TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

THE LEXICON SCHOOLS

(Wagholi●Hadapsar●Kalyani Nagar)
Notes
Class: XI Sec: Science Subject: Physics

Topic : Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Learning outcomes:
1. Students will able to understand the concept of Surface tension.
2. Students will become familiar with cohesive and adhesive forces
3. Students will be able to understand capillarity.
Pascal’s Law
https://youtu.be/EicdW2PEzOQ
Equation of continuity and Bernoulli’s theorem
https://youtu.be/4TQx_TRT57E
Application of Bernoulli’s theorem
https://youtu.be/OWRhfxXK5qU
Capillarity
https://youtu.be/OmssMQUbpM8
Introduction: Fluids
Fluids can be defined as any substance which is capable of flowing.
They don’t have any shape of their own.
For example:-water which does not have its own shape but it takes the shape of the container
in which it is poured.
Both liquids and gases can be categorized as fluids as they are capable of flowing.
Volume of solids, liquids and gas depends on the stress or pressure acting on it.
In this chapter we will study if we apply force on the fluid how does it affects the internal
properties of fluids.
Fluids offer very little resistance to shear stress.
We will also study some characteristic properties of fluids.
Pressure in Fluids:-
Normal force exerted by fluid per unit area.
This means force is acting perpendicular to the surface of contact.
Consider a body submerged in the water, force is exerted by the water perpendicular to the
surface of the body.
If there is no force applied perpendicularly but in the parallel direction then there will be
motion along the horizontal direction.
Since fluid is at rest and body is submerged in the fluid. Therefore there cannot be motion
along the horizontal direction.
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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

Therefore we always say the force is applied perpendicularly.

Pressure is a scalar quantity. Because the force here is not a vector quantity but it is the
component of force normal to the area.
Dimensional Formula [ML-1T-2]
SI Unit: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).
Atmosphere unit (atm) is defined as pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level.It is a
common unit of pressure.
1atm=1.013x105 Pa

Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that if the pressure is applied to uniform fluids that are confined,the fluids
will then transmit the same pressure in all directions at the same rate.
Pascal’s law holds good only for uniform fluids.
For example:-
Consider a vessel filled with water which is uniform throughout as there is only one type of
fluid which is water.
Consider a vessel which has oil and water then it is not uniform. As it have two different fluids.

Fluid should be confined meaning fluid is present within region in space. It is not allowed to
spread.
For example 1:-
A balloon filled with water and when we press it hard against the wall.
We will see the shape of the balloon changes. This is because if we apply force on balloon,
pressure is exerted on the water.
Water is uniform fluid and it is confined with in this balloon and is not allowed to spread.
On applying pressure it is transmitted in all other directions.
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a cylindrical object inside a fluid; consider 2 different positions for this object.
Fluid is at rest therefore the force along the horizontal direction is 0.

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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

Forces along the vertical direction:-

Consider two positions 1 and 2.
Force at position 1 is perpendicular to cross sectional area A, F1= P1
Similarly F2=P2
Total force Fnet= -F1+F2 as F1 is along negative y axis therefore it is –ive. And F2 is along +ive y -
axis.
Fnet =(P2-P1)A
This net force will be balanced by the weight of the cylinder(m).
Therefore under equilibrium condition
Fnet=mg=weight of the cylinder = weight of the fluid displaced.
=ρ Vg where ρ=density=volume of the fluid
=ρhAg where V=hA(h=height and A= area)
Therefore (P2-P1) A=ρhAg
P2-P1 = ρhg, therefore the difference in the pressure is dependent on height of the cylinder.
Consider the top of the cylinder exposed to air therefore P1=Pa(where Pa= P1 is equal to
atmospheric pressure.)
Then P2=Pa+ ρhg
Conclusion: The pressure P, at depth below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is
greater than atmospheric pressure by an amount ρhg.
The pressure is independent of the cross sectional or base area or the shape of the container.

Cylinder is inside the fluid.

Hydrostatic Paradox
Hydrostatic Paradox means: - hydro = water, static =at rest.
Paradox means that something taking place surprisingly.
Consider 3 vessels of very different shapes (like thin rectangular shape, triangular and some
filter shape) and we have a source from which water enters into these 3 vessels.
Water enters through the horizontal base which is the base of these 3 vessels we observe that
the level of water in all the 3 vessels is same irrespective of their different shapes.
This is because pressure at some point at the base of these 3 vessels is same.

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The water will rise in all these 3 vessels till the pressure at the top is same as the pressure at
the bottom.
As pressure is dependent only on height therefore in all the 3 vessels the height reached by the
water is same irrespective of difference in their shapes.
This experiment is known as Hydrostatic Paradox.

The three vessels A, B and C contain different amounts of liquids, all up to the same height
Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure states that thepressure exerted anywhere in a
confined incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions
throughout the fluid.
The above law means that if we consider a fluid which is restricted within a specific region in
space and if the volume of the fluid doesn’t change with the pressure,then the amount of
pressure exerted will be same as the amount of pressure transmitted.
Consider a circular vessel which have 4 openings and along these 4 openings 4 pistons are
attached.
When piston A is moved downwards pressure is exerted on the liquid in the downward
direction, this pressure gets transmitted equally along all the directions. As a result all the
other 3 pistons move equal distance outwards.

A circular vessel fitted with movable piston at all the four ends and when piston A is moved
downward a pressure is exerted downward. Equal amount of pressure is exerted along all the
directions as a result they will move equal distances outward.
Types of Fluid flow: Steady Flow

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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

Some streamlines for fluid flow

The flow of a fluid is said to be steady, if at any point ,the velocity of each passing fluid
particle remains constant within that interval of time.
Streamline is the path followed by the fluid particle.
It means that at any particular instant the velocities of all the particles at any point are same
.But the velocity of all the particles won’t be same across all the points in the space.
Steady flow is termed as ‘Streamline flow’ and ‘Laminar flow’.
Consider a case when all the particles of fluid passing point A have the same velocity. This
means that the first particle will have velocity V1 and second will have velocity V1 and so on. All
the particles will have the same velocity V1at point A.
At point B,all particles will have velocity V2.
Similarly at point C the velocity of all the particles is V3.
We can see that the velocity is changing from point to point but at one particular point it is
same.
No two streamlines can intersect.
If two streamlines intersect each other, the particles won’t know which path to follow and
what velocity to attain. That is why no two streamlines intersect.

Equation of Continuity
According to the equation of continuity Av = constant. Where A =cross-sectional area and
v=velocity with which the fluid flows.
It means that if any liquid is flowing in streamline flow in a pipe of non-uniform cross-section
area, then rate of flow of liquid across any cross-section remains constant.
Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying thickness.
Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1 and cross-sectional area of other end (II)= A2.
The velocity and density of the fluid at one end (I)=v1,ρ1respectively, velocity and density of
fluid at other end (II)= v2,ρ2
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t, across left cross-sectional is Area (I)
=A1xv1x∆t

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Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t across right cross-sectional Area(II) =
A2x v2x∆t
Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid does not change by applying pressure) that is
density remains sameρ1=ρ2. (Equation 1)
Along (I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along second point (II) mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t
By using equation (1). We can conclude that A1 v1 = A2 v2.This is the equation of continuity.
From Equation of continuity we can say that Av=constant.
This equation is also termed as “Conservation of mass of incompressible fluids”.

Conclusion:
Volume flux/Flow rate remains constant throughout the pipe. This means rate of flow of fluid of
liquid is more if cross-sectional area is more, then the velocity will be less,andvice-versa.
But the Av will remain constant.
So the volume which is covered by the fluid at any cross-sectional area is constant throughout
the pipe even if pipe has different cross-sectional areas.
The fluid is accelerated while passing from the wider cross sectional area towards the narrower
area. This means if area is more the velocity is less and vice-versa.

Turbulent Flow:
A fluid flow is said to be turbulent if the velocity of the particles vary at any point erratically.
This means fluid particles are moving here and there, they are not moving in organised manner.
They all will have different velocities.
Eddies are generated by this flow. Eddies are same as ripples.
All the particles are moving here and there randomly.
Bernoulli’s Principle
For a streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume
(ρv2/2) and the potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remain constant.
Mathematically:- P+ ρv2/2 + ρgh = constant
Where P= pressure ,
E. / Volume=1/2mv2/V = 1/2v2(m/V) = 1/2ρv2
E. /Volume = mgh/V = (m/V)gh = ρgh
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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

Derive: Bernoulli’s equation

Assumptions:
Fluid flow through a pipe of varying width.
Pipe is located at changing heights.
Fluid is incompressible.
Flow is laminar.
No energy is lost due to friction: applicable only to non-viscous fluids.
Mathematically: -
Consider the fluid initially lying between B and D. In an infinitesimal time interval Δt, this fluid
would have moved.
Suppose v1= speed at B and v2= speed at D, initial distance moved by fluid from to C=v1Δt.
In the same interval Δt fluid distance moved by D to E = v2Δt.
P1= Pressure at A1, P2=Pressure at A2.
Work done on the fluid at left end (BC) W1 = P1A1(v1Δt).
Work done by the fluid at the other end (DE) W2 = P2A2(v2Δt)
Net work done on the fluid is W1 – W2 = (P1A1v1Δt− P2A2v2Δt)
By the Equation of continuity Av=constant.
P1A1 v1Δt - P2A2v2 Δt where A1v1Δt =P1ΔV and A2v2Δt = P2ΔV.
Therefore Work done = (P1− P2) ΔV equation (a)
Part of this work goes in changing Kinetic energy, ΔK = (½)m (v 22 – v12) and part in gravitational
potential energy, ΔU =mg (h2 − h1).
The total change in energy ΔE= ΔK +ΔU = (½) m (v22 – v12) + mg (h2 − h1). (i)
Density of the fluid ρ =m/V or m=ρV
Therefore in small interval of time Δt, small change in mass Δm
Δm=ρΔV (ii)
Putting the value from equation (ii) to (i)
ΔE = 1/2 ρΔV (v22 – v12) + ρgΔV (h2 − h1) equation (b)
By using work-energy theorem: W = ΔE
From (a) and (b)
(P1-P2) ΔV =(1/2) ρΔV (v22 – v12) + ρgΔV (h2 − h1)
P1-P2 = 1/2ρv22 - 1/2ρv12+ρgh2 -ρgh1(By cancelling ΔV from both the sides).
After rearranging we get,P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 = (1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h2
P+(1/2) ρv2+ρg h = constant.
This is the Bernoulli’s equation.

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Torricelli’s law
Torricelli law states that the speed of flow of fluid from an orifice is equal to the speed that it
would attain if falling freely for a distance equal to the height of the free surface of the liquid
above the orifice.
Venturimeter
Venturimeter is a device to measure the flow of incompressible liquid.
It consists of a tube with a broad diameter having a larger cross-sectional area but there is a
small constriction in the middle.
It is attached to U-tube manometer. One end of the manometer is connected to the
constriction and the other end is connected to the broader end of the Venturimeter.
The U-tube is filled with fluid whose density is ρ.
A1= cross-sectional area at the broader end, v1 = velocity of the fluid.
A2=cross-sectional area at constriction, v2= velocity of the fluid.
By the equation of continuity, wherever the area is more velocity is less and vice-versa.As A 1 is
more this implies v1 is less and vice-versa.
Pressure is inversely ∝ to Therefore at A1 pressureP1 is less as compared to pressure P2 at A2.
This implies P1<P2 as v1>v2.
As there is difference in the pressure the fluid moves,this movement of the fluid is marked by
the level of the fluid increase at one end of the U-tube.

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Venturimeter: determining the fluid speed

By Equation of Continuity: -A1v1=A2v2.
This implies v2=(A1/A2)v1 (Equation(1))
By Bernoulli’s equation:- P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h = (1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h
As height is same we can ignore the term ρg
This implies P1-P2=(1/2) ρ(v22- v12)
=1/2ρ(A12/A22v12- v12)(Using equation(1)
=1/2ρv12(A12/A22 -1)
=1/2ρv12(A12/A22-1)
As there is pressure difference the level of the fluid in the U-tube changes.
(P1-P2) = hρmgwhere ρm(density of the fluid inside the manometer).
1/2ρv12(A12/A22-1)=hρmg
v1 = 2hρmg/ρ[A12/A22-1]-1/2
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow.
It is analogous to friction in solids.
Example:-
Consider 2 glasses one filled with water and the other filled with honey.
Water will flow down the glass very rapidly whereas honey won’t.This is because honey is more
viscous than water.
Therefore in order to make honey flow we need to apply greater amount of force. Because
honey has the property to resist the motion.
Viscosity comes into play when there is relative motion between the layers of the fluid.The
different layers are not moving at the same pace.
Stokes Law
The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly ∝to the velocity and
the radius of the sphere, and the viscosity of the fluid.
Mathematically:-F =6πηrv where
Let retarding force F∝v where v =velocity of the sphere
F ∝ r where r=radius of the sphere
F∝η where η=coefficient of viscosity
6π=constant
Stokes law is applicable only to laminar flow of liquids.It is not applicable to turbulent law.
Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity of a body moving through a viscous fluid.
It is attained when force of resistance of the medium is equal and opposite to the force of
gravity.
As the velocity is increasing the retarding force will also increase and a stage will come when
the force of gravity becomes equal to resistance force.

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After that point velocity won’t increase and this velocity is known as terminal velocity.
It is denoted by ‘vt’.
Mathematically:-
Terminal velocity is attained when Force of resistance = force due to gravitational attraction.
6πηrv =mg
6πηrv = densityxVg (Because density=m/V), density=ρ – σ where ρ and σ are the densities of
the sphere and the viscous medium resp.
6πηrv = (ρ – σ)x4/3πr3g where Volume of the sphere(V) =4/3πr3
By simplifying
=(ρ – σ)gx4/3r2x1/(6η)
vt =2r2(ρ – σ)g/9 η .This is the terminal velocity. Where(v=vt)
Surface Energy
Surface energy is the excess energy exhibited by the liquid molecules on the surface compared
to those inside the liquid.
This means liquid molecules at the surface have greater energy as compared to molecules inside
it.
Suppose there is a tumbler and when we pour water in the tumbler,it takes the shape of the
tumbler.
It acquires free surface.
Case 1: When molecules are inside the liquid:-
Suppose there is a molecule inside the water,there will be several other molecules that will
attract that molecule in all the directions.
As a result this attraction will bind all the molecules together.
This results in negative potential energy of the molecule as it binds the molecule.
To separate this molecule huge amount of energy is required to overcome potential energy.
Some external energy is required to move this molecule and it should be greater than the
potential energy.
Therefore in order to separate this molecule a huge amount of energy is require

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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

Case2: When the molecules are at the surface:-

When the molecule is at the surface, half of it will be inside and half of it is exposed to the
atmosphere.
or the lower half of the molecule it will be attracted by the other molecules inside the liquid.
But the upper half is free. The negative potential energy is only because of lower half.
But the magnitude is half as compared to the potential energy of the molecule which is fully
inside the liquid. So the molecule has some excess energy, because of this additional energy
which the molecules have at the surface different phenomenon happen like surface energy,
surface tension.
Liquids always tend to have least surface are when left to itself.As more surface area will
require more energy as a result liquids tend to have least surface area.

Surface Tension
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface which arises due to the fact that surface
molecules have extra energy.
Surface energy is the extra energy which the molecules at the surface have.
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface because the molecules have extra energy.
Surface energy is defined as surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.

Surface tension and Surface energy: practical applications

Consider a molecule which is present completely inside the liquid and if it is strongly attracted
by the neighbouring molecules then the surface energy is less.
Consider a molecule which is present partially inside the liquid the force of attraction by the
neighbouring molecules is lesser as a result surface energy is more.
Consider a molecule whose very little part is inside the water so very small force of attraction
by the neighbouring molecules as a result more surface energy.
Conclusion: - A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the surface energy between fluid and solid is
smaller than the sum of energies between solid-air and fluid-air.
This means Ssf( solid fluid) < Sfa(fluid air) + Ssa(Solid air)

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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

Stretching a film (a) A film in equilibrium;(b) The film stretched an extra distance.

Angle of Contact
Angle of contact is the angle at which a liquid interface meets a solid surface.
Significance of Angle of Contact
Angle of contact determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid or it will form
droplets on it.
If the Angle of contact is obtuse: then droplet will be formed.
If the Angle of contact is acute: then the water will spread.
Drops and Bubbles
Why water and bubbles are drops?
Whenever liquid is left to itself it tends to acquire the least possible surface area so that it has
least surface energy so it has most stability.
Therefore for more stability they acquire the shape of sphere, as sphere has least possible area.

Spherical Shape
Distinction between Drop, Cavity and Bubble
Drop: - Drop is a spherical structure filled with water.
There is only one interface in the drop.
The interface separates water and air.
Example: Water droplet.

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Water droplets
Cavity: -Cavity is a spherical shape filled with air.
In the surroundings there is water and in middle there is cavity filled with air.
Capillary Rise
In Latin the word capilla means hair. Due to the pressure difference across a curved liquid-air
interface the water rises up in a narrow tube in spite of gravity. Consider a vertical capillary
tube of circular cross section (radius a) inserted into an open vessel of water. The contact angle
between water and glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in the capillary is concave. As a
result there is a pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface. This is given by
(Pi – Po) =(2S/r) = 2S/(a sec θ )= (2S/a) cos θ (i)
Thus the pressure of the water inside the tube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface)is less
than the atmospheric pressure.
Consider the two points A and B. They must be at the same pressure,
P0 + h ρ g = Pi = PA (ii) where ρ is the density of water,and h is called the capillary
h ρ g = (Pi – P0) = (2S cos θ )/a (By using equations (i) and (ii))
Therefore the capillary rise is due to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller radius.

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 TLS –Physics-Mechanical Properties of Fluids/Class XI/October2020-21

THE LEXICON SCHOOLS

(Wagholi●Hadapsar●Kalyani Nagar)
Worksheet
Class: XI Sec: Science Subject: Physics
Topic : Mechanical Properties of Fluids
Name: Date:

Q1. Define Surface tension.

Q2. Give SI unit and dimensions of surface tension.
Q3. Explain surface tension on basis of kinetic theory.
Q4. Define surface energy.
Q5. Explain why do small bits of camphor dropped on water surface dance about.
Q6. Derive an expression for surface energy.
Q7. Define angle of contact between a solid surface and a liquid.
Q8. On what factors does angle of contact depend?
Q9. At what height above the surface of the earth value of acceleration due to gravity is
reduced to one fourth of its value on the surface of the earth?
Q10. What are cohesive and adhesive forces?
Q11. Water sticks to the walls in glass tube but mercury does not. Explain its reason.
Q12. Draw labelled diagrams to show angle of contact between i) water and glass ii) mercury
and glass.
Q13. What is capillarity?
Q14. Establish a relation among height h of water column in a glass capillary tube, the internal
radius r of the tube and surface tension T of water.
Q15. How much work will be done in enlarging the surface area of a soap bubble by 1 cm 2
Q16. How much work will be done in making soap bubble of diameter 2 cm
Q17. How much work will be done in increasing the diameter of a soap bubble from 2 cm to 5
cm?
Q18. A mercury drop of radius 1 cm is sprayed into 106 droplets. Calculate the energy
expanded.
Q19. Explain stream line and turbulent motion.
Q20. Discuss variation of pressure with depth.
Q21. Explain viscosity.
Q22. What is hydrostatic paradox?
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