Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1086–1091

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Grid connected solar photovoltaic system as a tool for green house gas
emission reduction in Turkey
Aminu Dankaka Adam, Gokhan Apaydin n
Department of Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Zirve University, Gaziantep 27260, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energy production in a safe and hazard free manner is one of the world's greatest concern. Since the
Received 24 December 2014 inception of Kyoto Protocol, which was adopted in 1997 and entered into force in February 2005,
Received in revised form countries have started to adopt different measures for emission reduction such as electricity generation
26 May 2015
from renewable energy sources; as the source is free from green house gas (GHG) or CO2 emission.
Accepted 18 September 2015
Available online 10 November 2015
Legislations and financial incentives have been provided by some governments for encouragement and
ensuring good returns to the investors in renewable energy sector. This paper analyzes how a 500 kWp
Keywords: solar photovoltaic (PV) system for electricity generation contributes significantly in the GHG emission
Renewable energy reduction and also the potential impact of introducing CO2 emission reduction cost in the solar PV
Green house gas emission
electricity generation. The result shows that the emission reduction is of the order of hundreds of tons of
Solar photovoltaic system
CO2 and CO2 emission reduction cost has a positive impact on the cumulative cash flow of the system.
CO2 emission reduction cost
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
2. Solar photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
3. Factors affecting potential availability and price of PV generated electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
3.1. Intermittence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
3.2. Transmission constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
3.3. Material availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
3.4. PV cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
4. GHG terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
4.1. Green house gases (GHG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
4.2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
4.3. Carbon footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
4.4. Carbon offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
5. Fuel mix, GHG avoidance, and GHG emission factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
6. Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
7. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091

1. Introduction

n
Energy production in a safe and hazard-free manner is one of the
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 90 342 211 6793; fax: þ90 342 211 6677.
E-mail addresses: ameendkk@gmail.com (A.D. Adam), world's greatest concerns. Many analyses have shown that substitut-
gokhan.apaydin@zirve.edu.tr (G. Apaydin). ing conventional energy sources (such as natural gas, coal, etc.) with

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.023
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.D. Adam, G. Apaydin / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1086–1091 1087

non-conventional sources (such as solar, wind, etc.) for electricity day [14]. Translating these insulation values to usable electricity
generation would result in drastic green house gas (GHG) emission depends on the PV conversion efficiency, the inverter loses, wiring,
reduction [1–7]. Since the inception of Kyoto Protocol, which was and other system component losses [10]. Fig. 1 provides an over-
adopted in 1997 and entered into force in February 2005 [8], countries view of annual variation of solar electricity generated by 1 kWp PV
have started to adopt different measures for emission reduction ran- system in different cities of Turkey [14]. Turkey has seven regions
ging from generating electricity from non-conventional or renewable that are divided according to climate, location, flora and fauna,
energy sources; pricing policy in significant GHG emission reduction human habitat agricultural diversity, transportation, topography, etc.
and preferential price known as feed-in-tariff for encouragement and Each region has different solar potentials as shown in Table 1 [14]. It
ensuring good returns to the investors in renewable energy sector [1]. is seen from Table 1 that the southeastern Anatolia region has the
This paper analyzes how 500 kWp (kiloWatt peak) electrical power best condition of solar energy and Gaziantep is one of the biggest city
generated from solar photovoltaic (PV) system design based on the in the region. For these reason, Gaziantep is chosen as a case study;
solar data of Gaziantep city in Turkey contributes significantly in the as the city is experiencing intensive investments such as modern
GHG emission reduction and also the potential impact of introducing buildings and new industries. Gaziantep has good solar energy
CO2 emission reduction cost in the solar PV electricity generation has potentials with an average irradiation of 1460 kW h/m2 per year and
been analyzed for the proposed power case. approximately sunshine duration hours of 2993 annually [14].
Therefore, solar energy has a big role to play in satisfying energy
demand of the city as well as reducing its GHG emission [15].
2. Solar photovoltaic

Solar PV modules (or group of PV cells) are made of semi- 3. Factors affecting potential availability and price of PV gen-
conductor material and are normally arranged as arrays of indivi- erated electricity
dual modules use to convert sunlight into direct electric current,
which later is converted into alternating current through an inver- 3.1. Intermittence
ter if the system output is to be connected to the grid [9]. In 1950s,
the first cell was built with less than 4% efficiency [10] since then Intermittence is the variability of the solar resources which
the efficiency of the cell is substantially improved over time with a results from the variation in the generation that depends on the
drastic decrease in its price. The current PV cell available for com-
mercial has an average efficiency ranging from 15% to 20% [11]. Table 1
Turkey has a good geographical location to develop solar power Regional distribution of Turkey's annual solar energy potential [20].

plants as it lies in a sunny belt between 36° and 42° North latitudes
Regions Total solar energy Sunshine duration
and between 26° and 45° East longitudes, bordering the Medi- (kW h/m2-year) (h/year)
terranean, Aegean, and Black Seas [12]. The Mediterranean Sun Belt
goes through the country, placing Turkey in one of the most stra- Southeast Anatolia 1460 2993
Mediterranean 1390 2956
tegic positions in Europe for the purposes of generating solar power
Eastern Anatolia 1365 2664
[13]. Every year, the expected average solar irradiation in Turkey is Central Anatolia 1314 2628
1311 kW h/m2 per-year and 3.6 kW h/m2 per-day and the total Aegean 1304 2738
annual insulation period (amount of solar energy striking a flat Marmara 1168 2409
Black Sea 1120 1971
surface overtime) of approximately 2460 h per-year and 7.2 h per-

Fig. 1. Annual variation of solar electricity generated by 1 kWp PV system [20].

1088 A.D. Adam, G. Apaydin / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1086–1091

availability of the renewable sources (e.g. sunlight). Intermittence burning, trees and wood products, solid waste and certain che-
limits the resource contribution to the grid as well [16]. To reduce mical reactions, nitrous oxide (N2O) that results from industrial
any negative effect that may result from the intermittence of the and agricultural activities, solid waste and fossil fuel combustion
renewable energy sources and to attain maximum utilization and and methane (CH4) which results from transport and production
manage high level of reliability of this source, adaptable advance of natural gas, oil and coal and also from other agricultural prac-
control system is paramount, or enabling technology such as sto- tices and livestock among others. Since the industrial revolution
rage [17]. Electricity generation by PV system itself could provide greenhouse gas emission increases worldwide, and each country
large share of system's electricity if there exist a storage system at produces these gases, some far more than the others depending on
reasonable cost. the economic activity, income level, population, climate condition
and land use. This led to the high increase in the concentration of
3.2. Transmission constraints the green house gases in the atmosphere [22].

Potential reduction of the intermittence can be achieved by 4.2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent
increasing the special diversity and also the cost of the PV gener-
ated electricity could be lowered for the location with poor solar Irrespective of the gases composed in the GHG, it is collectively
resources when there is a good transmission system with less referred as CO2 emission. This is because CO2 gas gives a reference
constraint [18]. that permits comparability with the other GH gases global
warming potential (GWP). The emission can be found in a number
3.3. Material availability of methods. These include emission factor, direct and monitoring
measurement, engineering estimates, and mass balance [22].
Material constrain in the other type of certain advanced PV
technologies (such as thin-film) that could have effects on the PV 4.3. Carbon footprint
generated electricity. This is despite the fact that for many other
types of PV technologies, the materials are unlimited for any Carbon footprint is attributed to the GHG source as it measures
estimated demand [19]. the quality of the GHG based on the environmental impact of a
particular operation or individual or organization lifestyle [23]. It
3.4. PV cost can be primary footprint, i.e. from the summation of direct emis-
sion from the combustion of fossil fuels or secondary footprint i.e.
The PV cost is also another factor affecting potential availability from the summation of indirect emission from the good and
and price of PV generated electricity. Different governmental services.
strategies are in place with the aim of reducing the cost of the PV
systems. These strategies involve sustainable and adequate 4.4. Carbon offset
research and development effort with the aim of reducing the PV
module cost, improving the module efficiency and system design Carbon offset is a credit set by an organization or individual to
as well [20]. reduce the GHG emission in order to offset the GHG emission
Despite the factors mentioned above, from 1995 to 2013 global made elsewhere [22]. The organization or individual is carbon free,
PV market experienced a promising advancement with an average if their number of carbon offset is same as their carbon footprint.
40% annual growth rate as shown in Fig. 2 [21].

5. Fuel mix, GHG avoidance, and GHG emission factor

4. GHG terminologies
Fuel mix is a combination of more than one energy source for
4.1. Green house gases (GHG) electrical power generation in a country. This is necessary to avoid
total dependency on a single or one particular source, and to
Green house gases are gases in the atmosphere that trap heat, explore the available natural resources around as well as to ensure
which are major contributor to the climate change. These gases are environmental and ecological protection from GHG emission. GHG
composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) that comes from fossil fuel avoidance is a measure taken in reducing the intensity of the GHG
emission during electrical power generation that uses conven-
tional energy sources. Therefore, for a country to lower GHG
emission rate, it should have high renewable energy portion in its
fuel mix. GHG emission factor is an indicator of how much GHG
(CO2, N2O, CH4, etc.) is emitted for every kW h of electricity gen-
erated. This factor can vary from one energy supply company to
the other depending on the technology and the energy source
used. It is normally measured in kilogram per kiloWatt hour (kg/
kW h) or ton per kiloWatt hour (t/kW h) of the saved CO2 as the
remaining gases are all converted to CO2 equivalent in terms of
their GWP [22].

6. Case study

As it is mentioned, Gaziantep city has been chosen as a case

study as it has good solar energy potentials with an average irra-
diation of 1460 kW h/m2 per year and approximately sunshine
Fig. 2. Solar PV global capacity 1995–2013 [21]. duration hours of 2993 annually. A 500 kWp solar photovoltaic
 A.D. Adam, G. Apaydin / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1086–1091 1089

system, designed and presently under construction in Nizip, capacity factor of PV system is from 5% to 20% [24]. Capacity factor of
Gaziantep city has been considered for study. All necessary solar 19% has been proposed for grid connected system as a function of
radiation data required for the design are obtained from high temperature performance of the PV panel, panel orientation to
RETScreen “The RETScreen is a Clean Energy Project Analysis the sun, insulation of the project location or efficiency of the elec-
software, designed by Department of Natural Resources Canada trical system [11]. Therefore, a capacity factor of 20.125% for the
which has a broad database of meteorological data including insulation value of the Gaziantep is a good value to be considered for
global daily horizontal solar irradiance and also a database of a grid connected solar PV system in that particular location. For this
various renewable energy systems components from different particular study, the following information has been given to the
manufacturers” [24]. The implications of RETScreen international software as a proposed power case for the energy model as shown
as commercial software have been assessed by the firm SGA in Table 2.
Energy Limited (founded in 1988, a trusted Canadian sustainable
energy and climate change consulting firm). For both present, i.e.
1998–2004, and the future, i.e. up to 2012, and for Canada and the 7. Results and discussion
world. There is no much issue with the validity of the results
obtained from the software. Future implications have been con- Through using the RETScreen software, the CO2 emission
sidered under two RETScreen funding issues; i.e. discontinued and reduction from the proposed energy model has been examined.
continued funding at the present level. For these two periods the The RETScreen is used to determine the annual GHG emission
implication of the RETScreen software has been evaluated against reduction for the project compared to conventional technology
four performances, i.e. cumulative user savings in relation to based cases and the results are presented in terms of tons of CO2
RETScreen International as a result of people using the software per-year that will be equivalent to the emission reduction
and related tools; cumulative installed capacity of clean energy regardless of the actual gases composed in the emission, and this
projects built in relation with RETScreen use; cumulative installed is achieved by converting CH4 and N2O to the equivalent CO2
value of these projects and the annual greenhouse gas emission
reductions of the clean energy projects built that can be associated Table 2
Proposed case power system.
with RETScreen use. SGA concludes after comparing the continued
funding and discontinued funding scenarios that further invest- System type Photovoltaic
ment through 2012 will help save billions of dollars for the Power capacity 500 kWp
RETScreen users worldwide. They also conclude that the value of Longitude and latitude 37.82105° long., 37.120010° lat.
these added to energy efficiency measures associated with Heating and cooling design value  10° and 70°
Earth temperature 25°
RETScreen use will be in the order of billions of dollars. Annual CO2 Capacity factor 20.1%
savings for the world, impacts will be substantially higher [25]. Electricity exported to the grid 881.5 MW h
The formulation procedure of the design principle for the daily
and annual energy generated by the system as well as the system
capacity factor is as follows. Table 3
The solar radiation data from RETScreen shows that the Gaziantep GHG emission reduction of 500 kWp SPV system, base case electricity system.
Country region (Turkey-Gaziantep).
city has an average irradiation value of 4.83 kW h/m2 per day. The
power generated per day is 500 kWp  4.83¼2415 kW h. The result Fuel type GHG emission Annual GHG emis- Equivalent of barrel of
can also be written as 2.415 MW h per day. The capacity factor in factor (tCO2/ sion reduction crude oil not consumed
percent is 20.125% obtained as the ratio of actual energy produced by MW h) (tCO2)
the system annually (2.145 MW h  365¼ 881.475 MW h per year) to
Coal 1.059 933.2 2170
annual system energy at a constant rated power (24  365  Oil 0.779 686.9 159
500 kW¼4380 MW h per year). This capacity factor measures the Natural gas 0.376 331.4 771
productivity of the energy generating resource. The typical range

Fig. 3. Financial analysis with the effect of GHG emission reduction income from coal on annual savings and incomes.
1090 A.D. Adam, G. Apaydin / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1086–1091

Fig. 4. Financial analysis with the effect of GHG emission reduction income from oil on annual savings and incomes.

Fig. 5. Financial analysis with the effect of GHG emission reduction income from natural gas on annual savings and incomes.

Table 4 Table 5
Financial input parameters [27]. Financial analysis result without emission reduction price [25].

GHG reduction credit rate USD/tCO2 736.5 Total annual cost and debt payment USD 83,391.00
Inflation rate 9.0% Total annual savings and income USD 124,288.00
Project life 25 years Pre-tax IRR – equity 44.2%
Debt ratio 70% Pre-tax IRR – asset 21.9%
Debt term 4.50% Simple payback 5.6 years
Debt term 7 years Equity payback 3.2 years
Total initial cost USD 702,000

the same amount of electricity generated using coal, oil or natural

emission in terms of their GWP and it also adjusts the reduction to
gas respectively as the energy source. With the current feed-in-
account for transmission and distribution losses and GHG credit if
tariff of the country, it is interesting to note that the project has a
any [24]. The GHG emission factors of three different types of fuel
simple payback period of 5.6 years only as shown in Table 5. This is
are available in the software. Table 3 shows the emission factors
based on the available fuel type in RETScreen software. almost less than one quarter of the project life of 25 years [24].
Analysis of the result shows that the project annually supply Also the project has a good internal rate of return. Thus, the pro-
881.475 MW h/year of electricity. And also this 500 kWp PV sys- ject can be considered desirable to be implemented since it is
tem serves as a means of reducing 933.2, 686.9, or 331.4 tons of proven to be environmentally beneficial and financially viable and
greenhouse gas emission to the atmosphere when compared with profitable.
 A.D. Adam, G. Apaydin / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1086–1091 1091

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