Discipline: Medical Physics

Medical physics is the application of physics concepts in

medicine, healthcare, and medical sciences.

Resources:

1. Medical Physics, Lectures in General Physics for Medical Sciences

Students. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321319390_Medical_Physics
_Lectures_in_General_Physics_for_Medical_Sciences_Students
2. An Introduction to Medical Physics, Editor Muhammed Maqbool, ©
Springer International Publishing AG 2017
3. Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students ,
International atomic energy agency VIENNA, 2005.
4. Nina Sultanova, Physics, University "PROF. D-R ASEN ZLATAROV" -
Burgas, 2014.
 Lecture № 1.
Mechanics. Fundamental quantities.
Motion of nonviscous and incompressible
fluids. Motion of
viscous fluids.
Blood pressure measurement.
Rotation
Phase separation in liquid
heterogeneous systems
 FLUID MECHANICS
A fluid is a substance that can flow. Hence, the term
includes both liquids and gases.
Liquids and gases have some similar properties.
Both can flow and take the shape of their container.
Gases have no elasticity of shape, only of volume.
Gases have no volume of their own, expand
indefinitely and completely fill the volume of the
container, while liquids have a volume of their own
and are weakly compressible. Liquids cannot be
compressed.
Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid
mechanics that studies fluids at rest. It embraces the
study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest
in stable equilibrium.

Fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that

deals with fluid flow—the science of liquids and gases in
motion.

Fn

S
When a body is immersed in a fluid, it exerts normal stress
forces on its walls. Pressure is numerically equal to the
normal force acting per unit area of the surface.

Fn N
p= , [ p ] = 2 = Pa
S m
•SI unit is pascal [Pa] and is defined as one newton per square
metre (N/m2)
¾ Atmospheric pressure is measured in hectopascals (hPa) :
1 hPa = 100 Pa.
¾Other units of pressure are also in common use.

1 mmHg = 0,0013158 atm = 133,322 Pa; 1 bar = 10 5 Pa

Millimeter of mercury for the pressure

 SI Units
The International System of Units (SI), commonly known as
the metric system, is the international standard for
measurement.
The seven SI base units, which are comprised of:

Length - meter (m)

Time - second (s)
Amount of substance - mole (mole)
Electric current - ampere (A)
Temperature - kelvin (K)
Luminous intensity - candela (cd)
Mass - kilogram (kg)
Pascal’s law states a change in the pressure applied to a
fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid
and to the walls of the container.

The pressure in a fluid depends on depth and on the value

of po. An increase in pressure at the surface must be
transmitted to every other point in the fluid. This is the basis
of Pascal’s law.

In other words p = const for all points of the fluid.

If additional pressure is applied at any point, it is transmitted
unchanged to all points of the fluid and to the walls of the
vessel.
• It has been found experimentally that liquids and gases create
pressure in all directions. The pressure at any point of a
stationary fluid is the same.
The fluid pressure acting at a point
can be given by the formula:

Pressure is a scalar
quantity.

The fluid pressure can be measured either in M.K.S units

or in S.I Units.SI unit is Pa: [p] = 1Pa = 1N/1m2
Pascal's law says that pressure applied to an
enclosed fluid will be transmitted without a change
in magnitude to every point of the fluid and to the
walls of the container. The pressure at any point in
the fluid is equal in all directions: р0 = р.
Hydraulic press
Consider how fluid weight affects the pressure distribution in
a uniform incompressible fluid of density ρ. In horizontal
equilibrium p = const, otherwise the fluid will not be at rest.
Therefore, the free surface of liquids at rest is always
horizontal (for areas far from the walls of the vessel).
The pressure exerted by a vertical column of liquid (or gas)
of cross-section S and height h on the base of the column
depends on its weight and the pressure is:
p = ρgh
is called hydrostatic pressure. It is proportional to the
height h of the column. The hydrostatic pressure is greatest
at the bottom of the vessel and is 0 at the free surface of the
fluid. It does not depend on the shape of the vessel, but only
on the height of the liquid above the given location.
For a lower layer of the liquid, the
hydrostatic pressure is greater.
Therefore, a body immersed in a
liquid (or gas) is buoyed up by force
FA (Archimedean force), which is
determined by Archimedes' law:

F A= ρgV

The magnitude of the buoyant force FA always equals the

weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
The Archimedean force FA is always directed vertically
upwards, and its point of application is at the center of gravity
of the displaced fluid volume. Archimedes' law is the basis for
the floating of bodies.
Another model that finds application in hydrodynamics is the
ideal fluid. It is a fluid in which the internal friction between
its layers is neglected and it is treated as incompressible.
Real fluids are viscous [‘viskis], i.e. frictional forces arise in
them during the relative movement of their individual layers.
The density and volume of liquids are weakly dependent on
external forces, i.e. they are weakly compressible. However,
this does not apply to gases. Criterion for compressibility of
gas media is the Mach’s number:
v
M =
vs
v – velocity of the gas flow and vs – velocity of sound in the gas flow
For М << 1 the gas is considered as an incompressible
medium.
For М ≥ 1 gases exhibit their compressibility and the
corresponding phenomena are studied in aerodynamics.
There are two methods in hydrodynamics for studying the fluid
motion
а) Lagrange method ‐ statistics
б) Euler's method
Euler's method– examines the distribution of the velocity
vector for the space occupied by a fluid.
The set of velocity vectors for all points in the fluid is called the
velocity vector field. It can be graphically depicted using fluid
lines and fluid pipes. We call a fluid line the imaginary line, at
every point of which the velocity vectors are on the tangent
line. The density of the streamlines is proportional to the
velocity of the fluid. If the velocity at any point in the fluid does
not change with time, the motion of the fluid is stationary.
(This is called the steady-state assumption.)
 v2
v1
v2
v1
v3
S2
Фиг. 1.32 Фиг. 1.33
S1

fluid lines fluid pipes

 Equation of continuity
: h1
S1 v1 = S2 v 2 h2
h3

For an incompressible fluid ( = ) The volume

of fluid that passes any section of the tube per second is
unchanged. The fluid that enters one end of a pipe or an
artery at the flow rate 1, must leave the other end at a rate 2
which is the same. Thus the equation of continuity can be
written as 1= 2. And the volume of the fluid crossing the tube
is =S Δ .The flow rate is then =S .
Another form of the continuity equation S1 v1 = S2 v 2
 Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli’s equation can be written between two sections

as : ρv
2
ρv
2
1
+ ρgh1 + p1 = 2
+ ρgh2 + p2
2 2
 Bernoulli’s equation
(basic equation of hydrodynamics)
Δm
p1

p1 > p2
S1

l2
l1 p2
h1 S2
h2 Δm

2 2
ρ v1 ρ v2
+ ρgh1 + p1 = + ρgh2 + p2
2 2

dynamic, hydrostatic and static pressure р

 For a horizontal tube, the
Bernoulli equation takes the h1
form h2
h3

ρ v2
+ p = const
2

The static pressure is minimum for the third tube of smallest

diameter, in which the fluid flows with the greatest velocity v3
and creates a corresponding maximum dynamic pressure.
Real fluids in motion exhibit some effects of frictional
or viscous forces. Whenever the work done against
these dissipative forces is comparable to the total
work done on the fluid or its mechanical energy,
Bernoulli’s equation can not be used.

Nevertheless, it can be used to describe adequately

the flow of blood in the large main arteries of a
mammal, but not in the narrower blood vessels.
 Motion of real fluids

Because of viscosity when real fluid is forced through a tube,

it flows more quickly near the tube's axis than near its walls.
Experiments show that some stress (such as
a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is
needed to sustain the flow. This is because a force is
required to overcome the friction between the layers of the
fluid which are in relative motion. For a tube with a constant
rate of flow, the strength of the compensating force is
proportional to the fluid's viscosity.
In general, viscosity depends on the fluid's state, such as its
temperature, pressure, and rate of deformation.
 Newton’s law of viscosity
In laminar movement of real fluids, tangential forces of internal
friction act between adjacent layers.

Expression du/dy shows the change in

velocity u of the fluid in a direction
1
u+du transverse to its direction of movement
F12
(the velocity gradient); S is the area of
dy 2 F21 u
Фиг. 1.38
the friction layers.
r r η – The proportionality factor is
F21 = − F12 the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, often
simply referred to as the viscosity.
Newton’s law of
viscosity:
The dynamic viscosity has in the SI units
du
F =η S the dimension :
dy [η] = Pa.s.
The value of η depends on the nature of the fluid and the
external conditions (temperature T and pressure p) and varies
widely from 10-5 Pa.s (for gasses) to 109 Pa.s (for liquid
asphalt).
As T increases, η decreases for liquids, and increases for
gases.

At tempratures near 0 К (at the Curie temperature ТС = 2,17 К)

liquid helium has η = 0. The phenomenon is called
superfluidity and was discovered by the Russian physicist
Kapitsa.
 There are two modes of fluid motion: laminar and
turbulent. Laminar motion is a slow motion Fig. (a) in which
the trajectories of adjacent fluid particles differ little from each
other. With a gradual narrowing of the cross-sectional
dimensions of the tube or an increase in the flow rate,
intensive mixing of the liquid occurs and the laminar regime
passes into turbulent Fig. (b).
 Speed profiles of laminar and turbulent motion.

dr

R r uvmax
umax = 2〈u 〉 u max = 1,23〈u 〉 max

а) Фиг. 1.39 б) Фиг. 1.40

Reynolds number (Re):

ρ〈u 〉l 〈u 〉l
Re = =
η ν
Here ν (ν = η/ρ) is called
kinematic viscosity
([ν] = m2.s‐1), аnd l is a
characteristic cross-sectional
dimension of th pipe(e.g. the
diameter).
 Methods for measuring the viscosity
In case η > 0.1 Pa.s the Stokes method is applied, which
consists in measuring the parameters of the movement of small
spherical bodies during their uniform fall into a viscous fluid.
Their movement is uniform, due to the balancing r r
of the
r
acting
forces : G + Fa + F = 0
According to Stokes' empirical law, G = FA + F
the force of internal friction F is : Y
fluid with
F = 6πηr v viscosity η
FA

r – radius of the spherical body, and m

r
v – its speed.
Calculating G = mg = ρVg and the buoyant L
g
[ boiənt ]force FA (V = 4πr3/3 – body v
volume) we arrive at η = kr2t, for k = 2(ρ - G

ρ′)g/9L, ρ и ρ′ are the body and fluid density

, аnd L and t – path and time of movement of
the ball in the liquid. η = k r2 t
For fluids with a lower viscosity, the Poiseuille method is
applied, which is based on the laminar movement of the
fluid in a thin capillary.
R
πR 4 Δpt πR 4 Δpt
V = ∫ ut.2πr.dr = ⇒ η= (*)
0
8ηl 8Vl

Δp = p2 − p1

pressure difference at both

ends of the capillary
Poiseuille's equation for determination of η can be successfully
applied to study the movement of blood in blood vessels.
Example : How will the volumetric blood flow through an artery
changes if its radius is reduced with 2 (for example, as a
result of atherosclerosis). The pressure difference remains
constant?
Solution: Initial blood flow and after the narrowing of the artery
are: . 4 4
πR Δpt π ( R / 2 ) Δ pt
V= V′=
8ηl 8η l

Therefore, the ratio of the initial blood flow V through a normal

artery to the flow through the sclerotized artery is: V : V′ = 4:1,
i.e. blood flow decreased 4 times .
In the arteries, the blood motion is laminar, and only near the
heart - turbulent. In pathological processes (e.g. increase in
density or decrease in viscosity of blood), the motion can
become turbulent. The noise from the turbulent motion of
blood is used in diagnostics mainly when measuring blood
pressure.
Dynamic viscosity of fluids at t = 20 °C
mPa.s.

Ethyl ehter Urine

Acetone Saliva
Methanol Blood serum
Benzene Blood plasma
Water Blood
Ethanol Glycerin 1

In practice another unit is used:

1 сР = 1 mPa.s
 Instead of dynamic viscosity in clinical practice, its
dimensionless modification relative viscosity η0 is used,
defined as the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of blood and
distilled water at the same temperature:

η
η0 =
η water

Since the dynamic viscosity of water at room T is η≅ 1mPa.s,

the relative blood viscosity is numerically equal to the dynamic
one. Normal blood viscosity values for a person are
between 3.4 and 5.7, being slightly higher for men.
It changes significantly in pathological processes: it decreases
to 1.7 in anemias, tuberculosis, in edematous conditions, etc.
and increases to 25 in diabetes, leukosis and severe
dehydration of the body. The change in η0 also affects the
erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ЕSR).
Example of liquids with different viscosities. The liquid on
the left has lower viscosity than the liquid on the right.
 Systolic and diastolic pressure

• The heart exerts pressure on the blood in the circulatory

system only during the time of contraction of the left
ventricle, called systolic pressure.
• However, arteries are elastic and during contractions they
expand, and during the pauses between them they contract
and exert pressure on the blood, called diastolic pressure.
• Elastic deformation of the aorta propagates along the
arteries as a pulse wave (pulse). Its frequency is equal to the
heart rate
• νh = 1-1.5 Hz.
 Velocities of blood movement
in СVS (cardiovascular system)

• Blood velocity and pulse wave velocity are different.

Blood velocity is greatest in the aorta (about 50 cm .s -1)
and gradually decreases in arteries, arterioles and capillaries to
approxiamately 0,5 mm. s-1.
• One of the reasons for this is the increase in the total cross-sectional
area of blood vessels with the distance from the heart.
• Another reason is the internal friction and friction in the walls of
blood vessels that actually exist during blood motion.
• When the blood returns to the heart, its velocity in the veins
gradually increases, and its maximum value is 30-35 cm.s-1

• The speed of the pulse wave is determined by the elasticity of

the blood vessels. Its normal values are between 6 and 8
m.s-1 , significantly greater than the speed of blood movement.
 Blood pressure
• Blood pressure is determined indirectly by measuring arterial
pressure using a device called a sphygmomanometer (from
sphygmus - pulse, gr.). The amount of external pressure that
interrupts blood circulation in the left arm at the height of the heart is
measured. An inflatable cuff is wound around this area and air is
pumped into it.
• Blood pressure in medicine is called the difference between the
pressure of the blood in a certain blood vessel and the
atmospheric pressure.
• Blood pressure depends strongly on the distance from the heart of
the place where it is measured. Therefore, for uniformity of
measurements, it is accepted to do this in the brachial artery, in the
middle of the arm of the left arm.
• Air pressure in the cuff can be read with a mercury, aneroid or
electronic manometer in mm Hg units. Movement in the brachial
artery below the cuff is monitored by sound perceived with a
stethoscope.
Manometers
 Korotkov’s tones
The method of Riva-Rocci
• Initially, a pressure is created in the cuff just above that at which the
pulse disappears (no sound in the stethoscope). The air from the cuff is
then deflated slowly, and when its pressure becomes slightly lower than
the systolic pressure, blood begins to flow in spurts (at small intervals).
This turbulent movement is accompanied by sounds called Korotkov
tones after the Russian doctor who described them. The pressure read at
this point is the systolic pressure.
• As the pressure in the cuff decreases, the sounds change, as the mode
of blood flow changes. They completely disappear in laminar motion
when the artery is not compressed. It has been experimentally proven
that the diastolic pressure is most accurately measured not when the
Korotkov tones cease to be heard, but shortly before that, when they
begin to fade away.
• The described indirect method for measuring blood pressure is named
after the Italian doctor Riva-Rocci (Scipione Riva-Rocci), who
developed in 1896 an easy-to-use mercury device.
 Blood pressure values

• The actual systolic and diastolic pressure values are sums

of the values measured with the sphygmomanometer and
the atmospheric pressure at the time the measurement is
taken.
• In medicine, values around 120 mm Hg = 16 kPa for the systolic and
80 mm Hg = 10.7 kPa for the diastolic pressure in a young and healthy
person are considered normal, denoted as RR 120/80.
• It is obvious that blood pressure values depend on the
measurement conditions - atmospheric pressure, altitude, distance
of the measurement site to the heart, body position, etc. On the
other hand, they are determined by physiological factors -
frequency and power of contractions, total blood volume, hydraulic
resistance of blood vessels, age (elasticity of vessels), etc.
 Direct measurement of blood
pressure
• For direct measurement of blood pressure during surgery, it is
necessary to connect the manometer to the blood vessel.
Central venous pressure is measured with a catheter in a vein
near the heart. When a water manometer is used, the catheter is
filled with an isotonic solution (isotonic solutions are those that
have the same concentration of salts as those in the body's
cells and blood), which contacts the blood in the vein and
transmits its pressure to the manometer.
• Pressure converters to electrical signal are also now used.
They are of two types: piezoelectric or those that change their
size under pressure, and thus their electrical resistance. They
are usually attached to the tip of the catheter, but there are also
miniature ones (on the order of 1 mm) for placement in the
heart or for free movement with the blood stream.
 Phase separation in heterogeneous systems
•Sedimentation
•Centrifugation
•Filtering
Sedimentation is the process by which the separation of
phases takes place under the action of gravity (gravity
forces) and the particles are deposited on the bottom of a
liquid volume and form a precipitation (sediment).

Heterogeneous systems are composed of two or more

phases and contain structural elements - dispersed
particles, cells, molecular aggregates or large molecules
that distort and confuse the fluid flow, which is why the
velocity profile is not linear.
 Motion of fluid heterogeneous systems
• The branch of mechanics that studies the property of gases and
liquids to flow and the property of solid bodies to deform is called
rheology (from the Greek word rheos for flow).
• This term was proposed by the American physical chemist Eugene
Bingham (ES Bingham) in 1929. The main dependence in rheology is
the relationship between the acting force and the reaction of the body
caused by it. For liquids, this dependence is Newton's law of internal
friction, and for solids - Hooke's law (R. Hooke) for deformation.
• Fluids that obey Newton's law are called Newtonian, and those
that do not - non-Newtonian. Newtonian fluids are water, true
solutions, low molecular weight organic compounds, etc. In
them, the dynamic viscosity coefficient depends on the type of
liquid and the presence of impurities in it, and for a given liquid
on the temperature, but does not depend on the velocity
gradient.
 Non-Newtonian fluid
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not
follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., constant viscosity
independent of stress. In non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity can
change when under force to either more liquid or more
solid. Ketchup, for example, becomes runnier when shaken
and is thus a non-Newtonian fluid. Many salt solutions and
molten polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, as are many
commonly found substances such as blood,
starch suspensions, corn starch, toothpaste, melted butter,
shampoo, etc.

Newtonian Non-Newtonian
fluid fluid
For non-Newtonian fluids, η depends on both the velocity
gradient and the pressure. Such are the dispersed
systems and solutions of high-molecular organic
compounds. Blood is a non-Newtonian fluid.

In other words, this means that a Newtonian fluid

continues to flow regardless of the forces applied to it.
Water, for example, is a Newtonian fluid because it retains
its properties no matter how strongly it is agitated.
This is in contrast to a non-Newtonian fluid, in which, after
stirring, a "hole" may remain (which slowly fills with time:
this is the behavior of, for example, creme brûlée and
cornstarch, as well as sand,etc.
Non-Newtonian fluid
 Viscosity of solutions and suspensions
The viscosity of a liquid changes if liquid or solid substances
are dissolved or dispersed in it. To describe these changes,
several new quantities are introduced - relative η, specific η.,
reduced η, and characteristic [η] viscosity.
η η η specific ηспециф.
ηотнос. = ηηrelative = ; η = η −
, ηηспециф. = ηотнос. − 1, η ред. =
specific solvent 1; η =
специф
reduced
.
, c[η ] = lim
;
η разтворител solvent с c →0 c
where η is the viscosity of the solution or suspension and c is
the molar concentration of the impurity. The viscosity of a
suspension with uniformly distributed particles can be
determined by Einstein's equation η = η (1 + k Φ ) s
In this equation, ηs is the viscosity of the suspension, η is the
viscosity of the suspension medium, k is a proportionality factor
that depends on the geometric shape of the dispersed particles
(for example, for a sphere k=2.5), Ф=V1/V2 – ratio of the total
volume of dispersed particles V1 to total suspension volume V2.
Solutions of high molecular weight organic substances and
suspensions are non-Newtonian fluids, i.e. their viscosity also
depends on the velocity gradient in the flow. A reason for their
non-Newtonian character lies in the changes in the orientation,
aggregation and disaggregation of the particles or their
deformation caused by the velocity gradient

А. Changes in the orientation B. Disaggregation of particles C. Deformation of particles

The relationship between viscosity and velocity gradient is not
unambiguous. In some cases, with an increase in the velocity
gradient, the viscosity increases, and in others, it decreases.
The increase in viscosity with an increase in the velocity
gradient is called dilatant movement (curve 2). (Тhis behavior is
observed because the system crystallizes under stress and behaves more like
a solid than a solution.)
Bingham fluid or plastic is a viscoplastic material that behaves
as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at
high stress. (Mayonnaise is a Bingham plastic. The surface has
ridges and peaks because Bingham plastics mimic solids under
low shear stresses).
η 2

1Newtonian fluid

4 Bingham fluid
3 biologic fluid.
Δv/Δx
 Blood viscosity. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

• Blood is a suspension with a dispersed phase - blood cells

and a dispersed medium - blood plasma. Blood viscosity
can be determined using Einstein's equation. For blood, the
quantity Ф will represent a ratio of the total volume of the
formed elements of the blood to the total volume of the
blood and is called the hematocrit.
ηs = η (1 + k Φ )

• At a hematocrit of 0.45, equal to that of blood in a healthy person,

blood has a dynamic viscosity coefficient ηs (3.6 – 4.7) Pa.s, and
η is plasma viscosity (1.7 – 2.2 mPa. s).
• In some diseases such as anemia, bone marrow cancer, increased
plasma density, etc. blood viscosity can change up to 5 times the
norm. Therefore, the determination of blood viscosity has an
important diagnostic value.
Although plasma is mostly water, it also contains molecules such as
electrolytes and proteins (especially albumin and fibrinogen). Because of
molecular interactions between these different components of plasma, it is
not surprising that plasma has a higher viscosity than water. In fact,
plasma at 37°C is about 1.8-times more viscous than water at the same
temperature; therefore, the relative viscosity (ηr) of plasma compared to
water is about 1.8.
The addition of formed elements to plasma (red cells, white cells, and
platelets) further increases the viscosity. Of these formed elements, red
cells have the greatest effect on viscosity. In the figure, the relative
viscosity at 0% hematocrit (plasma without cells) is about 1.8, as shown by
the y-intercept. Increasing red cell hematocrit increases relative viscosity.
Note that the increase is non-linear; increased hematocrit causes a
disproportionate increase in relative viscosity. Therefore, blood viscosity
strongly depends on hematocrit. At a normal hematocrit of 40%, the
relative viscosity of blood is about 4.
Patients with an abnormal elevation in red cell hematocrit
(polycythemia) have much higher blood viscosities. In fact, increasing the
hematocrit from 40 to 60% (a 50% increase) increases the relative
viscosity from 4 to 8 (a 100% increase). Increased viscosity increases the
resistance to blood flow and increases the work of the heart and impairs
organ perfusion. Some patients with anemia have low hematocrits, and
therefore reduced blood viscosities.
 veins

arteries
capillarie
s

plasma

А – separate cells,
Dependence of blood viscosity B - aggregation as coin pillars
on flow rate .
At low blood flow velocities (as in arterioles and venules),
individual erythrocytes in the blood aggregate, forming so‐
called coin pillars and the viscosity increases sharply.
A necessary factor for the formation of coin pillars are some
fibrillar proteins in the blood plasma (fibrinogen and gamma‐
globulin). At higher velocities (in the arteries), the pillars
collapse and the η of blood falls to its normal value of 4.5 cP.
• At 20оС, the viscosity of water is 0.01 P (poise) = 1 cP
(centipoise). In this case, the relative viscosity η/ηводаwater is
determined.

1 сР = 1 mPa.s
• Blood viscosity can be indirectly
determined by measuring the so-
called erythrocyte sedimentation
rate (ESR).
• When blood flow stops, blood cells
begin to settle due to their greater
density. The rate of sedimentation
of an individual erythrocyte,
considered as a spherical body,
can be found from the formula
obtained when determining the
viscosity by the Stokes method.
 r r r
Stokes method FA + FСтокс + G = 0
r r
Y
FСтокс = 6πηrv
флуид с r
вискозитет η FA FСтокс
erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
m 2r 2
r v= (ρ − ρ0 ) g
9η
L
v g
ρ ‐ body density; ρ0 – fluid
G density
Normal values of ESR : 11÷20
mm/h or 3 ÷6μm/s.

The formula also serves to measure viscosity of

fluids for values: η> 0.1 Pas
• Accelerated sedimentation of erythrocytes is observed in all
conditions accompanied by inflammation, destruction of
connective tissue, tissue necrosis, malignant processes and
immune disorders.
• ESR is especially strongly increased in purulent processes and
septic conditions. Metabolic diseases (diabetes mellitus,
thyrotoxicosis, etc.) are most often accompanied by
accelerated ESR, which is parallel to intoxication and tissue
breakdown.
• In anemia, the degree of acceleration depends on the number
of erythrocytes, changes in their shape and size, hemoglobin
filling, etc. It is especially elevated in macrocytic and
hemolytic anemias.
 Rotary viscometer - suitable for non-
Newtonian fluids with high viscosity
(кръв, полимерни разтвори) – фиг. Състои
се от неподвижен външен съд (цилиндър,
конус), в който е поставена изследваната
течност и вътрешен ротор (цилиндър,
конус) който се върти от електродвигател.
Върху въртящия вал е поставена спирална
пружина, която се осуква толкова повече,
колкото по-голямо съпротивление изпитва
ротора при своето въртене. Колкото по-
вискозна е течността, толкова по-голямо
съпротивление ще окаже тя върху върте-
нето на ротора и пружината ще се осучи на
по-голям ъгъл α. The bending angle α of
the spring is measured and the viscosity
of the liquid is calculated from this.
The viscosity measurement is carried out at different velocity gradients
(ie, at different distances between the walls of the two cylinders and at
different engine speeds) in order to establish the dilatant behavior of the
liquid.
 Centrifugation

Centrifugation is often used to speed up gravity separation

processes. Centrifugation is a separation process that uses
centripetal acceleration to accelerate the settling of particles.
The creation of centripetal force is accomplished by rapid
rotation.
Apparatus in which rapid rotation and accelerated
separation by means of centrifugal force are carried out are
generally called centrifuges, and the process to which the
dispersed systems are subjected - centrifugation.

Particles below 1 μm cannot be separated by

sedimentation because their settling velocity approaches
that of the Brownian movement.
 Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion is a specific type of motion in which an object travels
in a circle with a constant speed. For example, any point on a propeller
spinning at a constant rate is executing uniform circular motion. Other
examples are the second, minute, and hour hands of a watch. It is remarkable
that points on these rotating objects are actually accelerating, although the
rotation rate is a constant.
It is characterized by a certain period T and the angular frequency ω. The
period of rotation T is the time for which the body makes one complete
revolution and rotates through an angle ϕ = 2π rad. Linear frerequency
ν се number of revolution per unit time:
The units of measurement for period and frequency are
respectively s и s-1= Hz

Δϕ 2 π 1 ω
ω= = ν= =
Δt T T 2π
The direction of the acceleration vector is toward the center of the circle
This is a radial acceleration and is called the centripetal acceleration,
which is why we give it the subscript c or n (normal). The
word centripetal comes from the Latin words centrum (meaning “center”)
and petere (meaning “to seek”), and thus takes the meaning “center
seeking.”
In case of uniform circular
motion v = const, and
аc = v / R = const ,
2

The centripetal acceleration is

also normal acceleration.

v 2 ω2 R 2
an = = = ω2 R
R R
The centripetal acceleration vector
Then centripetal force which
points toward the center of the
makes the circular motion is:
circular path of motion and is an
acceleration in the radial direction.
The linear velocity vector is also Fc = ma c = m v 2 / R
shown and is tangent to the circle.
Newton's principles are fulfilled only in inertial frames of
reference. In non-inertial systems they are not valid.

If a body of mass m moves in a circle of radius R with a constant

angular velocity ω, then the body experiences the action of
another inertial force, which is called centrifugal force Fcf.
According to Newton's third law, this force opposes the normal
force or centripetal Fc, which makes the circular motion.
[sen tripədl]

r r v2 r 2 r
Fcf = −ma n = − m n = −mω Rn
R

Newton’s Third Law of Motion - To every action, there is always an

equal and opposite reaction. Or, forces always occur in pairs. Force on
a body A by B is equal and opposite to the force on body B by A.
 centrifugal
Fcf
.

Fcf. Fc

centripetal

Fcf
Fcf .
.
 The centrifugal force is directed outward from the center of
the circle, tending to move the body away from the axis of
rotation. We experience its effect when driving around
bends on the road.
The properties of centrifugal force are used in centrifugal
separators, which we commonly call centrifuges. They are
used to separate mixtures that consist of particles of
different densities. A test tube (cuvette) with a liquid
dispersion system is placed in the rotor of the centrifuge.
Under the action of Fc, the liquid system is separated into
layers, with the heaviest particles settling at the bottom of
the vessel.
The productivity of medical laboratory centrifuges is from 4 to
3000 ml. Spin frequency ν for centrifugation varies from 2,500 to
19,000 rpm. There are also ultracentrifuges with ν=19000 – 80000
rpm.
Ultracentrifuges are widely used in medicine for the study of
biological colloidal systems and macromolecules.
Preparative ultracentrifuges are one of the most used. They
serve to separate colloidal particles or macromolecules with
sizes above 0.1 μm from a dispersed medium.
Analytical ultracentrifuges are designed to determine the
molecular mass of macromolecules. Their rotor has only two
slots. During the movement of the rotor, the studied
molecules are directed to one end of the container according
to the difference between their density and the density of the
solvent.
Gradually, a density boundary is created in the initially homogeneous
medium, which slowly moves along the length of the container. The
molecular mass of macromolecules is proportional to the speed of
displacement of the density boundary. The position of the boundary is
determined optically by the difference between the refractive indices n or
by the attenuation of a beam of light transmitted transversely through the
container.
 Динамика на седиментация на еритроцит в кръвна плазма
sedimentation Fs = G − FA
force :
This force creates the acceleration of sedimentation.
If the erythrocyte densities ρ ' and the blood plasma ρ satisfy
ρ ' > ρ , for the magnitude of the sedimentation force we get:

Fs = ρ′Vg − ρVg = (ρ′ − ρ)Vg

Here V is the volume of the erythrocyte (also of the plasma

displaced by it), and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Value ρ ' - ρ is small (ρ ' ≈ 1,10.103 kg.m-3, ρ ≈ 1,02.103 kg.m-3 ) and
therefore the sedimentation acceleration created by the force Fs is
small.
Therefore, the sedimentation of the erythrocyte is a slow
process (its sedimentation rate is normally between 11 и 20
mm.h-1).
Динамика на цетрофугирането на еритроцит в кръвна плазма
 The force that creates the centrifugal acceleration а cf of
the erythrocyte during centrifugation is:

F cf = F ′ c − Fc = (ρ ′ − ρ )V ω 2 r = (ρ ′ − ρ )V 4 π 2 ν 2 r

This force increases rapidly with increasing rotation frequency ν

and can reach values much larger than the sedimentation
force. The ratio of the magnitude of centrifugation accelerations
а cf and sedimentation а s of the erythrocyte, according to
Newton's second law, is equal to the ratio of the magnitudes of
centrifugation and sedimentation forces:

a cf ′
Fcf 2 2 2 2
(ρ − ρ)V 4π ν r 4π ν r
n= = = =
аs Fs (ρ′ − ρ)Vg g
In modern ultracentrifuges, the rotation frequency reaches
tens of thousands of revolutions per minute, at which the
centrifugation acceleration becomes several orders of
magnitude greater than the gravitational acceleration g.
Example : For ν = 60000 min-1 = 1000s-1 ; r = 0,1 m, g = 9,81 m.s-2
, we get n = 4 .105, i.е. the acceleration of centrifugation is
about 400 thousand times greater than that of Earth.
Therefore, the time for centrifugation is much less than the
sedimentation time.

The acceleration of the erythrocyte in the centrifugal

direction is only apparently due to the inertial centrifugal
force. This force is fictitious, unreal, not the result of the
interaction of the erythrocyte with its surroundings, and it
does not create acceleration. (A car making a turn on a banked
road, etc..)
 Action of inertial forces on man

Man is often subjected to the action of

accelerating forces. These forces cause a
change in the magnitude or direction of its
acceleration. Aeronauts and especially
cosmonauts are subjected to particularly high
accelerations.
When accelerating along the length of the body, the person tolerates
relatively better acceleration in the direction from the head to the
feet (positive acceleration). Trained cosmonauts withstand positive
accelerations exceeding 8-9 times that of Earth (g).

At positive accelerations between 3g and 4g, the work of the muscles

becomes difficult, and at accelerations of 5g, body movement
becomes impossible and breathing becomes difficult.

At greater positive accelerations, vision is lost (white diaper)

and hearing acuity decreases. At accelerations of 9g even
trained people lose consciousness due to severe deterioration
of blood supply to the brain.
Human endurance of accelerations with a direction from the feet to
the head (negative accelerations) is less than 2-3g. With negative
accelerations, the increase in blood pressure in the head also leads to
loss of vision (red diaper), headache and loss of consciousness.
Man recovers faster after accelerating in a positive direction.
Accelerations in the direction from the chest to the back are
best tolerated. Pilots and astronauts during takeoff can easily
withstand accelerations in this direction up to 15g. Under
normal conditions when the body is in an upright position, the
hydrostatic pressure of the blood is p = ρgh
In weightlessness there is no hydrostatic pressure, the blood
pressure is the same everywhere and in the upper part of the
human body it is higher than usual, which leads to swelling of
the face.