Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews: S. Bilgen

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption

S. Bilgen n
Department of Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 17 March 2014
Received in revised form
30 May 2014
Accepted 1 July 2014
This paper presents information on global energy consumption by fuel type (liquid fuels, coal, natural gas,
renewables and nuclear) and sectors (buildings, industrial, transportation and electricity), and environmental
impact of global energy consumption (SOx, NOx and CO2 emissions). There is a strong relationship between
energy consumption and economic growth. The Global Financial Crisis has affected the global economic
growth violently. The governments have recently adopted some effective measures to ght against the Global
Financial Crisis. The structure of energy consumption and the conditions of SOx, NOx, and CO2 emissions affect
the global changes (acid rain and greenhouse effect). Today, considerable effort is being devoted to reduce CO2
emissions because of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change. This publication presents multidisciplinary
perspectives on the interrelated topics of energy consumption, energy security and energy policy. Additionally,
the present study examines the relationship between energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Energy consumption
Environmental impact
Fuel
Renewables
Industrial sector
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
Structure of global energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
2.1.
Global energy consumption by fuel type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
2.1.1.
Liquid fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
2.1.2.
Coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
2.1.3.
Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
2.1.4.
Renewables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
2.1.5.
Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
2.2.
Global energy consumption sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
2.2.1.
Buildings sector (residential and commercial) energy consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
2.2.2.
Industrial sector energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
2.2.3.
Transportation sector energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
2.2.4.
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
2.2.5.
Energy losses in sectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
3. Environmental impact of global energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
3.1.
CO2 emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
3.2.
SOx emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
3.3.
NOx emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
1. Introduction
Tel.: 90 462 3774273.

E-mail address: selcuk61bilgen@yahoo.com
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.004
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Energy is essential for economic and social development and

improved quality of life in all countries [1]. Energy is dened as the
ability to do work and it can be found in different forms such as
S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902
chemical, thermal, electricity, mechanical, gravitational, nuclear, radiant, sound, and motion. Energy can be stored, converted and/or
amplied depending on the application. Energy sources can be fossil
(petroleum, coal, betumes, natural gas, shale oil, etc.), renewable
(alternative) (biomass, hydro, wind, solar, geothermal, marine, hydrogen, etc.) and ssile (uranium, thorium, etc.) [2].
Energy is a special topic because it is a key input to almost all
other consumptions and production processes. Energy is therefore
a crucial parameter controlling growth and determining many
aspects of human activity in general [3].
The increases in economical growth of the developing countries in the last decades have caused rapid increase in energy
consumption. According to Kaygusuz and Bilgen, this trend is
expected to increase in the near future [4]. Energy use is very
important for people's survival and development. The increases in
energy consumption have usually affected to improve life styles
[5]. Consumption is a key lever to achieve more sustainable
development. Unsustainable consumption is a major cause of
global environmental deterioration, including overexploitation of
renewable resources and pollution caused by fossil fuels [6].
Li et al. have recognized a strong relationship between energy
consumption and economic growth. Energy demands of most
countries declined during the economic depression which caused
a worldwide economic crisis between 2008 and 2009 [7]. The
Global Financial Crisis has been called the most serious nancial
crisis since the Great Depression. This crisis has caused a
signicant decline in economic activity [8].
The by-products of energy production, distribution, and consumption dene the single largest environmental loading of
society when taken together. Awareness of this loading has
recently evolved from a focus on point sources of pollution with
point effects to distributed sources with distributed effects [9].
Major problems in global economy are energy and environmental security. Fossil fuels are conned to a few regions of the
world. The continuity of supply is governed by dynamics of
political, economical and ecological factors. Increased growth
and demand for the welfare of developed and developing countries is creating a higher pressure on energy resources. A large part
of new consumers in developing countries have already started
purchasing high power so as to be able to access commodity and
energy markets worldwide, thus boosting the energy consumption
and competition for all kinds of resources [10].
A projection of the future energy consumption is a vital input to
analyze economic, energy, and environmental policies. An outlook on
the future energy consumption helps us in deciding on future energy
investment. It is very important that the prediction of future energy
consumption be as accurate as possible. Since there is no information
about the future of industrial structure and level of energy efciency
in each industry for a country, we may start with the assumption that
it will follow the usual trend observed in the past. This is exactly how
we have made our projections on the future energy intensity and
consumption: the projections are based on their historical trend
identied by the experience model [11].
Energy source is the basic element of socio-economic development. Energy supply and security has become the major issues of
the development of human society and global political and
economic pattern. Countries in the world have natural resource
endowment conditions and different economic development level.
Thus, energy supply and consumption of different countries also
have some geographical differences [12].
2. Structure of global energy consumption

In view of the new millennium challenges for the modern
faster socio-economic upgradation and adoption of new lifestyle,
891
the industrial development seems to be at a very high demand as

revealed from the on-going energy consumption and its anticipated energy requirements as a whole in developed countries in
general and in developing countries of the world in particular. It
appears that energy demand will keep increasing but the conventional sources for generating electricity will deplete with time or
may become environmentally hazardous enhancing global warming. Due to deplete of coal, petroleum and natural gas reserves
and/or associated world politics, the nuclear energy source is also
being considered as one of the alternate by the developing
countries but because of its hazardous issues, relatively higher
expenses and technological monopolies, it is not approachable for
most of the countries of the world. Anticipating this decline,
renewables are being given preferences as alternate and longlasting sources of energy generation. This rational approach is
environmental friendly and free from the danger of producing
pollution and health hazards of the people [13].
Though global energy demand and resource consumption are
at a slower rate than in recent years, it is projected to increase over
the next several decades [14]. The need for energy and fuels is one
of the common threads throughout history and related to development criteria for developing countries. It is vital for consumption of energy to be used in a productive manner for sustainable
development due to the increase of petroleum prices recently and
the limited lifetime of fossil fuels [15]. Most of the global increase
comes from developing countries for energy and population.
As Lawrence et al., the issues of total energy consumption and
carbon emissions are inextricably related to the problem of energy
inequality among the countries of the world [16].
The world consumption of energy in 1990 was about 1 billion
gigawatts, and now is approaching 10 billion gigawatts. This
tenfold increase in one century is the product of a threefold
increase in world population and a roughly threefold increase in
average per capita use. The increase in per capita energy use is
linked to the growth of the world economy [9].
As discussed by Zhang and Conan, the United States maintains
a signicant volume of demand for energy but its relative
consumption share is decreasing over time, from 24.1% in 2010
to 19.8% by 2050. Japan sustains very high demand in oil with a
share of 31.5% in the global market in 2010, 27.7% in 2030, and
24.8% in 2050. Global energy consumption is projected to increase
signicantly, growing from 13.6 billion tons of oil equivalent
(t.o.e.) in 2010 to 44.6 billion t.o.e. by 2050. Owing to China's
signicant and growing role within global energy markets, global
coal demand increases from 3.6 billion t.o.e. in 2010 to 12.9 billion
t.o.e. in 2050. Global coal energy demand also expands from 26.5%
in 2010 to 28.9% in 2050, with gas and electricity representing a
contracting share of total demand [17].
10% of the population of the world exploits 90% of fossil fuel
resources. Today's energy systems rely heavily on fossil fuel
resources diminishing ever faster. The world must prepare for a
future without fosil fuels. Sustainable energy consumption has
become urgent matter for all countries [18].
World energy consumption increases from 524 quadrillion Btu
in 2010 to 630 quadrillion Btu in 2020 and 820 quadrillion Btu in
2040 (Table 1) [19].
2.1. Global energy consumption by fuel type
If all of the carbon present in the fuel is burned to carbon
dioxide, all of the hydrogen is burned to water, and all of the sulfur
is burned to sulfur dioxidecombustion is complete [20,21]. Saving
fuel is the most important measure for the protection of the
environment and climate. Development will be shaped by saving
resources, decelerating fuel consumption, and supporting technical
developments [22].
892
Globally, in view of different factors such as fast depletion of

fuel resources, increasing consumption of fossil fuel, uncertainties
with the future availability of fosil fuel, increasing world energy
demand, energy and cost saving, increase in pollutants emissions
and producing skin diseases and climatic changes (greenhouse,
heating Earth), many studies have been directed for investigations
on using different sources of energy instead of oil and its
derivatives. Among them we can cite natural gas and biofuel [2].
Many governments and business executives around the world
have ambitious plans towards changing their energy mix and
investment plans. These plans include more renewables and more
low-carbon energy. However, the global energy mix is still likely to
be dominated by fossil fuels in the foreseeable future [23].
The use of all energy sources increases over the time horizon of
the AEO2014 and AEO2013 Reference case (Table 2). The importance of energy security, the harmful effects of fosil fuel emissions,
and the increase of oil prices support use of nuclear power and
renewable energy over the projection. Policies and incentives of
governments improve the prospects for non-fossil forms of energy
in many countries in the world in the Outlook [24].
2.1.1. Liquid fuels

The liquid is composed of a very complex mixture of oxygenated hydrocarbons determined its composition intrinsically by
the rate of reaction and product quenching, and extrinsically by
the feed composition [20].
The major source of energy is petroleum, rising from about 38%
in 1950 to 45% in 1975, and then declining to about 40% in
response to the energy crisis of the 1970s. The transportation
Table 1
World energy consumption by country grouping, 20102040 (quadrillion Btu).
Source: Ref. [19].
Region
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

percent change
20102040
OECD
Americas
Europe
Asia
Non-OECD
Europe and
Eurasia
Asia
Middle East
Africa
Central and
South
America
World
242
120
82
40
282
47
244
121
82
41
328
50
255
126
85
43
375
53
263
130
89
44
418
57
269
133
91
45
460
61
276
137
93
46
501
65
285
144
95
46
535
67
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.5
2.2
1.2
159
28
19
29
194
33
20
31
230
37
22
33
262
39
24
35
290
43
27
39
317
46
31
42
337
49
35
47
2.5
1.9
2.1
1.6
524
572
630
680
729
777
820
1.5
sector dependence on gasoline as petroleum fuel. With the downturn in the world economy and a consequent decline in consumption, prices collapsed, but the dependence on imported oil
continues as a potential problem. About 40% of the energy
consumed in the United States is supplied by petroleum, and that
proportion has remained approximately the same since 1950 [14].
The character and the timing of a global peak in oil production
are determined by consumption, economics, and technology. Thus,
assertive predictions of peak production are nearly untenable
because it requires the predictor to have an excellent grasp of
these three determinants, even going into the future. Some optimists run a foul even of the physical limits of the known universe,
let alone of our Earth. Of course, far short of the limits of the
universe, oil and gas extraction are dened by Earthly limits [25].
2.1.2. Coal
Coal is overwhelmingly abundant and more widely distributed
in some countries in comparison with oil and natural gas, Therefore, it is important to utilize the coal efciently and cleanly
[26,27].
Consumption of coal in 1950 was 35% of the total. This
proportion is almost equal to oil. It declined to about 20% a decade
later and has remained at about that proportion since then. Coal
currently is used almost exclusively for electric power generation.
Consumption of coal has more than doubled since 1950, but
during that period coal as an energy source changed from a widely
used resource to a single-use fuel for generating electricity. The
electric power sector consumed less than 20% of the half-billion
tons of coal burned in 1950 and used more than 90% of the billionplus tons consumed in 2007 [14].
Coal dominates the United States fossil energy endowment and
accounts for 48% of domestic electricity generation. Coal is
currently the most important fuel for electricity generation.
Studies will determine what portion of the resource base is
technically and economically recoverable [14].
2.1.3. Natural gas
Natural gas might be considered a very uninteresting, colorless,
shapeless and odorless gas in its pure form. Natural gas is
combustible, gives off a great deal of energy when burned. It is
clean and emits lower levels of pollutants into the air unlike other
fossil fuels. From the chemical viewpoint, natural gas consists of a
mixture of inorganic gases and saturated hydrocarbons that occurs
in gaseous state at environmental temperature and pressure [2].
Consumption of natural gas was almost four times as great in
2007 as it was in 1950 [14]. Some countries have sufcient natural
gas reserves. They are in a good position to export this valuable
fuel. The ration of proven (or, in some cases, estimated) reserves to
the annual total energy consumption can provide such countries
Table 2
Comparison of projections in the AEO2014 and AEO2013 Reference cases, 20112040.
Source: Ref. [24].
Energy consumption by fuel (quadrillion Btu)
Petroleum and other liquid fuels

Natural gas
Coal
Nuclear/uranium
Hydropower
Biomass
Other renewable energy
Other
Total
2011
36.56
24.91
19.62
8.26
3.11
2.60
1.70
0.35
97.11
2012
35.87
26.20
17.34
8.05
2.67
2.53
1.97
0.39
95.02
2025
2040
AEO2014
AEO2013
AEO2014
AEO2013
36.28
28.97
19.03
8.15
2.84
3.74
3.09
0.35
102.45
36.87
27.28
19.35
9.54
2.86
3.82
2.32
0.30
102.34
35.35
32.32
18.75
8.49
2.90
4.26
3.89
0.35
106.31
36.07
29.83
20.35
9.44
2.92
4.91
3.84
0.29
107.64
with a useful indicator for assessing whether they can initiate or

expand exports of natural gas [28].
Natural gas produces lower emissions of carbon dioxide than coal
or oil for equivalent amounts of energy supplied. Therefore, it has
emerged as a highly desirable fuel. The ratio of proven natural gas of a
country reserves to its total energy consumption is a good indicator of
its ability to improve its air quality situation or address greenhouse
gas reduction targets from domestic natural gas sources [29].
2.1.4. Renewables
Renewable energy sources have been important for humans
since the beginning of civilization [30]. Renewables are the fastest
growing source of world energy consumption. The increased
attention on renewable energy sources can be attributed to a
number of factors. The recent concerns over the volatility of oil
prices, the dependency on foreign energy sources, and the environmental consequences of carbon emissions are all contributing
factors to the current interest in renewable energy sources. Moreover, the emergence of government policies such as renewable
energy production tax credits, installation rebates for renewable
energy systems, renewable energy portfolio standards, and the
establishment of markets for renewable energy certicates have
been critical in the promotion of renewable energy as a viable
component of the energy portfolio for various countries [31].
Renewable energy sources (except hydropower) continue to
offer more potential than actual energy production The role of
hydropower in electricity generation has gradually declined, from
30% in 1950 to 15% in 1975 and less than 10% in 2000. However,
hydropower remains highly important on a regional basis [14].
Renewable energy is the fastest growing source in electricity
generation. Total generation from renewable resources increases
by 2.8% annually, and the renewable share of world electricity
generation increases from 21% in 2010 to 25% in 2040. About 80
percent of this increase is in hydroelectric and wind power
(Table 3) [19].
Table 3
OECD and non-OECD net renewable electricity generation by energy source, 2010
2040 (billion kilowatthours).
Source: Ref. [19].
Region
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average

annual
percent
change
20102040
OECD
Hydroelectric 1338 1412 1497 1574 1661 1749 1841
Wind
269 531
718 855 903 961 1052
Geothermal
41
52
68
79
93 104
115
Solar
32 123 145 165 181
211 253
Other
263 290 346 373 385 401 426
Total OECD
1943 2408 2774 3046 3222 3426 3687
1.1
4.7
3.5
7.1
1.6
2.2
Non-OECD
Hydroelectric 2064 2393 2955 3188 3516 3943 4390 2.6
Wind
73 235
418 527 641 733 787 8.3
Geothermal
25
60
65
67
78
91 105 4.9
Solar
1
34
95 124 146 183 199 18.6
Other
69 137 202 270 344 400 432 6.3
Total non2232 2859 3736 4177 4725 5350 5914 3.3
OECD
World
Hydroelectric 3402 3805 4452 4762 5177 5692 6232
Wind
342 767 1136 1383 1544 1694 1839
Geothermal
66
112 133 146
171 195 220
Solar
34 157 240 288 327 394 452
Other
332 427 549 643 729 800 858
Total World 4175 5267 6509 7222 7948 8775 9601
2.0
5.8
4.1
9.1
3.2
2.8
893
2.1.5. Nuclear
Nuclear power does not lead to emission of greenhouse gases.
In electricity generating plant, replacement of any fossil fuel by a
nuclear one will reduce emission of greenhouse gases. Such a
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the reduction of
emission of greenhouse gases by improvement of end use efciency (loosely called energy conservation) are independent of
each other. Both can be partially effective. It is stupid to reject
either because it will not do the whole job. If the effect of rising
greenhouse gas concentrations is as bad as most scientists fear,
both are necessary [29].
Nuclear power has started to become popular in the late 1960s.
In the midst of the oil crisis, it was supplying 9% of total electricity
generation. Continuation of some construction increased the
nuclear share of generation to 20% in 1990 [14]. There were 437
nuclear power reactors in operation at the beginning of 2010.
Eleven construction starts were made in 2009. Ten of these
constructions are in Asia. In 2009, the United States Nuclear
Regulatory Commission approved eight license renewals of 20
years each, bringing the number of approved renewals to 59.
License renewals were either granted or being processed in several
other countries. The post-2000 trend of license renewals or
extensions for many operating reactors continued, especially in
the USA [32].
2.2. Global energy consumption sectors
Energy Information Administration's (EIA's) portfolio of data
collections includes three surveys of energy-consuming end use
sectors: the Commercial Buildings energy Consumption Survey
(CBECS), the Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS), and
the Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey. Prior to 1994, EIA
also conducted a transportation energy use survey, the Residential
Transportation Energy Consumption Survey, but budget cuts
forced this data collection to be discontinued after 1994 [33].
The demand for energy in areas as varied as industry or
transport means that a new paradigm in the way fuels. The need
to promote energy security and policy as key themes during the
twenty-rst century is greater than ever [23].
In the times of globalization, international trade is playing a
vital role in shaping the world energy prole by redistributing the
energy embodied in industrial products in the economy. The
leakage effects associated with indirect energy use at the global
scale are overlooked because traditional analyses are usually
focusing on direct energy use [34].
2.2.1. Buildings sector (residential and commercial) energy
consumption
The buildings sector represents energy use in places where
people reside, work, and buy goods and services. The sector
excludes industrial facilities used for producing, processing, or
assembling goods. In 2010, the buildings sector accounted for
more than one-fth of total worldwide consumption of delivered
energy [19].
Many governments have introduced regulations to make buildings more energy-efcient. Policies and research on energy conservation in buildings are geared primarily to saving energy
through technical measures relating to the building envelope
and the heating and ventilation installations [35]. Energy-saving
designs do not always result in the expected energy consumption
[36,37].
Energy consumption in housing and building is a key issue for
sustainability, primarily because it contributes to the depletion
of non-renewable fossil fuels and the production of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and other pollutions. Energy use in houses and
894
other buildings is signicant proportion of energy consumption,

set to rise with increase in population and the number of associated
buildings, notably houses [3].
Buildings are the environment where the majority of us spend
most of our lives; they deeply inuence many other consumption
patterns and are important factor in our life and comfort. The societal
function and nature of buildings as they are currently culturally
constructed accounts for many of the difculties in moving towards
sustainable consumption and production (SCP), both present and
future. Buildings have a long lifetime. This domain is a major target
for any structural change in consumption patterns [3].
Energy use in the residential sector is dened as the energy
consumed by households, excluding transportation uses. In the
residential sector, energy is used for equipment and to provide
heating, cooling, lighting, water heating, and other household
demands. All of energy consumption, income, and energy prices
affect the way energy consumed in the residential sector. However,
residential energy use is affected by factors such as location,
building and household characteristics, weather, type and efciency of equipment, energy access, availability of energy sources,
and energy-related policies. As a result, the type and amount of
energy use by households can vary widely within and across
regions and countries [19]. Residential buildings have continuously improved in efciency. Though materials with better thermal properties and more efcient systems have lowered energy
consumption for space heating in recent decades, substantial
differences in energy consumption are still being observed in
similar dwellings [35,38,39]. World residential delivered energy
consumption increases by 57% from 2010 to 2040 (Table 4) [19].
Energy consumption in the commercial sector focuses on
heating and cooling systems, lights, water heaters, and other
equipment in the buildings located businesses, institutions, and
other organizations. Schools, retail stores, restaurants, hotels,
hospitals, ofce buildings, and leisure and recreational facilities
can be given as examples of commercial sector buildings. The
commercial sector included some nonbuilding energy use contributes to such public services as trafc lights and water and
sewer systems. Total world delivered commercial sector energy
consumption grows at an average annual rate of 1.8% from 2010 to
2040, making it the fastest-growing demand sector (Table 5) [19].
In Europe the built environment consumes 40% of the produced
energy. A large proportion of this energy is consumed in residential
buildings. Households account for about 30% of the total buildingrelated energy consumption in OECD countries [40]. As around
Table 4
Residential sector
(quadrillion Btu).
Source: Ref. [19].
delivered
energy
consumption
by
region,
20102040
Region
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

percent change
20102040
OECD
Americas
Europe
Asia
Non-OECD
Europe and
Eurasia
Asia
Middle East
Africa
Central and
South
America
World
28.2
13.2
11.7
3.3
23.9
6.3
28.1
12.8
11.9
3.4
27.0
6.3
29.0
12.9
12.5
3.5
30.8
6.7
29.9
13.2
13.1
3.7
35.1
7.1
30.8
13.5
13.5
3.8
40.0
7.7
31.3
13.9
13.7
3.8
45.0
8.1
32.0
14.2
13.9
3.9
49.8
8.6
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.5
2.5
1.0
10.6
3.4
1.6
2.0
12.8
3.9
1.7
2.3
15.6
4.2
1.9
2.4
18.7
4.4
2.2
2.7
22.2
4.6
2.5
3.0
25.9
4.7
2.8
3.4
29.6
4.8
3.2
3.7
3.5
1.2
2.4
2.1
52.0
55.1
59.8
65.0
70.8
76.3
81.8
1.5
Table 5
Commercial sector
(quadrillion Btu).
Source: Ref. [19].
delivered
energy
consumption
by
region,
20102040
Region
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

percent change
20102040
OECD
Americas
Europe
Asia
Non-OECD
Europe and
Eurasia
Asia
Middle East
Africa
Central and
South
America
World
20.2
9.8
6.5
3.9
8.8
2.2
20.9
10.1
6.9
3.9
9.9
2.3
22.0
10.5
7.4
4.2
11.7
2.5
23.2
10.9
7.8
4.4
13.9
2.8
24.4
11.5
8.3
4.6
16.5
3.1
25.5
12.0
8.6
4.8
19.4
3.5
26.5
12.6
9.0
5.0
22.5
3.8
0.9
0.8
1.1
0.8
3.2
1.8
4.2
1.0
0.4
1.0
4.9
1.1
0.5
1.1
6.0
1.3
0.6
1.3
7.4
1.5
0.7
1.5
9.1
1.7
0.8
1.8
11.0
1.9
1.0
2.0
13.1
2.0
1.2
2.4
3.9
2.4
3.5
3.1
28.9
30.8
33.6
37.1
40.9
44.8
49.0
1.8
3057% of the energy consumed by households is spent on space

and domestic water heating, conservation in this area is a matter of
vital importance [35]. In a context marked by a growing effort to
create sustainable development strategies, much of the research
focuses on energy related issues in the built environment [41].
2.2.2. Industrial sector energy consumption

Industrial promotion is a major priority for the governments of
many developing countries. Industrial development can make
signicant benecial contributions to a country's overall economic
development by providing jobs, promoting socio-economic infrastructure and so on. However, by its very nature, industrial
development can also have profound impact on the environment.
All industrial require use of natural resources, many of which are
limited, such as water, and so can directly affect local ecosystems.
The conversion of natural resources to nished or semi-nished
products results in residues that are often discharged as wastes.
These wastes in solid, liquid and gaseous forms can be detrimental
to the quality of life by adversely affecting land, water and air
resources [42].
In Industrial and Post-Industrial Nations like those in North
America and in Europe, or in Industrializing Nations like China,
India, and Brazil, there are universally recognizable economic
sectors that consume energy for productive purposes. Prior to
the rst extensive use of fossil fuels, rewood and animal power
provided most of the energy input needed to satisfy society. As
populations grew and advanced economically and socially, it
became apparent that more intensive and more portable energy
sources would be needed to support wide-scale mechanization.
Wind and water power, and charcoal answered that challenge
initially, but it was coal that permitted tremendous expansion of
industry. The fact that coal had been accumulated and intensied
over millions of years made it a source that dwarfed the biomass
fuels, where the forests only represented a few hundred years of
accumulation [25].
With new products and increasing afuence, the composition
of production is changing such that industrial energy and materials consumption are growing more slowly than the economy.
Technological progress tends to reduce the overall energy and
materials requirements for each industrial process. This relatively
rosy scenario faces serious difculties, however; industrial decision makers strongly discount future expenditures for energy
for a variety of reasons. In addition, many slow-growing heavy
industries may not have the capital and technical capabilities to

invest in the best new production processes. For these reasons it is
important to develop public policies to encourage the development and dissemination of more-efcient process technologies,
and to assist energy-intensive industries to modernize, for example through utility demand-side management progams [29].
It is very important to improve energy efciency in all industrial sectors. The overall aim is to decrease the greenhouse gas
emissions, ensure the energy security and improve the industrial
output and competitiveness. In the end part of the production
chain, the conscious customers in the industrialized countries
have woken up by the threats of global warming, changed their
consuming habits and started to demand green and sustainable
products and services. The uncertainty about global fossil energy
reserves and their availability in the long run is increasing the
awareness for the development of clean and renewable energy
resources and optimized energy use to prevent waste [43].
There are cases of energy consumption that is identied as
industrial consumption but not claried as the consumption of a
specic disaggregated industrial sector. In such cases, the energy
consumption is accounted for under the non-specied industry
classication [44].
Energy consumption worldwide by the industrial sector is
expected to grow from 200 quadrillion Btu in 2010 to 307
quadrillion Btu in 2040, increasing by an average of 1.4% per year.
Most of the long-term growth in industrial sector delivered energy
consumption occurs in the non-OECD countries (Table 6) [19].
2.2.3. Transportation sector energy consumption
Since the transportation sector is so heavily dependent on
petroleum Table 7 present a more detailed breakdown of the
various types of petroleum used. Most of the petroleum consumed
in the transportation sector is motor gasoline. In 1950, it was 71%
of total sector petroleum consumption. It has been about 65% in
recent years [14].
The higher demand for transportation could be fullled with the
assistance of new technologies, new materials and highly intelligent hardware and software systems. Additionally, navigation and
active communication systems can optimally and safely regulate the
increasing trafc. Vehicles, airplanes and ships are becoming more
and more efcient, i.e., lighter and more intelligent, with improved
895
aerodynamics, optimized design, and higher performance. Both the

population of the world and the demand for transportation have been
continuously increasing. Transport has become the basic foundation of
the economy in all countries. In the course of this process, the
environment and the climate have been changing in a remarkable
way and in turn have inuenced transport. The number of motor
vehicles, ships, and airplanes is rapidly rising, especially in fast
developing countries. Parallel to this, the amount of oil products
consumed and the mass of pollutants emitted are intensively increasing. Transport burns most of the petroleum of the world and emits
the most air pollution, including unburned hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, nitrous oxides, and particles. It is the fastest growing
consumption and emission sector on Earth. This leads to signicant
environmental and health problems especially in large cities and is a
major contributor to global warming because of emissions of carbon
dioxide [22].
Modications in energy demand or supply will cause indirect
impacts in many other domains. For example, raised prices for
energy tend to make activities more local through rising the costs
of transportation [3].
A new sustainable path is required, which focuses on reasonable mass transport at a reasonable price, short travel times with
Table 7
Transportation use of petroleum, 19502007 (million barrels per day).
Source: Ref. [14].
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2006
2007
Aviation
Diesel Fuel
Gasoline
Other
Total
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.3
1.5
1.7
2.0
2.4
2.9
3.0
3.0
2.4
3.2
3.7
4.4
5.6
6.5
6.4
6.7
7.1
7.7
8.4
8.9
9.0
9.1
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
3.4
4.5
5.1
6.0
7.8
9.0
9.5
9.8
10.9
11.7
13.0
14.0
14.2
14.3
Table 6
World industrial sector delivered energy consumption by region and energy source, 20102040 (quadrillion Btu).
Source: Ref. [19].
Region
OECD
Petroleum and other liquidsa
Natural gas
Coal
Electricity
Renewablesb
Non-OECD
Natural gas
Coal
Electricity
Renewablesb
World
Natural gas
Coal
Electricity
Renewablesb
a
b
2010
71.9
27.4
19.4
8.7
11.0
5.3
128.1
29.8
26.1
44.2
18.2
9.9
200.0
57.2
45.5
52.9
29.2
15.2
2015
72.9
27.5
20.2
8.7
11.3
5.2
148.5
34.1
28.7
53.0
22.9
9.8
221.4
61.6
48.8
61.7
34.2
15.0
2020
77.5
29.3
21.7
9.0
12.0
5.5
169.2
37.1
32.6
61.1
27.4
10.9
246.7
66.4
54.3
70.1
39.4
16.5
2025
80.4
30.3
22.7
9.2
12.4
5.7
186.0
39.8
36.3
67.0
30.9
12.0
266.4
70.1
59.0
76.2
43.3
17.7
2035
82.2
31.0
23.5
9.2
12.6
6.0
201.3
43.2
40.0
71.0
33.9
13.3
283.5
74.2
63.4
80.2
46.5
19.2
Other liquids here refers to natural gas liquids and those derived from the FischerTropsch process.
Includes biomass used for combined heat and power operations as well as biomass for process heat.
2040
84.4
31.7
24.3
9.2
12.9
6.3
213.3
46.5
43.6
72.6
36.1
14.8
297.9
78.2
67.8
81.9
49.0
21.1
Average annual percent change

19902010
20102040
87.1
32.6
25.2
9.2
13.2
7.0
219.8
49.5
46.6
70.4
36.8
16.6
306.9
82.1
71.7
79.6
50.0
23.5
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.2
0.6
0.9
1.8
1.7
2.0
1.6
2.4
1.7
1.4
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.8
1.5
896
optimal connections, positive impacts in safety, and improvements

in sustainability. Good examples are needed worldwide. Transportation could be improved with the introduction of carbon taxes,
higher fuel efciency standards and the use of new kinds of fuels.
It is not enough to produce biogenic and synthetic fuels, although
they can be optimally used in road vehicles, airplanes and ships,
because they have their own additional problems. On the one side,
their utilization lowers the consumption of fossil fuels, but on the
other side, their exaggerated use could contribute to the destruction of agriculture and the landscape [22].
The higher comfort level and safety of new vehicles, airplanes
and ships also contributes to more sustainability in transportation.
Regarding fuel consumption and emission characteristics, regulations have been intensively expanded in the last 20 years. Energy
use and emissions vary greatly between several modes of transportation. Electrication and energy efciency of transport must
be increased in the next decades. However, the introduction of
new technology will not happen suddenly but only gradually [22].
Less than optimal measures to order intensive fuel saving could
cause major economic losses. Fuel substitution in transportation
has high investment costs in comparison to other sectors of the
economy. Therefore, besides technology, a sustainable strategy
requires the increased use of renewable energy resources, worldwide intelligent navigation measures, common international regulations, and voluntary agreements between governments, civil,
and international organizations limiting fuel consumption and
exhaust gas emissions. Transportation will grow very intensively
over the next few decades in comparison to other sectors of the
economy, especially in the rapidly developing countries [22].
Transportation accounts for about 20% of the global primary
energy consumption and about 18% of the total anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions. Road transport accounts for 72% of the
total energy use within the world's transportation sector and for
more than 80% of the total CO2 emissions. In the period 1990
2005, the energy requirements for transportation increased 37%,
making transportation the fastest growing energy sector [45].
World energy consumption in the transportation sector
increases by an average of 1.1% per year (Table 8). The most
important components of transportation sector energy used
throughout the projection are petroleum and other liquid fuels.
Most of the growth in transportation energy use occurs in the nonOECD nations. It increases by an average of 2.2% per year from
2010 to 2040 (Table 8) [19].
2.2.4. Electricity
Electricity is essential to power industrialized and industrializing economies. It affects nearly every aspect of daily modern living,
and indeed is an essential element to the industrial, residential,
and commercial sectors of society. It is almost unimaginable to

lack access to electricity for heating, cooling, lighting, working on
computers, and watching TV shows. Electricity is the most
convenient, most exible, and most useful of energies. Flip a
light switch and a whole room can be illuminated. Plug in an air
conditioner, turn it on, and a hot, sweltering day becomes manageable for working, playing or even sleeping [25].
Coal was used to generate about half the rapidly increasing
amount of electricity consumed. Petroleum became briey important as a source of power generation in the late 1960s because it
resulted in lower emissions of air pollutants, and consumption
continued in the 1970s despite the price surge because natural gas
was in short supply. By the 1980s, however, oil consumption by
utilities dropped sharply, and in 2007 only 1.2% of power generation was oil-red. Natural gas generation has a more complicated
history. Consumption by the electric power industry increased
gradually as access by pipeline became more widespread. Nuclear
power started coming on line in signicant amounts in the late
1960s, and 1975, in the midst of the oil crisis, was supplying 9% of
total generation. Construction of major hydroelectric projects has
also essentially ceased, and hydropower's share of electricity
generation has gradually declined from 30% in 1950 to 15% in
1975 and less than 10% in 2000. However, hydropower remains
highly important on a regional basis. Sources of power generation
vary greatly by region [14].
World net electricity generation increases by 93% from 20.2
trillion kilowatthours in 2010 to 39.0 trillion kilowatthours in 2040
(Table 9). Electricity is the world's fastest-growing form of delivered
energy. World electricity delivered to end users rises by 2.2% per
year from 2010 to 2040 [19].
2.2.5. Energy losses in sectors
Losses occur when the efciency of a device or process deviates
from the efciency that would occur if the device or process were
ideal. The value of a loss is a measure of this deviation from
ideality.
Energy losses are not necessarily indicative of a deviation from
ideality. For instance, some processes lose heat to the surroundings, but if this heat is emitted at the temperature of the
surroundings the loss does not lead to an irreversibility. Conversely, some processes have no energy losses, such as the combustion of fuel in air in an isolated vessel, yet the process is highly
irreversible and therefore non-ideal [46]. The low efcient heating
system leads to enormous energy loss and causes a serious
problem of environmental pollution [47]. Building sector account
for the most energy loss waste on earth, owing to the low thermal
insulation level of the envelopes, high thermal dispersions and
minimum exploitation of the climatic resources. The primary
Table 8
World transportation sector delivered energy consumption by region, 20102040 (quadrillion Btu).
Source: Ref. [19].
Region
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
Average annual percent change

20102040
OECD
Americas
Europe
Asia
Non-OECD
Europe and Eurasia
Asia
Middle East
Africa
Central and South America
World
57.9
32.7
18.0
7.1
43.1
6.7
19.9
6.0
3.8
6.6
101.0
56.0
32.5
16.3
7.1
50.3
8.0
23.5
7.4
4.0
7.3
106.2
55.9
32.5
16.2
7.1
56.4
8.5
28.0
8.1
4.1
7.7
112.2
54.8
32.0
15.8
7.0
62.3
8.9
32.5
8.3
4.4
8.1
117.0
54.5
31.7
15.7
7.0
68.3
9.5
37.0
8.6
4.5
8.8
122.8
54.8
32.0
15.8
7.0
75.6
10.1
42.6
9.0
4.6
9.3
130.4
55.5
32.9
15.7
7.0
83.9
10.6
49.2
9.5
4.8
9.8
139.5
0.1
0.0
0.5
0.1
2.2
1.5
3.1
1.5
0.8
1.3
1.1
Table 9
OECD and non-OECD net electricity generation by energy source, 20102040
(trillion kilowatthours).
Source: Ref. [19].
Region
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

percent change
20102040
OECD
Liquids
0.3
Natural gas
2.4
Coal
3.5
Nuclear
2.2
Renewables 1.9
Total OECD
10.3
0.3
2.7
3.3
2.1
2.4
10.8
0.2
2.9
3.3
2.4
2.8
11.5
0.2
3.1
3.3
2.6
3.0
12.2
0.2
3.5
3.3
2.7
3.2
12.9
0.2
3.9
3.3
2.7
3.4
13.5
0.2
4.3
3.3
2.7
3.7
14.2
1.1
2.0
-0.2
0.7
2.2
1.1
0.6
2.1
4.6
0.4
2.2
9.9
0.6
2.3
5.9
0.8
2.9
12.5
0.6
2.6
6.9
1.3
3.7
15.1
0.6
3.1
8.0
1.7
4.2
17.6
0.5
3.7
9.0
2.1
4.7
20.1
0.5
4.4
9.9
2.5
5.3
22.6
0.5
5.0
10.6
2.8
5.9
24.8
0.9
3.0
2.9
6.3
3.3
3.1
World
Liquids
0.9
Natural gas
4.5
Coal
8.1
Nuclear
2.6
Renewables 4.2
Total World 20.2
0.9
5.0
9.2
2.9
5.3
23.3
0.8
5.5
10.1
3.6
6.5
26.6
0.8
6.2
11.3
4.3
7.2
29.8
0.7
7.2
12.3
4.8
7.9
33.0
0.7
8.3
13.2
5.1
8.8
36.2
0.7
9.4
13.9
5.5
9.6
39.0
1.0
2.5
1.8
2.5
2.8
2.2
Non-OECD
Liquids
Natural gas
Coal
Nuclear
Renewables
Total nonOECD
energy use for average European electricity is nearly three times

higher than European electricity end use energy because the
energy losses in the electricity production processes and in the
distribution [48].
The residential sector consumes secondary energy. Secondary
energy is that received in suitable form for use by the consuming
systems to support the living standards of occupants. In space
heating (SH) and space cooling (SC) which is one of the major
end-use groups of secondary energy, energy required to support
thermal losses incurred across the building envelope due to
conduction and radiation, as well as air inltration/ventilation in
an effort to maintain the living space at a comfortable temperature
and air quality [49].
In industry, large plants with high energy consumption tackled
the problem by retrotting process plants and facilities. Other
industrial sectors resorted to investments with the shortest
possible payback such as heat recovery and reduction of losses
[50]. Energy losses in a large number of industries exist, and there
is potential for energy efciency improvements. Energy research
organizations and government are actively engaged in developing
methods of assessing energy efciency. One of the ways to attain a
more efcient use of nal energy in an industry is to determine
the amount of energy used and energy losses. Large- and mediumsized plants should have their own energy conservation department, which may be responsible for managing energy losses and
hence reducing specic energy uses [51].
Leaks represent a signicant source of wasted energy in the
industrial compressed-air systems. Air leaks are the single greatest
source of energy loss in manufacturing facilities with compressed
air systems. Leaks can waste 2050% of a compressor's output.
Stopping leaks can be as simple as tightening a connection or as
complex as replacing faulty equipment such as couplings, ttings,
pipe sections, hoses, joints, drains, and traps [50].
The benet coming from the rail is the result of the combination of two important factors: the transport capacity and the use of
electric energy thanks to the efciency of the electric drive system.
The comparison is based on a well-to-wheel approach and hence
897
includes the energy losses corresponding to electricity production

and transport. Dieselelectric motorization, when used for urban
buses, offers a very good exibility for the drive system mainly in
starting and acceleration conditions. But the multiplication of the
efciency of the different components of the drive train leads to a
supplementary energy consumption of 1020% compared to an
equivalent thermal vehicle. This loss of energy is in this case very
difcult to compensate even with good drive train integration [52].
An emerging consensus suggests that bioenergy should initially
be used for heat generation, and/or co-generation, rather than in
the transportation sector. The main reason for this is the larger
energy losses that are involved when converting biomass into
liquid or gaseous forms. This means that you get more CO2
reductions when using 1 GJ of biomas s for heating than
if converted into, say methanol, and used in the transportation
sector [53].
To supply biomass from production areas to energy importing
regions, long-distance international transport is necessary, implying additional logistics, costs, energy consumption and material
losses compared to local utilization. International bioenergy trade
is possible against low costs and modest energy loss. Some regions
have a much larger bioenergy production potential than others,
due to a combination of large land areas with good crop production potential, low population density and extensive agricultural
practices. Consequently, some countries may become net suppliers
of renewable bioenergy to other countries that are net importers.
This could require transport over long distances, and hence
additional logistics, costs, energy use and material losses. A few
earlier studies have given indications that intercontinental trade of
biofuels or bulk wood could be economically feasible and does
certainly not lead to dramatic energy losses [54].
The electric power sector also consumes energy. The electricity
it produces is consumed by the end-use sectors. There are also
losses in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. The
electricity consumed by the four major energy end-use sectors and
electricity losses can be apportioned to these respective end-use
sectors to calculate their total energy use. Losses are the difference
between the amount of energy used to generate electricity and the
energy content of the electricity consumed at the point of end use.
Table 10 gives world energy consumption by end-use sector
(quadrillion Btu) and shares of total energy use in 2011 (includes
losses in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution).
Energy end-use includes end-use of electricity but excludes losses,
electricity losses includes lossess in generation, transmission, and
distribution and total energy use includes electricity losses in
Table 10 [19].
The bulk of electricity consumption in the industrial sector is by
electric motors. Activities and processes in the industry depend
Table 10
World energy consumption by end-use sector (quadrillion Btu) and shares of total
energy use, 2011.
Source: Ref. [19].
End-use sectors
Energy end
use
Electricity
losses
Total
energy
use
Share of total
?energy
?use (%)
Commercial
Industrial
Residential
Transportation
Total end-use
sectors
Electric power
sector
Total electricity
losses
29
200
52
101
382
34
66
40
2
62
266
92
103
524
12
51
18
20
204
142
39
898
heavily on electric motors include compacting, cutting, grinding,

mixing, fans, pumps, materials conveying, air compressors and
refrigeration. There are four basic types of losses in a squirrel-cage
induction motor: Stator and Rotor losses, Core (Magnetic) losses,
Friction and windage and Stray losses [50].
3. Environmental impact of global energy consumption

This topic is not new. Wood burning has contributed to the
deforestation of many areas. Wood and coal burning in building
and power plants have some air polluting problems [55].
Environmental impacts can come in a wide variety of forms,
thus the need to characterize them, at least in general terms. There
are three general classications of the impacts of energy use:
(1) classication by source; (2) classication by pollutant; and
(3) classication by scale [25].
How do we compare the widely disparate environmental
impacts of different energy systems? First, we must be able to
understand the range of impacts of complete energy systems.
There are resource impacts. Every energy source has some impacts
associated with various stages of the production, conversion, and
end-use of the energy. In reality, the environmental impact needs
to include the impacts of the additional (coal or nuclear) power
plants and their fuel use. Depletion of fossil fuels is a resource
impact, but not truly an environmental one. Whereas the depletion of forests from rewood demand or clearing land for agriculture is a major environmental impact, some land use incurs less
environmental cost than others. If the land can have multiple uses,
the impact is lower. Land and water use are related impacts. These
are both systems that play essential roles in the well-being of the
environment. Rational evaluations of energy use in societal structures make it obvious that humanity has benetted greatly from
the use of fossil and nuclear fuels as primary energy sources.
However, it is equally obvious that the scales with which we use
them have resulted in a number of negative impacts on Earth's
atmosphere, waterways, and ecosystems. These impacts can often
be quantied in terms of change to existing natural systems, as
well as in the monetary costs associated with impact on society,
including those related to health [25].
Public policies encouraging the insertion of large industrial and
commercial developments near highways, associated to exclusionary housing policies, have shaped over the past decades a new
urbanization phenomenon; the sprawl. This is largely characterized by discontinuous and fragmented occupation, with random
population densities. This phenomenon brings environmental and
social impacts to the urban and rural population, in addition to a
great burden for the Government. The large concentration of cars,
buildings and people in denser areas, such as central regions,
represents smaller green areas like parks and squares, while more
isolated gated communities stand for the image of environmental
satisfaction and quality of life [56].
Urban sprawl has important implications for climate change
and the world economy. Urban sprawl aids in the consumption of
industrial output because it increase demand for automobiles.
Urban sprawl is a key factor behind the massive amounts of carbon
dioxide emitted by the world economy. Urban sprawl necessitates
the usage of relatively large amounts of energy. This energy is
needed for the long commuting distances via automobiles
required in the context of difuse urban development. As shown
Table 11, in 1990 there were 604, 491, 524, 392, 123 and 102
automobiles per one thousand people [57].
New technological advances will make up for the dramatic
increases in vehicle miles driven. The increase in auto and truck
travel is the key force behind the energy consumption, air quality
impact, and climate changes. We are starting to give back air
Table 11
Comparative urban automobile use.
Source: Ref. [57].
Region
Automobile
ownership
(per 1000
people)
Average
automobile
use (km)
US automobile
use /other areas
automobile use
US cities
Australian cities
Canadian cities
European cities
Wealthy Asian cities
Developing Asian cities
604
491
524
392
123
102
11155
6571
6551
4519
1487
1848
1.70
1.70
2.47
7.50
6.04
quality gains because sprawling development patterns demand

more driving. Table 12 compares the land and air impacts of
development at densities [58].
With the explosive growth in energy consumption, there has
necessarily been correspondingly rapid growth in the release of
combustion products [9]. Combustion products (especially CO2)
are accumulating in the atmosphere. In addition carbon, oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen are also converted to acids [10]. If consumption
is assumed to be the key economic driving force steering the
environmental transformation, the assessment of the environmental performance of the national economy requires us to
distinguish between environmental impacts created by a nation's
residents and the emissions generated within national boundaries
[59]. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) are major
combustion-generated pollutants from coal-red power plants
[6066].
Climate change and growing Greenhouse Gas emissions are
widely discussed issues nowadays [67]. The climate has been
rapidly changing because of the rise in the concentration of CO2
and other Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Global
warming on the Earth is the result of emissions of CO2 and other
climate changing gases [22]. Climate change and energy security
represent two of the most pressing problems for current and
future generations [6]. As climate change is becoming a key
political issue, and oil prices rise, society has become acutely
aware of this issue. Also, as a limited resource, energy can become
a major source of conict, which is another direct threat to
sustainability [3].
Global climate change issues are high on the agenda for both
the scientic community and policy makers [68]. Global warming
is considered an average increase in the Earth's temperature due
to greenhouse effect as a result of both natural and human
activities [69].
The impacts of GHG emissions and the resulting climate change
have a serious impact on the global economy, so the need to
control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and
substances will increasingly need to be based on efciency in
energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption in
the country [70,71]. Half of our greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs)
are created in cities. Mayors can often inuence the running of
their city and they can address the challenges we face in a
coherent way, be it in the eld of development of alternative
energy or pollution control, energy management or a change of
behavior by public authorities and citizens. Cities are the privileged places where it is possible to nd multicultural, crosssectoral solutions and where the necessary balance between
private and public interests may be found [72].
Efcient consumption of energy is widely viewed as a rather
inexpensive way to cut total energy consumption and thus greenhouse gas emissions. Many agencies at national and international
levels recommend energy efciency measures. These measures in
fact act as a way to reduce signicant amounts of green house gas
899
Table 12
Projected environmental impact of 400 000 new housing units.
Source: Ref. [58].
Emissions (in thousands of pounds per year)
Density (acres Land used
per unit)
(thousands of
acres)
Vehicle miles traveled per

year (thousands)
Fuel used (thousands of

gallons per year)
CO
5
1
0.125
0.02
12000 000
11000 000
6000 000
3200 000
413793
379310
206896
110344
422068 29379 6620 689 56275 100.0

386896 26931 6068 965 51586 20.0
211034 14 689 3310 344 28137
2.5
112551
7834 1765 517 15006
0.4
2000
400
50
8
emissions without incurring real cost and promise potential net

benets. The continued growth of global emissions and their
possible adverse effects on global warming have shifted focus to
relative contribution in total emissions and size of relative efforts
undertaken by countries to mitigate these emissions [73].
The further increase of CO2 will lead to disastrous effects on the
Environment. The emission of SOx and NOx and suspended
particulate matters will substantially contribute to exasperate
the effect on the environment [74].
3.1. CO2 emissions
CO2 is the most important Green House Gas that originates
from the burning of hydrocarbons, decomposition of biomass, e.g.,
from plants as well as from the respiration processes of humans
and animals [22].
The industrial revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth
century has had a profound impact on every aspect of human
activity. A by-product of this revolution has been the massive
generation of greenhouse gases, most importantly, CO2. There has
been a consistent increase of anthropogenic CO2 emissions since
the beginning of the industrial revolution. Over the period of
20002008, there has been an acceleration of CO2 emissions
associated with strong economic growth in China and other Asian
countries yielding increased demand for coal-based electricity and
petroleum based cars and trucks. In 2008, humanity emitted
almost 30 billion tons of CO2. Emissions of such a magnitude are
unsustainable, and if not dramatically reduced, can yield potentially catastrophic climate change [75].
Climate change is becoming more evident to everybody and
there is an urgent need for action. The need for a worldwide
reduction of CO2 emissions is only sporadically doubted. The
required extent of this reduction is also largely clear. However,
there is continuing argument over how much contribution to this
should be made by the individual countries and regions of the
world. Measurable indicators based on the two main aspects,
namely energy efciency and CO2 intensity, should enable the
efforts to be judged equitably [76].
The researchers explore two major environmental concerns
that arise from fuel use: the globe will become warmer as a result
of emissions of carbon dioxide, and the effect upon health of the
ne particles emitted as combustion products. There was lack of
data direct enough to enable us to predict an entirely satisfactory
result, and that makes policy options particularly difcult. In the
second half of the 20th century, there were major increases in
anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and it is generally agreed that these
were responsible for an increase in CO2 concentrations [77].
The role of forest sector in sequestering atmospheric carbon
dioxide have long been recognized by scientists and policy makers,
and interest in using forests in climate change mitigation efforts
has been growing. Examples of how the forest sector can be used
NOx
CO2
VOCs
Impact on land
consumption (%)
Impact on air
qality (%)
100.0
92.0
50.0
27.0
Table 13
OECD and non-OECD energy-related carbon dioxide emissions by fuel type, 1990
2040 (billion metric tons).
Source: Ref. [19].
Region/
country
1990 2010 2020 2030 2040 Average annual percent

change, 20102040
OECD
11.6
Liquid
5.5
fuels
2.0
Natural
gas
Coal
4.1
Non-OECD 9.8
Liquid
3.6
fuels
Natural
2.0
gas
Coal
4.2
World
21.5
total
13.1
5.8
13.0
5.7
13.4
5.6
13.9
5.7
0.2
0.1
3.0
3.4
3.7
4.1
1.1
4.2
18.1
5.4
4.0
23.4
6.6
4.0
28.1
7.7
4.0
31.6
9.0
0.2
1.9
1.7
3.2
3.8
4.9
6.0
2.2
9.6
31.2
13.0
36.4
15.5
41.5
16.6
45.5
1.8
1.3
to mitigate greenhouse gas accumulation include avoiding deforestation or protecting existing forests, planting new forest area,
decreasing harvest intensity, increasing forest growth, increasing
carbon storage in harvested wood products (HWP), using wood
biomass for energy to replace fossil fuels, and substituting wood
for fossil-fuel intensive products [78].
Energy consumption is an important component of the global
climate change debate because much of the world's anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions relate carbon dioxide emissions. World
energy-related carbon dioxide emissions increase from 31.2 billion
metric tons in 2010 to 36.4 billion metric tons in 2020 and 45.5
billion metric tons in 2040 (Table 13) [19]. In 2003 China emitted
an estimated 3.5 Gt of CO2, compared with 5.8 Gt by the United
States, but by 2010 China had increased its emissions to 8.95 Gt
whereas those of the United States had decreased to 5.25 Gt,
though China's per capita emissions are still 2.5 times less than
those of the USA (see Table 14) [79].
3.2. SOx emissions

SOx are the oxides of sulfur. Coal and petroleum often contain
sulfur. Therefore, combustion of coal and petroleum generates SOx.
These SOx are harmful to the environment, as their further
oxidation produces H2SO4, leading to acid rain. The utilization of
SOx has increased in recent decades due to its specic utility as a
preservative, reducing agent, refrigerant, reagent, solvent in
laboratories, etc. This has brought an unpleasant change in the
environment shaken the experts. Its contribution to global warming is huge. The oxides of sulfur are considered to be one of the
major GHGs that contribute to global warming [80].
900
Table 14
Carbon dioxide emissions in 2010 (Mton CO2) and per capita emissions 19902010
(ton CO2 per person) (includes cement production, 8% of global total).
Source: Ref. [79].
CO2 emissions Per capita CO2
2010 (Mt)
emissions (t per
person)
United States
EU-27
Russian Federation
Japan
Australia
Canada
China
India
South Korea
Indonesia
Brazil
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
5250
4050
1750
1160
400
540
8950
1840
590
470
430
430
430
Change since
1990 (%)
1990
2000
2010
CO2
Population
19.7
9.2
16.5
9.5
16.0
16.2
2.2
0.8
5.9
0.9
1.5
3.7
10.2
20.8
8.5
11.3
10.1
18.6
17.9
2.9
1.0
9.7
1.4
2.0
3.8
12.9
16.9
8.1
12.2
9.2
18.0
15.8
6.8
1.5
12.3
1.9
2.2
3.8
15.6
5
7
28
0
46
20
257
180
134
194
96
39
159
23
6
4
4
30
23
17
40
12
30
30
35
70
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 molecules are dangerous to human health

and form acid rain. In addition, SO2 is an important aerosol creator
and lowers the temperature of the atmosphere through dispersion
of sunlight. The climate role of SO2 is not yet completely clear [22].
Using fuel prices coupled with environmental concerns to
arrest SOx emissions is forcing organizations all over the world
to adapt new protocols and fuel standards with the aim to lower
the sulfur contents in the fuel to keep SOx emissions in check and
in tandem equally optimize the capital spending on fuel [81].
3.3. NOx emissions

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) play a vital role in tropospheric chemistry. Production of ozone in the troposphere is controlled by the
abundance of NOx. NOx also contributes to the formation of
secondary inorganic aerosols, resulting in adverse impacts on
human health. In addition, NOx may lead to climate forcing effects
via ozone formation or via secondary aerosols. Therefore, NOx is a
key pollutant for the overall improvement of ambient air quality
under multi-objective environmental management policies [82].
For higher ozone non-attainment rating the NOx emission
limits are also more stringent. The most stringent NOx emission
standards can only offset the increases in emissions as long as
population growth and mobile source emission continue to
increase [83].
NOx comprises the various oxides of nitrogen such as nitric
oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), dinitrogen
trioxide (N2O3), dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5). N2O accounts for about 7.9% of total GHG emissions
(IPCC, 2007), which highlights the signicance of the contribution
of NOx to global warming. In addition, it damages our lung tissues
and causes emphysema, bronchitis, etc. In actual ue gas, the total
NOx emission level varies from several hundreds to thousands
ppm with more than 9095% NO and 510% NO2 [84].
Natural sources of nitrogen oxides, such as NO, NO2 and other
nitrogenous substances, are caused by lightning and microbes in
the ground. However, improvement in fuel efciency have been
achieved through the development of modern internal combustion and jet engies, which operate at higher temperatures and
higher pressures than in the past. Unfortunately, these improvements also increase the formation of nitrogen oxides, which can be
reduced through further changes in the combustion chamber or in

an appropriate exhaust gas after treatment system [22].
4. Conclusions
A impression of future energy consumption is an important
input to many analyses of economic, energy, and environmental
policies. This paper focuses on energy consumption and it will
provide an overview of the literature on personal consumer
decisions about sustainable energy consumption.
The increase in energy prices has caused to focus on energy
consumption. We must to detect abnormal and unusual increases
or decreases in consumption, to identify and evaluate conservation
options and should take into account environmental impact of
energy consumption. This paper draws conclusions on the determinants of global energy consumption at macro level in order to
analysis the effects of energy users. This study at macro level is
useful because of the large number of variables that inuence
energy consumption. This paper aims to assess and explain the
factors causing the growth of energy consumption. The current
generation of energy technologies are not capable of achieving the
level of mitigation required. Next generations of renewable, low
carbon generation and end use technologies will be needed.
The future of energy consunption is fundamental to global
economic growth and sustainability. Climate change, growing
energy demand and limited resources will urge people to adjust
their energy landscapes and address future energy needs. Renewables must dominate the global energy consumption and substitute the more polluting traditional energy sources because
traditional sources such as coal, crude oil and natural gas are not
only harmful to the environment but also are nite in the
long term.
More innovative solutions are needed for energy consumption.
Additional technological developments will be crucial to make
renewable energy a success story in energy consumption. Extra
ordinary increase in consumption will require a global effort. One
of solutions is to use energy efciently. Industries will provide the
next generation of energy efcient products for consumers in the
future.
The most of the data given in this study have been taken from
the IEO2013 Reference case because the energy balances published
by the International Energy Agency (IEA) are one of the most
valuable sources of energy statistics covering world energy supply
and demand. I hope this paper will prove useful to all those
interested in the connections between energy production, energy
use, energy security, and the role of energy policies. I hope this
paper provides a unique source of potential solutions for reduction
and environmental impact of global energy consumption.
Acknowledgment
The author greatly acknowledges the nancial support of this
work by the Karadeniz Technical University Research Fund under
Grant No. 9081.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption

Tel.: 90 462 3774273.

Energy is essential for economic and social development and

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

2. Structure of global energy consumption

the industrial development seems to be at a very high demand as

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

Globally, in view of different factors such as fast depletion of

2.1.1. Liquid fuels

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

Petroleum and other liquid fuels

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

with a useful indicator for assessing whether they can initiate or

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

other buildings is signicant proportion of energy consumption,

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

3057% of the energy consumed by households is spent on space

2.2.2. Industrial sector energy consumption

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

industries may not have the capital and technical capabilities to

aerodynamics, optimized design, and higher performance. Both the

Average annual percent change

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

optimal connections, positive impacts in safety, and improvements

and commercial sectors of society. It is almost unimaginable to

Average annual percent change

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 Average annual

energy use for average European electricity is nearly three times

includes the energy losses corresponding to electricity production

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

heavily on electric motors include compacting, cutting, grinding,

3. Environmental impact of global energy consumption

quality gains because sprawling development patterns demand

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

Vehicle miles traveled per

Fuel used (thousands of

422068 29379 6620 689 56275 100.0

emissions without incurring real cost and promise potential net

1990 2010 2020 2030 2040 Average annual percent

3.2. SOx emissions

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

Sulfur dioxide, SO2 molecules are dangerous to human health

3.3. NOx emissions

reduced through further changes in the combustion chamber or in

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

[4] Kaygusuz K, Bilgen S. Energy related environmental policies in Turkey. Energy

[40] Itard L, Meijer F. Towards a sustainable northern European housing stock:

S. Bilgen / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 890902

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