electron beam welding, laser welding.
ii. Solid State Welding:
• Joining is done by application of pressure only or a combination
of heat and pressure.
• Even if heat is used, the temperature in the process is less than
the melting point of the base metals (unlike in fusion welding).
• No filler metal is utilized.
• Diffusion welding: Two part surfaces are held together under
pressure at elevated temperature and the parts join by solid state
diffusion.
• Friction welding/Stir welding: Joining occurs by the heat of
friction and plastic deformation between two surfaces.
• Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between the
two parts and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is
used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces
The Safety Issue
• Welding is inherently dangerous to human workers.
Strict safety precautions must be practiced.
• The high temperatures of the molten metals in welding
are an obvious danger. In gas welding, the fuels(e.g.,
acetylene) are a fire hazard.
• Most of the processes use high energy to cause melting
of the part surfaces to be joined.
• In many welding processes, electrical power is the
source of thermal energy, so there is the hazard of
electrical shock to the worker.

The Safety Issue/ cont…
• Certain welding processes have their own particular perils. In
arc welding, for example, ultraviolet radiation is emitted that is
injurious to human vision. A special helmet that includes a
dark viewing window must be worn by the welder. This
window filters out the dangerous radiation but is so dark that it
renders the welder virtually blind, except when the arc is
struck.
• Sparks, spatters of molten metal, smoke, and fumes add to the
risks associated with welding operations.
• Ventilation facilities must be used to exhaust the dangerous
fumes generated by some of the fluxes and molten metals used
in welding.
• If the operation is performed in an enclosed area, special
ventilation suits or hoods are required.
The Weld Joint
• Welding produces a solid connection between two pieces,
called a weld joint.
• Aweld joint is the junction of the edges or surfaces of
parts that have been joined by welding.
• There are five basic types of joints for bringing two parts
together for joining.
• The five joint types are not limited to welding; they apply
to other joining and fastening techniques as well.
(a) Butt joint: parts lie in the same plane and are joined at
their edges.
(b) Corner joint: The parts form a right angle and are joined
at the corner of the angle.
(c) Lap joint: This joint consists of two overlapping parts.
The Weld Joint/ cont…
(d) Tee joint: In a tee joint, one part is perpendicular to the
other in the approximate shape of the letter ‘‘T.’’
(e) Edge joint: The parts in an edge joint are parallel with
at least one of their edges in common, and the joint is made
at the common edge(s).

Welding Positions
• There are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
1. Flat or down hand position
2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position

4.2. Arc welding Process
• It is a fusion welding process in which the melting and joining
of metals is done by the heat energy generated by the arc
between the work and electrode.
• An electric arc is generated when the electrode contacts the
work and then quickly separated to maintain the gap.
• A temperature of 5500°C is generated by this arc.
• This temperature is sufficient to melt most of the metals.
• The molten metal, consisting of base metal and filler,
solidifies in the weld region.

4.2. Arc welding Process/ cont…
• Electrodes: Electrodes used in AW processes are
classified as consumable or nonconsumable.
• Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler
metal in arc welding.
• These electrodes are available in two principal forms:
rods (also called sticks) and wire.
• Welding rods are typically 225 to 450 mm (9–18 in)
long and 9.5 mm (3/8 in) or less in diameter.
• The problem with consumable welding rods, at least
in production welding operations, is that they must be
changed periodically, reducing arc time of the welder.

• Consumable weld wire has the advantage that it can be
continuously fed into the weld pool from spools containing
long lengths of wire, thus avoiding the frequent
interruptions that occur when using welding sticks.
• In both rod and wire forms, the electrode is consumed by
the arc during the welding process and added to the weld
joint as filler metal.
• Nonconsumable electrodes are made of tungsten (or
carbon, rarely), which resists melting by the arc.
• A nonconsumable electrode is gradually worn-out during the
welding process (vaporization is the principal mechanism),
analogous to the gradual wearing of a cutting tool in a
machining operation.
• For AW processes that utilize nonconsumable electrodes, any
filler metal used in the operation must be supplied by means of
a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.
• Arc Shielding: At the high temperatures in arc welding, the
metals being joined are chemically reactive to oxygen,
nitrogen, and hydrogen in the air.
• Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip,
arc, and molten weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or
both, which inhibit exposure of the weld metal to air.
• Common shielding gases include argon and helium, both of
which are inert.
• In the welding of ferrous metals with certain AW processes,
oxygen and carbon dioxide are used, usually in combination
with Ar and/or He, to produce an oxidizing atmosphere or to
control weld shape.
• A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of
oxides and other unwanted contaminants, or to dissolve
them and facilitate removal.
• During welding, the flux melts and becomes a liquid
slag, covering the operation and protecting the molten
weld metal.
• The slag hardens upon cooling and must be removed later
by chipping or brushing.
• Flux is usually formulated to serve several additional
functions: (1) provide a protective atmosphere for
welding, (2) stabilize the arc, and (3) reduce spattering.

4.2. 1.AW Process - Consumable Electrodes
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW):
• A consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod which is
coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding, is used.
• Generally the filler metal has chemical composition very close
to base metal.
• Filler rod coating: Coating consists of powdered cellulose
(cotton and wood powders) mixed with oxides, carbonates,
combined using a silicate binder.
• This coating provides protective layer to the weld pool and
stabilizes the arc.
• - current: < 300 A; Voltage: 15 – 45 V.
• Materials: grades of steel, stainless steel etc. are welded. Al,
Cu, Ti alloys are not welding using SMAW.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)/ cont…

Gas metal arc welding(GMAW) or (MIG)
• An AW process in which the electrode is a consumable bare
metal wire, The bare wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun.
• Shielding gas is provided separately over arc by a pipe. Helium,
Argon, mixture of gases; used mainly for Al alloys.
• Active gases like CO2 is used for welding steel grade material.
• As compared to SMAW, GMAW can be used for multiple weld
passes as there is no deposition of slag and hence no brushing
involved. (advantage)
• Automation of welding possible as continuous weld wires are
used, and not sticks as in SMAW.
• Also called MIG (metal inert gas) welding, MAG (when CO2 is
used).

Gas metal arc welding(GMAW)/ cont…
•Shielding gases are necessary for gas metal arc welding to protect
the welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and
oxygen, which can cause fusion defects, porosity.

Submerged arc welding (SAW):
•Also known as hidden arc welding, submerged melt welding or
sub-arc welding the arc is struck between a metal electrode and
the work piece under a blanket of granular flux.
•Welding takes place under the flux layer without any visible arc,
spatter, smoke or flash
•A continuous bare electrode wire is used and shielding is provided
by external granular flux through hopper.

Submerged arc welding (SAW)/ cont…
• Granular flux completely provides protection from sparks,
spatter, and radiation and hence safety glasses, gloves can be
avoided.
• some part of flux gets melted and forms a glassy layer.
Application:
• Longitudinal and circumferential welds for large diameter pipes,
tanks, and pressure vessels; welded components for heavy
machinery.

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
• Arc welding process in which the electrode is a continuous
consumable tubing that contains flux.
• Self-shielded FCAW: the arc shielding was provided by
the flux core.
• The core also includes ingredients that generate shielding
gases for protecting the arc.
• Gas shielded FCAW: Shielding is done from externally
supplied gases.
• Since it uses both flux and shielding gas (provided
separately), it is considered as a hybrid of SMAW and
GMAW.

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)/ cont…
•FCAW has advantages similar to GMAW, due to continuous
feeding of the electrode.
•It is used primarily for welding steels and stainless steels over a
wide stock thickness range.
•It is noted for its capability to produce very-high-quality weld
joints that are smooth and uniform.

Electrogas Welding
• Is an AW process that uses a continuous consumable
electrode (either flux-cored wire or bare wire with
externally supplied shielding gases) and molding shoes to
contain the molten metal.
• The process is primarily applied to vertical butt welding.
• When the flux-cored electrode wire is employed, no
external gases are supplied, and the process can be
considered a special application of self-shielded FCAW.
• When a bare electrode wire is used with shielding gases
from an external source, it is considered a special case of
GMAW.
• The molding shoes are water cooled to prevent their being
added to the weld pool.
Electrogas Welding/ cont…
• Together with the edges of the parts being welded, the shoes
form a container, almost like a mold cavity, in to which the
molten metal from the electrode and base parts is gradually
added.
• The process is performed automatically, with a moving weld
head traveling vertically upward to fill the cavity in a single
pass.
Fig.: Electrogas
welding using flux-
cored electrode wire:
(a) front view with
molding shoe
removed for clarity,
and (b) side view
showing molding
shoes on both sides.

Electrogas Welding/ cont…
• Principal applications of electrogas welding are steels
(low- and medium-carbon,
• low-alloy, and certain stainless steels) in the construction
of large storage tanks and in shipbuilding.
• Stock thicknesses from 12 to 75 mm (0.5–3.0 in) are
within the capacity of EGW.
• In addition to butt welding, it can also be used for fillet
and groove welds, always in a vertical orientation.
• Specially designed molding shoes must sometimes be
fabricated for the joint shapes involved.

4.2. 2.AW Process – Non-consumable Electrodes
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an AW process that
uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas
for arc shielding.
• The term TIG welding (tungsten inert gas welding) is often
applied to this process (in Europe, WIG welding is the
term—the chemical symbol for tungsten is W, for
Wolfram).
• GTAW can be implemented with or without a filler metal.
• When a filler metal is used, it is added to the weld pool
from a separate rod or wire, being melted by the heat of the
arc rather than transferred across the arc as in the
consumable electrode AW processes.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)/ cont…
• Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high melting
point of 3410C (6170F).
• Typical shielding gases include argon, helium, or a mixture of
these gas elements.
• GTAW is applicable to nearly all metals in a wide range of stock
thicknesses.
• It can also be used for joining various combinations of dissimilar
metals. Its most common applications are for aluminum and
stainless steel.
• Cast irons, wrought irons, and of course tungsten are difficult
to weld by GTAW.
• In steel welding applications, GTAW is generally slower and
more costly than the consumable electrode AW processes, except
when thin sections are involved and very-high-quality welds are
required.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)/ cont…
•The process can be performed manually or by machine and
automated methods for all joint types.
• Advantages of GTAW in the applications to which it is suited
include high-quality welds, no weld spatter because no filler
metal is transferred across the arc, and little or no post-weld
cleaning because no flux is used.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
• Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a special form of gas tungsten
arc welding in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at the
weld area.
• In PAW, a tungsten electrode is contained in a specially
designed nozzle that focuses a high-velocity stream of inert
gas (e.g., argon or argon–hydrogen mixtures) into the region of
the arc to form a high velocity,
• Intensely hot plasma arc stream, Argon, argon–hydrogen, and
helium are also used as the arc-shielding gases.
• Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000C (30,000F)
or greater, hot enough to melt any known metal.
• The reason why temperatures are so high in PAW
(significantly higher than those in GTAW) derives from the
constriction of the arc.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)/ cont…
• Although the typical power levels used in PAW are below those
used in GTAW, the power is highly concentrated to produce a
plasma jet of small diameter and very high power density.
• In recent years its use is increasing as a substitute for GTAW in
applications such as automobile subassemblies, metal cabinets,
door and window frames, and home appliances.
• Owing to the special features of PAW, its advantages in these
applications include good arc stability, better penetration
control than most other AW processes, high travel speeds, and
excellent weld quality.
• The process can be used to weld almost any metal, including
tungsten.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)/ cont…
• Difficult-to-weld metals with PAW include bronze, cast irons,
lead, and magnesium.
• Other limitations include high equipment cost and larger
torch size than other AW operations, which tends to restrict
access in some joint configurations.

4.3. Resistance Welding processes
Introduction:
• Resistance welding (RW) is a group
of fusion-welding processes that
uses a combination of heat and
pressure to accomplish coalescence,
• The heat being generated by
electrical resistance to current flow
at the junction to be welded.
• The resistance-welding processes of
most commercial importance are
spot, seam, and projection welding.
FIGURE: Resistance welding (RW), showing the components

in spot welding, the predominant process in the RW group.

4.3. Resistance Welding Processes/ cont…
• The components include work-parts to be welded (usually
sheet metal parts), two opposing electrodes, a means of
applying pressure to squeeze the parts between the electrodes,
and an AC power supply from which a controlled current can
be applied. The operation results in a fused zone between the
two parts, called a weld nugget in spot welding.
• By comparison to arc welding, resistance welding uses no
shielding gases, flux, or filler metal;
• And the electrodes that conduct electrical power to the process
are non-consumable.
• RW is classified as fusion welding because the applied heat
almost always causes melting of the faying surfaces.
• However, there are exceptions. Some welding operations based
on resistance heating use temperatures below the melting points
of the base metals, so fusion does not occur.
4.3. Resistance Welding Processes/ cont…
4.3.1. Resistance Spot Welding
• Welding Resistance spot welding is by far the predominant
process in this group.
• It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances,
metal furniture, and other products made of sheet metal.
• Resistance spot welding (RSW) is an RW process in which fusion
of the faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by
opposing electrodes.
• The process is used to join sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm
(0.125 in) or less, using a series of spot welds, in situations where
an airtight assembly is not required.
• The size and shape of the weld spot is determined by the electrode
tip, the most common electrode shape being round, but hexagonal,
square, and other shapes are also used.

4.3.1. Resistance Spot Welding/ cont…
• The resulting weld nugget is typically 5 to 10 mm (0.2–0.4 in)
in diameter, with a heat-affected zone extending slightly beyond
the nugget into the base metals.
• If the weld is made properly, its strength will be comparable to
that of the surrounding.
• Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two main groups:
(1) copper-based alloys and (2) refractory metal compositions
such as copper and tungsten combinations.
• The second group is noted for superior wear resistance.
• As in most manufacturing processes, the tooling in spot welding
gradually wears out as it is used.
• Whenever practical, the electrodes are designed with internal
passageways for water cooling.

FIGURE below (a) Steps in a spot-welding cycle, and (b) plot of
squeezing force and current during cycle. The sequence is:
(1) parts inserted between open electrodes,
(2) electrodes close and force is applied,
(3) weld time—current is switched on,
(4) current is turned off but force is maintained or increased (a
reduced current is sometimes applied near the end of this step
for stress relief in the weld region), and
(5) electrodes are opened, and the welded assembly is removed.
• Types of spot welding:-
1. Rocker-arm type- heavy duty
2. Press type and
3. Portable

FIGURE: Rocker arm spot-welding machine.

4.3.2. Resistance Seam Welding
• In resistance seam welding (RSEW), the stick-shaped electrodes
in spot welding are replaced by rotating wheels,
• and a series of overlapping spot welds are made along the lap
joint.
• The process is capable of producing air-tight joints, and its
industrial applications include the production of gasoline tanks,
automobile mufflers, and various other fabricated sheet metal
containers.
• Technically, RSEW is the same as spot welding, except that the
wheel electrodes introduce certain complexities.
• Since the operation is usually carried out continuously, rather than
discretely, the seams should be along a straight or uniformly
curved line.
• Sharp corners and similar discontinuities are difficult to deal with.
4.3.2. Resistance Seam Welding/ cont…
• Also, warping of the parts becomes more of a factor in
resistance seam welding, and fixtures are required to hold the
work in position and minimize distortion.
• The spacing between the weld nuggets in resistance seam
welding depends on the motion of the electrode wheels relative
to the application of the weld current.
• In the usual method of operation, called continuous motion
welding, the wheel is rotated continuously at a constant
velocity, and current is turned on at timing intervals consistent
with the desired spacing between spot welds along the seam.
• Frequency of the current discharges is normally set so that
overlapping weld spots are produced.
• But if the frequency is reduced sufficiently, then there will be
spaces between the weld spots, and this method is termed roll
spot welding.
• In another variation, the welding current remains on at a
constant level (rather than being pulsed) so that a truly
continuous welding seam is produced.
• An alternative to continuous motion welding is intermittent
motion welding, in which the electrode wheel is periodically
stopped to make the spot weld.
• The amount of wheel rotation between stops determines the
distance between weld spots along the seam.
• Cooling of the work and wheels is often necessary in RSEW,
and this is accomplished by directing water at the top and
underside of the work-part surfaces near the electrode wheels.

FIGURE: Different types of seams produced by electrode wheels:

(a) conventional resistance seam welding, in which overlapping
spots are produced; (b) roll spot welding; and (c) continuous
resistance seam.

4.3.2. Resistance Projection Welding
• Resistance projection welding (RPW) is an RW process in
which coalescence occurs at one or more relatively small
contact points on the parts.
• These contact points are determined by the design of the parts to
be joined, and may consist of projections, embossments, or
localized intersections of the parts.
• There are variations of resistance projection welding,
• In one variation, fasteners with machined or formed
projections can be permanently joined to sheet or plate by
RPW, facilitating subsequent assembly operations.
• Another variation, called cross-wire welding, is used to
fabricate welded wire products such as wire fence, shopping
carts, and stove grills.
• In this process, the contacting surfaces of the round wires serve
as the projections to localize the resistance heat for welding.
4.3.2. Resistance Projection Welding/ cont…
FIGURE: Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) at start of

operation, contact between parts is at projections; and (2)when
current is applied, weld nuggets similar to those in spot welding
are formed at the projections.
4.3.2. Resistance Projection Welding/ cont…
FIGURE: Variations of resistance projection welding: (a) welding

of a machined or formed fastener onto a sheet-metal part; and
(b) cross-wire welding.
4.3.3. Other RW Operations
•In addition to the principal RW processes described above, several
additional processes in this group should be identified: flash, upset,
percussion, and high-frequency resistance welding.
1. Flash welding (FW)
•In flash welding(FW), normally used for butt joints, the two
surfaces to be joined are brought into contact or near contact and
electric current is applied to heat the surfaces to the melting point,
after which the surfaces are forced together to form the weld.
• In addition to resistance heating, some arcing occurs (called
flashing), depending on the extent of contact between the faying
surfaces, so flash welding is sometimes classified in the arc welding
group.
•Current is usually stopped during upsetting.
• Some metal, as well as contaminants on the surfaces, is squeezed
out of the joint and must be subsequently machined to provide a
joint of uniform size. MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 148
4.3.3. Other RW Operations / cont…
1. Flash welding (FW)/ cont…
FIGURE: Flash welding (FW): (1) heating by electrical

resistance; and (2) upsetting—parts are forced together.

2. Upset welding (UW)
•It is similar to flash welding except that in UW the faying surfaces
are pressed together during heating and upsetting.
• In flash welding, the heating and pressing steps are separated
during the cycle.
•Heating is accomplished entirely by electrical resistance at the
contacting surfaces; no arcing occurs.
• When the faying surfaces have been heated to a suitable
temperature below the melting point, the force pressing the parts
together is increased to cause upsetting and coalescence in the
contact region.
•Thus, upset welding is not a fusion-welding process in the same
sense as the other welding processes we have discussed.
•Applications of UW are similar to those of flash welding: joining
ends of wire, pipes, tubes, and so on.
3. Percussion welding (PEW)
• Percussion welding (PEW) is also similar to flash welding, except
that the duration of the weld cycle is extremely short, typically
lasting only 1 to 10 ms.
• Fast heating is accomplished by rapid discharge of electrical energy
between the two surfaces to be joined, followed immediately by
percussion of one part against the other to form the weld.
• The heating is very localized, making this process attractive for
electronic applications in which the dimensions are very small and
nearby components may be sensitive to heat.

4. High-frequency resistance welding (HFRW)
• It is a resistance-welding process in which a high-frequency
alternating current is used for heating, followed by the rapid
application of an upsetting force to cause coalescence.
• The frequencies are 10 to 500 kHz, and the electrodes make
contact with the work in the immediate vicinity of the weld
joint.
• In a variation of the process, called high-frequency induction
welding (HFIW), the heating current is induced in the parts by
a high frequency induction coil.
• The coil does not make physical contact with the work. The
principal applications of both HFRW and HFIW are continuous
butt welding of the longitudinal seams of metal pipes and tubes.

4. High-frequency resistance welding (HFRW)/ cont…
FIGURE: Welding of tube seams by: (a) high-frequency

resistance welding, and (b) high-frequency induction welding.

4.4. OXYFUEL GAS WELDING
Introduction:
• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is the term used to describe the
group of FW operations that burn various fuels mixed with
oxygen to perform welding.
• The OFW processes employ several types of gases, which is the
primary distinction among the members of this group.
• Oxyfuel gas is also commonly used in cutting torches to cut and
separate metal plates and other parts.
• The most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding.
• Other fuel gases (such as hydrogen and. Methyl-acetylene
propadiene) also can be used in oxyfuel-gas welding.
• However, the temperatures developed by these gases are lower
than those produced by acetylene.
• Hence, they are used for welding (a) metals with low melting
points (such as lead).
4.4.1. Oxyacetylene Welding
• Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) is a fusion-welding process
performed by a high-temperature flame from combustion of
acetylene and oxygen.
• The flame is directed by a welding torch.
• A filler metal is sometimes added, and pressure is occasionally
applied in OAW between the contacting part surfaces.
FIGURE: A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

4.4.1. Oxyacetylene Welding/ cont…
•When filler metal is used, it is typically in the form of a rod with
diameters ranging from1.6 to 9.5mm(1/16–3/8 in).
•Composition of the filler must be similar to that of the base metals.
•The filler is often coated with a flux that helps to clean the
surfaces and prevent oxidation, thus creating a better weld joint.
•Acetylene (C2H2) is the most popular fuel among the OFW group
because it is capable of higher temperatures than any of the
others—up to 3480C (6300F).
•The flame in OAW is produced by the chemical reaction of
acetylene and oxygen in two stages.
•The first stage is defined by the reaction:
•The products of which are both combustible, which leads to the

second-stage reaction:

•The two stages of combustion are visible in the oxyacetylene
flame emitted from the torch.
•The first-stage reaction is seen as the inner cone of the flame
(which is bright white),
• while the second-stage reaction is exhibited by the outer
envelope (which is nearly colorless but with tinges /shades/
ranging from blue to orange).
• The maximum temperature of the flame is reached at the tip of the
inner cone;
•The second-stage temperatures are somewhat below those of the
inner cone.
•During welding, the outer envelope spreads out and covers the
work surfaces being joined, thus shielding them from the
surrounding atmosphere.
•The temperatures developed in the flame can reach 3300°C.

Flame Types
• The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas mixture is an
important factor in oxyfuel-gas welding
a) Neutral, At a ratio of 1:1
b) Oxidizing flame, With a greater oxygen supply
c) carburizing, or Reducing flame , flame having excess acetylene

Flame Types / cont…
a) Neutral flame
•It’s termed ”neutral” because it will usually have no chemical
effect on the metal being welded.
•It will not oxidize the weld metal; it will not cause an increase in
the carbon content of the weld metal.
b)excess acetylene flame/ Carburising flame
•As its name implies, is created when the proportion of acetylene
in the mixture is higher than that required to produce the neutral
Flame.
•Used on steel, it will cause an increase in the carbon content of
the weld metal.
c)Oxidizing flame
Results from burning a mixture which contains more oxygen than
required for a neutral flame.
It will oxidize or ”burn” some of the metal being welded.


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RAYA UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Technology

• Cutting processes remove material from the surface of

with cutting tools

Plain/ Peripheral Milling Cutter

Figure: Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a

We have F  R sin  , Fc  R cos    and

Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank wear (FW) is used

Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.

plot; C is the intercept on

n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut,

High speed steel:

Machining Operations & Parameters

Operation Type Speed Feed Depth of Cut

Drilling: Surface speed Parallel to the Tool penetration

Milling: Surface speed Perpendicular to Tool penetration

• Depth of Cut - d Do  Df (mm/rev -or-

Machining Calculations: Drilling

• Machining Time - Tm t  12 Dtan 90 - θ2  (min)

Power and Energy Relationships

where MRR = material removal rate

3.2. Basic Types of Deformation Processes

1. Bulk deformation (stock has high V/A)

Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

Wire and Bar Drawing

Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

Sheet Metal Bending

Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending

Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing

Shearing of Sheet Metal

Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing

• For most metals at room temperature, strength

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

• Higher forces and power required in the

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of

• Work-part shape can be significantly altered

MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 100

MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 101

MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 107

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MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 118

MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 119

MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 120

MEng3182 By G/giorgis B. 121

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