Topic Two-ENGINE OUTPUT

16
PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS AND
CHARACTERISTICS
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engine generally operates within a useful range of speed.

Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed governor
which is its rated speed. At each speed within the useful range the power
output varies and it has a maximum usable value. The ratio of power devel-
oped to the maximum usable power at the same speed is called the load. The
specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed. The performance of the
engine depends on inter-relationship between power developed, speed and the
specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within the useful range
of speed and load.
The following factors are to be considered in evaluating the performance
of an engine:
(i) Maximum power or torque available at each speed within the useful
range of speed.
(ii) The range of power output at constant speed for stable operation of the
engine. The different speeds should be selected at equal intervals within
the useful speed range.
(iii) Brake specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within the
useful range of operation.
(iv) Reliability and durability of the engine for the given range of operation.
Engine performance characteristics can be determined by the following

two methods.
(i) By using experimental results obtained from engine tests.
(ii) By analytical calculation based on theoretical data.
Engine performance is really a relative term. It is represented by typical

characteristic curves which are functions of engine operating parameters. The
term performance usually means how well an engine is doing its job in relation
to the input energy or how effectively it provides useful energy in relation to
some other comparable engines.
500 IC Engines
Some of the important parameters are speed, inlet pressure and temper-
ature, output, air-fuel ratio etc. The useful range of all these parameters
is limited by various factors, like mechanical stresses, knocking, over-heating
etc. Due to this, there is a practical limit of maximum power and efficiency
obtainable from an engine. The performance of an engine is judged from the
point of view of the two main factors, viz., engine power and engine efficiency.
Besides the overall efficiency, various other efficiencies are encountered when
dealing with the theory, design and operation of engines. These factors are
discussed in more detail in the following two sections.
16.2 ENGINE POWER
In general, as indicated in section 1.7, the energy flow through the engine
is expressed in three distinct terms. They are indicated power, ip, friction
power f p and brake power, bp. Indicated power can be computed from the
measurement of forces in the cylinder and brake power may be computed
from the measurement of forces at the crankshaft of the engine. The friction
power can be estimated by motoring the engine or other methods discussed
in Chapter 15. It can also be calculated as the difference between the ip and
bp if these two are known, then,
ip = bp + f p (16.1)
fp = ip − bp (16.2)
In the following sections, the usually employed formulae for the computation
of power are discussed.
16.2.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim )

It has been stated in section 16.2 that ip can be computed from the measure-
ment of forces developed in the cylinder, viz., the pressure of the expanding
gases. As already described, in chapters dealing with cycles, the pressure in
the cylinder varies throughout the cycle and the variation can be expressed
with respect to volume or crank angle to obtain p-V or p-θ diagrams respec-
tively. However, such a continuous variation does not readily lend itself to
simple mathematical analysis in the computation of ip. If an average pressure
for one cycle can be used, then the computations becomes far less difficult.
As the piston moves back and forth between T DC and BDC (Fig.16.1),
the process lines on the p-V diagram indicate the successive states of the
working fluid through the cycle. The indicated net work of the cycle is rep-
resented by the area 1234 enclosed by the process lines for that cycle. If the
area of rectangle ABCD equals area 1234, the vertical distance between the
horizontal lines AB and CD represents the indicated mean effective pressure,
imep. It is a mean value expressed in N/m2 , which, when multiplied by the
displacement volume, Vs , gives the same indicated net work as is actually
produced with the varying pressures.
pim × (V1 − V2 ) = Net work of cycle (16.3)

Performance Parameters and Characteristics 501
ow
P
e
Pressure
r
C D
2
Indicated imep
Co
mp net work 4
res
sion
Exha
us t 1
V2 Intake Volume V1
Clearance volume
Piston displacement (V1 - V 2)
Piston
re
Bo
TDC Cylinder BDC

Fig. 16.1 p-V diagram for an ideal four-stroke cycle engine
Net work of cycle

pim = (16.4)
V 1 − V2
Area of the indicator diagram
= (16.5)
Length of the indicator diagram
On an actual engine, the p-V diagram (called the indicator diagram) is ob-
tained by a mechanical or electrical instrument attached to the cylinder taking
into consideration the spring constant. The area enclosed by the actual cycle
on the indicator card may be measured by a planimeter. The value of the
area measured, when divided by the piston displacement, results in the mean
ordinate, or indicated mean effective pressure, pim .
16.2.2 Indicated Power (ip)

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In the analysis of cycles the
net work is expressed in kJ/kg of air. This may be converted to power by
multiplying by the mass flow rate of air through the engine in kg per unit time.
Since, the net work obtained from the p-V diagram is the net work produced
in the cylinder as measured by an indicator diagram, the power based there
on is termed indicated power, ip.
ip = ṁa × net work (16.6)
where ṁa is in kg/s, network is in kJ/kg of air and ip is in kW.

In working with actual engines, it is often desirable to compute ip from
a given pim and given engine operating conditions. The necessary formula
502 IC Engines
may be developed from the equation of net work based on the mean effective
pressure and piston displacement. From Eq.16.3,
Indicated net work/cycle = pim Vs (16.7)
By definition,
Indicated power = Indicated net work × cycles/s
pim Vs nK pim LAnK

ip = = kW (16.8)
1000 × 60 60000
where ip = indicated power (kW)
pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N/m2 )
L = length of the stroke (m)
A = area of the piston (m2 )
N = speed in revolutions per minute
n = number of power strokes per minute
N/2 for a four-stroke engine
N for a two-stroke engine
K = number of cylinders
16.2.3 Brake Power (bp)

Indicated power is based on indicated net work and is thus a measure of the
forces developed within the cylinder. More practical interest is the rotational
force available at the delivery point, at the engine crankshaft (termed the
drive-shaft), and the power corresponding to it. This power is interchangeably
referred to as brake power, shaft power or delivered power. In general, only
the term brake power, bp, has been used in this book to indicate the power
actually delivered by the engine.
The bp is usually measured by attaching a power absorption device to the
drive-shaft of the engine. Such a device sets up measurable forces counter-
acting the forces delivered by the engine, and the determined value of these
measured forces is indicative of the forces being delivered.
By using the geometry of a simple prony brake as the basis, a formula can
now be developed for computing the bp delivered by an engine. Work has been
defined as the product of a force and the distance through which the point of
application of force moves. Then the drive-shaft of the engine turns through
one revolution, any point on the periphery of the rigidly attached wheel moves
through a distance equal to 2πr (Fig.16.2). During this movement, a friction
force, f is acting against the wheel. The force, f is thus acting through the
distance 2πr, and producing work. Thus,
Work during one revolution = Distance × Force
= (2πr) × f (16.9)
Engine Scales
Fly wheel Friction adjustment

Movement F
Friction band r arm
Driveshaft f
R
Fig. 16.2 Adaptation of prony brake for power measurement
The torque, rf , produced by the drive-shaft is opposed by a turning moment

equal to the product of the length of the moment arm R and the force F
measured by the scale
T = rf = RF (16.10)
Work during one revolution = 2πRF

Work N
Power = = 2πRF (16.11)
Time 60
where N = revolutions per minute of the drive-shaft. Therefore,
2πRF N
bp = kW (16.12)
60 × 1000
It should be noted that N is the rpm of the engine. The friction force is acting
during every revolution of the crankshaft, regardless of whether or not that
revolution contains a power stroke.
The product of the moment arm R and the measured force, F is termed
the torque of the engine and is usually expressed in Nm. Torque, T is the
uniform or fluctuating turning moment, or twist, exerted by a tangential force
acting at a distance from the axis of rotation. For an engine operating at a
given speed and delivering a given power, the torque must be a fixed amount,
or the product of F and R must be constant (T = F R). In such a case, if R
is decreased, F will increase proportionately and vice versa.
The brake power, bp, can also be written as
2πN T
bp = kW (16.13)
60000
In practice, the length of the moment arm R of the measuring equipment

is so designed that the value of the constants 2π and the constant R and 60000
combine to give a convenient number (i.e., in thousands and ten-thousands)
504 IC Engines
in order to simplify computations.

FN FN
bp = = (16.14)
60000/2πR C1
In order to have C1 = 10000, R should be 0.955 m.

The reader may recollect that the torque is the capacity of an engine to
do work while power is the rate at which an engine does work. A simple
example is that a tractor pulling a given load. The torque developed will
determine whether or not the tractor is capable of pulling the load, and the
power delivered will determine how fast the load can be pulled.
16.2.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (pbm )

Indicated mean effective pressure may be considered to consist of f mep and
bmep, two hypothetical pressures. Friction mean effective pressure is that
portion of imep which is required to overcome friction losses, and brake mean
effective pressure is the portion which produces the useful power delivered by
the engine.
imep = bmep + f mep
Since bmep is that portion of imep which goes into the development of useful
power, it has the same relationship to bp as imep has to ip, or
bmep bp
= (16.15)
imep ip
Equation 16.8 was developed as a means of computing ip when imep is deter-

mined from an engine indicator diagram
pim LAnK
ip =
60000
For a given engine, L, A, n and K are constants. Since bp and bmep have the
same relationship to one another as do ip and imep, bp can be expressed as
pbm LAnK
bp = (16.16)
60000
where pbm is brake mean effective pressure (N/m2 ).

And due to the same relationship, the mechanical efficiency, ηm of the
engine can be expressed as the ratio of bmep to imep.
bp bmep
ηm = = (16.17)
ip imep
It should be noted that for a given engine operating under given conditions,
the torque developed is proportional to the bmep. This relationship, may be
obtained by equating Eq.16.13 and Eq.16.16.
Brake mean effective pressure is very useful in comparing engines or in
establishing engine operating limits.
16.3 ENGINE EFFICIENCIES
Apart from expressing engine performance in terms of power, it is also essential

to express in terms of efficiencies. Various engine efficiencies are:
(i) Air-standard efficiency
(ii) Brake thermal efficiency
(iii) Indicated thermal efficiency
(iv) Mechanical efficiency
(v) Relative efficiency
(vi) Volumetric efficiency
(vii) Scavenging efficiency
(viii) Charge efficiency
(ix) Combustion efficiency
Most of these efficiencies have already been discussed in various chapters.

Generally these efficiencies are expressed in percentage or decimal fractions.
We will briefly review them again here.
16.3.1 Air-Standard Efficiency

The air-standard efficiency is also known as thermodynamic efficiency. It is
mainly a function of compression ratio and other parameters. It gives the
upper limit of the efficiency obtainable from an engine.
16.3.2 Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiencies

The indicated and brake thermal efficiencies are based on the ip and bp of the
engine respectively. These efficiencies give an idea of the output generated
by the engine with respect to heat supplied in the form of fuel. In modern
engines an indicated thermal efficiency of almost 28 per cent is obtainable
with gas and gasoline spark-ignition engines having a moderate compression
ratio and as high as 36 per cent or even more with high compression ratio oil
engines.
16.3.3 Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical losses in an engine.
Mechanical losses of an engine may be further subdivided into the following
groups:
(i) Friction losses as in case of pistons, bearings, gears, valve mechanisms.

With the development in bearing design and materials, improvements
in gears etc., these losses are usually limited from 7 to 9 per cent of the
indicated output.
506 IC Engines
(ii) Power is absorbed by engine auxiliaries such as fuel pump, lubricating

oil pump, water circulating pump, radiator, magneto and distributor,
electric generator for battery charging, radiator fan etc. These losses
may account for 3 to 8 per cent of the indicated output.
(iii) Ventilating action of the flywheel. This loss is usually below 4 per cent
of the indicated output.
(iv) Work of charging the cylinder with fresh charge and discharging the
exhaust gases during the exhaust stroke. In case of two-stroke engines
the power absorbed by the scavenging pump etc. These losses may ac-
count for 2 to 6 per cent of the indicated output. In general, mechanical
efficiency of engines varies from 65 to 85%.
16.3.4 Relative Efficiency

The relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as it is sometimes called is the ratio
of the actual efficiency obtained from an engine to the theoretical efficiency
of the engine cycle. Hence,
Actual brake thermal efficiency

Relative efficiency =
Air-standard efficiency
Relative efficiency for most of the engines varies from 75 to 95% with theo-
retical air and decreases rapidly with insufficient air to about 75% with 90%
air.
16.3.5 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success with which the air supply,
and thus the charge, is inducted into the engine. It is a very important
parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of the engine. It has been
discussed in detail in section 4.5.2. Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio
of the actual mass of air drawn into the engine during a given period of time
to the theoretical mass which should have been drawn in during that same
period of time, based upon the total piston displacement of the engine, and
the temperature and pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.
ṁact
ηv = (16.18)
ṁth
ṁth = ρa nVs
where n is the number of intake strokes per minute. For a four-stroke engine
n = N/2 and for a two-stroke engine n = N , where N is the speed of the
engine in rev/min. The actual mass is a measured quantity. The theoretical
mass is computed from the geometry of the cylinder, the number of cylinders,
and the speed of the engine, in conjunction with the density of the surrounding
atmosphere.
16.3.6 Scavenging Efficiency

In case of two-stroke engines (discussed in detail in the next chapter) scaveng-
ing efficiency is defined as the ratio of the amount of air or gas-air mixture,
which remains in the cylinder, at the actual beginning of the compression
to the product of the total volume and air density of the inlet. Scavenging
efficiency for most of the two-stroke engines varies from 40 to 95 per cent
depending upon the type of scavenging provided.
16.3.7 Charge Efficiency

The charge efficiency shows how well the piston displacement of a four-stroke
engine is utilized. Various factors affecting charge efficiency are:
(i) the compression ratio.
(ii) the amount of heat picked up during passage of the charge through
intake manifold.
(iii) the valve timing of the engine.
(iv) the resistance offered to air-fuel charge during its passage through in-
duction manifold.
16.3.8 Combustion Efficiency

Combustion efficiency is the ratio of heat liberated to the theoretical heat
in the fuel. The amount of heat liberated is less than the theoretical value
because of incomplete combustion either due to dissociation or due to lack of
available oxygen. Combustion efficiency in a well adjusted engine varies from
92% to 97%.
16.4 ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Engine performance characteristics are a convenient graphical presentation of

an engine performance. They are constructed from the data obtained during
actual test runs of the engine and are particularly useful in comparing the
performance of one engine with that of another. In this section some of the
important performance characteristics of the SI engines are discussed.
It is to be noted that there is a certain speed, within the speed range of
a particular engine, at which the charge inducted per cylinder per cycle will
be the maximum. At this point, the maximum force can therefore be exerted
on the piston. For all practical purposes, the torque, or engine capacity to
do work will also be maximum at this point. Thus, there is a particular
engine speed at which the charge per cylinder per cycle is a maximum, and at
approximately this same speed, the torque of the engine will be a maximum.
As the speed of the engine is increased above this speed the quantity of
the indicated charge will decrease. However, the power output of the engine
increases with speed due to more number of cycles are executed per unit
time. It should be noted that the air consumption will continue to increase
with increased engine speed until some point is reached where the charge per
508 IC Engines
cylinder per stroke decreases very rapidly than the number of strokes per unit
time is increasing. Engines are so designed that the maximum air consumption
point is not reached within the operating speed of the engine. Increase in air
consumption means that increased quantities of fuel can be added per unit
time increasing the power output. In fact the ip produced in the cylinder is
almost directly proportional to the engine air consumption.
The relationship between air charge per cylinder per cycle and torque,
as well as air consumption and ip is illustrated in Fig.16.3. Note that the
maximum torque occurs at a lower speed than the maximum ip.
Full throttle
arge
ir ch
Air charge per cylinder per cycle
A
ndicated
rq ue i
To
Torque
n ip
tio
u mp
s
Speed for max. ip

on
irc
maximum
A
Speed for
torque
Low Engine speed High

Fig. 16.3 Typical performance plot with respect to speed
Figure 16.4 shows some of the other important performance characteristics

for a typical SI engine. In this figure, torque, ip, bp and f p are plotted against
engine speed throughout the operating range of the engine, at full throttle
and variable load. The difference between the ip produced in the cylinder,
and the bp realized at the drive-shaft, is the f p. At low engine speeds, the
f p is relatively low, and bp is close to ip. As engine speed increases, the
f p increases at a greater rate. At engine speeds above the usual operating
range, f p increases very rapidly. Also, at these higher speeds, ip will reach a
maximum and then fall off. At some point, ip and f p will be equal, and bp will
then drop to zero. Note that the torque reaches a maximum at approximately
60% of the rated rpm of the engine, while the ip has not reached maximum
even at the rated speed.
Figure 16.5 shows fuel consumption and bsf c plotted against the engine
speed, for the same engine operating under the same conditions. The quantity
of fuel consumed increases with engine speed. The bsf c, on the other hand,
drops as the speed is increased in the low speed range, nearly levels off at
medium speeds, and increases in the high speed range, At low speeds, the
heat loss to the combustion chamber walls is proportionately greater and
combustion efficiency is poorer, resulting in higher fuel consumption for the
Tor
qu
e
Full throttle operation
Torque (Nm)
Power (kW)
ip
bp
fp
Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 16.4 Typical SI engine performance curves
power produced. At the high speeds, the f p is increasing at a rapid rate,

resulting in a slower increase in bp than in fuel consumption, with a consequent
increase in bsf c.
Fuel consumption (kg/h)
bsfc
bsfc (kg/kW h)
n
mptio
el c onsu
Fu
Full throttle operation
Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 16.5 Typical fuel consumption curves for an SI engine
The bsf c curve of Fig.16.5 is for full throttle, variable speed operation.
At any one speed, it represents the bsf c which will result when the engine is
carrying its maximum load at that speed. By reducing throttle opening and
load, that same speed may be obtained, but at loads less than the maximum.
A family of curves for various speeds can be obtained, each showing the effect
on bsf c of varying the load at constant speed. Under these conditions of
constant speed and variable load, and at a constant air-fuel ratio, the bsf c will
rise consistently and rapidly as the load (and throttle opening) is decreased.
Figure 16.6 illustrates the general shape of the curve for any given rpm. The
reason for the rapid increase in bsf c with the reduction in throttle opening is
that the f p remains essentially constant, while the ip is being reduced. The
bp drops more rapidly than fuel consumption, and thereby the bsf c rises.
510 IC Engines
Constant speed
Constant A/F ratio
Full throttle
bsfc (kg/h)
bs
fc
0 Full load (%) 100
Fig. 16.6 bsf c curve at constant speed and variable load
Performance curves can be constructed for other operating factors such as

imep, bmep, air consumption etc. However, the curves presented are typical,
and are among the more important. Probably the most important of these
are the curves of torque, bp and bsf c plotted against engine speed at full
throttle operation. These curves are the ones most generally published by
engine manufacturers with the descriptive literature on their engine models.
Such a plot would look similar to Fig.16.7.
Torque (Nm)
ue
rq
To
Brake power
Fuel consumption (kg/kW h)
bp
bsfc
Engine speed (rpm)
Fig. 16.7 Variation of bsf c, torque and bp with respect to speed for an SI
engine
For selecting a particular capacity engine, one can refer to the curves
published by the various engine manufacturers which will meet his needs.
Then comprehensive performance curves may be studied to determine the
appropriate engine.
Figure 16.8 shows full-load indicated and brake power and mean effective
pressure for naturally aspirated DI and IDI compression-ignition engines. Ex-
cept at high engine speeds, brake torque and mep vary only modestly with
engine speed since the intake system of the diesel can have larger flow areas
than the intake of SI engines with their intake-system fuel transport require-
ments. The part-load torque and bmep characteristics (at fixed amount of fuel
injected/cycle) have a similar shape to the full-load characteristics in Fig.16.8.
220 1100 1000

imep
imep 1000 900
bmep (kPa)
mep (kPa)
180 900 800
bmep
800 70 bmep 700
Power (kW)
140 700 600

ip
Power (kW)
50 500
bp ip
100
30 bp
60 bsfc
sfc (g/kW h)
240
isfc 200 10
160
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Speed (rpm) Speed (rpm)
(a) DI Diesel engine (b) IDI Diesel engine
Fig. 16.8 Performance graph of DI and IDI CI engine
16.5 VARIABLES AFFECTING PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
In the preceding section, engine performance curves were discussed. The shape
of these curves, or the engine performance is determined by the regulation of
many design and operating variables. Some of the important variables will be
briefly discussed and summarized in this section.
16.5.1 Combustion Rate and Spark Timing

The spark should be timed and the combustion rate controlled such that
the maximum pressure occurs as close to the beginning of the power stroke as
possible, consistent with a smooth running engine. As a general rule, the spark
timing and combustion rate are regulated in such a way that approximately
one half of the total pressure rise due to combustion has occurred as the piston
reaches T DC on the compression stroke.
512 IC Engines
16.5.2 Air-Fuel Ratio

This ratio must be set to fulfill engine requirements. Consistent with these
requirements, however, it is usually set as close as possible to the best economy
proportions during normal cruising speeds, and as close as possible to the best
power proportions when maximum performance is required.
16.5.3 Compression Ratio

An increase in compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency, and is, there-
fore, generally advantageous. The compression ratio in most SI engines is
limited by knock, and the use of economically feasible antiknock quality fuels.
Increasing compression ratio also increases the friction of the engine, partic-
ularly between piston rings and the cylinder walls, and there is a point at
which further increase in compression ratio would not be profitable, though
this point appears to be rather high.
16.5.4 Engine Speed

At low speeds, a greater length of time is available for heat transfer to the
cylinder walls and therefore a greater proportion of heat loss occurs. Up to
a certain point, higher speeds produce greater air consumption and therefore
greater ip. Higher speeds, however, are accompanied by rapidly increasing f p
and by greater inertia in the moving parts. Consequently, the engine speed
range must be a compromise, although most present day designs appear to
favour the higher speeds.
16.5.5 Mass of Inducted Charge

The greater the mass of the charge inducted, the higher the power produced.
For a given engine, the geometry is fixed, and it is desirable to induct a charge
to a maximum possible density giving the highest volumetric efficiency.
16.5.6 Heat Losses

It should be noted that the large proportion of the available energy is lost
in a non-usable form, i.e., heat losses. Any method which can be employed
to prevent the excessive heat loss and cause this energy to leave the engine
is a usable form will tend to increase engine performance. Higher coolant
temperatures, for instance, provide a smaller temperature gradient around
combustion chamber walls and a reduction in heat loss, but are limited by the
possibility of damage to engine parts.
16.6 METHODS OF IMPROVING ENGINE PERFORMANCE
The engine designer is always interested in methods through which engine

performance may be improved. By referring to Fig.1.13, it can be seen that
there are two general areas in which methods can be utilized to improve
performance:
(i) the energy put into the engine at the start may be increased, and/or
(ii) the efficiency with which the fuel energy is converted to mechanical
energy may be increased (Areas A and B of Fig.1.13).
Energy supply may be increased by increasing the mass of charge enter-

ing the combustion chamber. Supercharging is one method of accomplishing
this. Larger piston displacement is another solution, but is limited by engine
weight and cooling problems. Improvement in volumetric efficiency would
also increase the mass of charge. Higher engine speeds may be utilized, but
these result in increased friction losses, and above a certain point, in lowered
volumetric efficiency. Improvements in fuels resulting in greater usable energy
content without detonation would also help.
The use of higher compression ratios would increase the efficiency of con-
version of the energy in the fuel into useful mechanical energy. This requires
the development of economically feasible higher antiknock quality fuels. Even
with such fuels, as pointed out earlier, there appears to be a limit to the
advantage in increasing the compression ratio. Another solution would be
to reduce the losses between the air cycle and the actual cycle, and thereby
increase the proportion of energy which can be mechanically utilized.
Also, it is possible to take advantage of the kinetic energy in the exhaust
gas to increase the engine output through use of exhaust driven turbines. In
this case, the exhaust gas from engine cylinders drives a turbine which is
connected to the engine crankshaft, thus increasing engine output. Engines
having this type of power booster are known as turbocompound engines.
Many of the parameters entering into the performance of four-stroke CI
engine are similar to those already analyzed for SI engines. Hence, the per-
formance characteristics of CI engines are not discussed separately.
16.7 HEAT BALANCE
Energy supplied to an engine is the heat value of the fuel consumed. As has
been repeatedly pointed out, only a part of this energy is transformed into
useful work. The rest of it is either wasted or utilized in special application
like turbocompounding. The two main parts of the heat not available for
work are the heat carried away by the exhaust gases and the cooling medium.
Figure 16.9 illustrates the same for spark-ignition engines. A typical heat
balance for compression-ignition engines is illustrated in Fig.16.10.
To give sufficient data for the preparation of a heat balance sheet, a test
should include a method of determining the friction power and the measure-
ment of speed, load, fuel consumption, air consumption, exhaust temperature,
rate of flow of cooling water and its temperature rise while flowing through
the water jackets. Besides, the small losses, such as radiation and incomplete
combustion, the above enumerated data makes it possible to account for the
heat supplied by the fuel and indicate its distribution.
It may be argued that same amount of frictional power, is accounted in
the rise of cooling water temperature and lubricating oil temperature etc.
However, it is taken into account here to show that the frictional losses also
514 IC Engines
100
Unaccounted losses
75
Energy input (%)
Exhaust losses
50
Coolant losses
25
Useful work
0
Low Engine speed High
Fig. 16.9 Heat balance diagram for a typical SI engine
100
Unaccounted losses
80
Energy input (%)
Exhaust losses
60
40
Coolant losses
20
Useful work
0
0 25 50 75 100
Power output (%)
Fig. 16.10 Heat balance diagram for a typical CI engine
include blowdown and pumping losses and therefore it is not appropriate to

put it in the heat balance. Since, there are always certain losses which cannot
be accounted for, by including f p in the heat balance, the unaccounted losses
will reduce.
The heat balance may be external or internal. Typical external heat bal-
ance is shown in Fig.16.11.
Fuel Air
Exhaust gases Cooling water
Lubricating oil
Engine
Cooling water
Lubricating oil Crankcase and wall radiation

Fig. 16.11 External heat balance
Usually the amount of heat carried by lubricating oil is comparatively

small and are normally not included. A further method of representing heat
balance is by means of the Sankey diagram. This is a stream type diagram in
which the width of the stream represents the heat quantity being considered,
usually as a percentage of the heat supplied, as shown in Fig.16.12.
bp 20%
Surrounding 12%
Loss 80%
32%
xh
E
aust
3
3%
Coolant 35% 65%
Heat from fuel 100%

Fig. 16.12 Sankey diagram
It may be observed that the diagram starts at the bottom with a stream
width which represents the heat input from the fuel which is 100% of the heat
516 IC Engines
input and is marked as such. Moving up the diagram, first the coolant loss
stream is let off to the left.
The width of this stream represents the percentage loss to the coolant.
Still higher the exhaust loss stream is let off to the left and finally the loss to
the surroundings appears. The loss streams finally meet a single loss stream
as shown of the original vertical stream, only the brake power output stream
is left at the top of the diagram. The figures on the diagram are percentages
of the heat supplied in the fuel. A more detailed diagram for a spark-ignition
engine is shown in Fig.16.13. In this case, actually the heat distribution is
much more involved. During the suction or scavenging period the entering
fresh charge receives heat from the residual gases and from the cylinder walls.
Part of the indicated work on the piston is transformed through friction into
heat, which goes mostly into the cooling medium but partly into the exhaust
gases and lubricating oil and also is dissipated through the crankcase to the
surrounding air.
16.8 PERFORMANCE MAPS
For critical analysis the performance of an IC engine under all conditions

of load and speed is shown by a performance map. Figure 16.14 shows the
performance map of an automotive SI engine and Fig.16.15 the performance
map of a four-stroke prechamber CI engine. Figure 16.14 also includes a
typical curve of bmep vs piston speed for level road operation in high gear.
Note that these maps can be used for comparing different sized engines, as
performance parameters have been generalized by converting rpm into piston
speed and power per unit piston area. Generally speaking, all the engines
show a region of lowest specific fuel consumption (highest efficiency) at a
relatively low piston speed with a relatively high bmep.
16.8.1 SI Engines
Constant Speed Line : Reduced bsf c is obtained by moving upward along
constant speed line. Mixture enrichment at high load more than offsets in-
crease in mechanical efficiency. Moving to lower bmeps, the bsf c increases
because of the reduced mechanical efficiency.
Constant bmep Line : Moving from the region of highest efficiency along a
line of constant bmep, the bsf c increases due to increased friction at higher
piston speeds. Moving to the left towards lower piston speed, although friction
mep decreases, indicated efficiency falls off owing to poor fuel distribution and
increased heat losses.
16.8.2 CI Engines
In the CI engine the bsf c increases at high loads owing to the increased fuel
waste (smoke) associated with high fuel-air ratios. At lower load bsf c increases
due to decrease in mechanical efficiency (same as in the SI engine).
As the speed is reduced from the point of best economy along a line of
constant bmep, the product of mechanical and indicated thermal efficiency
Energy in exhaust Cooling water Total radiation

35% 30% 8%
Exhaust
manifold
Energy in
unburnt products Water jacket
radiation
Heat to mixture
Exhaust ports
from cylinder walls
Crankcase and
Heat in wall radiation
Pumping
residual gases
Heat from
exhaust
Heat from
Energy of mixture
of fresh charge
cylinder walls
Heating value
in the cylinder
and pistons Mechanical losses

100%
Indicated
work
Shaft work 27%
Fig. 16.13 Sankey diagram for an SI engine
10
0.07
0.04
0.09
0.11
0.13
8
6
0.1
0.1
8
Fu
ll t
hro
ttle
0.32
0.31
bmep (bar)
6
2
0.3
3
0.3
4
0.3 6
4 0.3
7
0.3
3
0.4
6
2 0.5 5
0.7
0.91 bsfc (kg/kW h)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Piston speed (m/min)
Fig. 16.14 Generalized performance map of automotive SI engine
518 IC Engines
10
ted mep
indica
Maximum
Maximum brake me
p
8
bsfc 0.42
(kg
/kW 0.38
h)
0.34
bmep (bar)
6
0.24
0.22
4
0.15
2 0.11
0.07
0.04
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Piston speed (m/min)
Fig. 16.15 Performance map of a four-stroke prechamber diesel engine
appears to remain a constant down to the lowest operating speed. The reduc-
tion in f mep with speed is apparently balanced by a reduction is indicated
thermal efficiency due to poor spray characteristics at very low speeds. An
interesting feature of the performance curves is that they show the power at
maximum economy is about half of the maximum power.
16.9 ANALYTICAL METHOD OF PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION
Performance data of engine obtained from theoretical analysis are very useful
for the design of a new engine. Due to complex nature of the processes
taking place in an engine (such as combustion with variable specific heat and
dissociation, mixing of different gases, heat transfer, etc.) the theoretical
calculations are rather very difficult and some simplifying assumptions are to
be made. Therefore, results obtained from theoretical calculations must be
compared with experimental results obtained from engine of similar design for
validation. The theoretical results are accepted only when they are reasonably
close to the experimental results.
The brake output of an engine depends on brake mean effective pres-
sure, bmep, and the piston speed, sp . Brake mean effective pressure depends
on indicated mean effective pressure, imep, and the frictional mean effective
pressure, f mep. When the speed of the engine changes from N1 to N2 , the
piston speed changes from sp1 to sp2 and the brake output changes from bp1
to bp2 . Now the ratio of bp2 to bp1 can be written as

bp2 imep2 − f mep2 sp2
= × (16.19)
where bp1 and bp2 are the power output in kW at speeds N1 and N2 respec-
tively.
The ratio of indicated mean effective pressure at N2 and N1 is given by
imep2 ρin2 ηv2 (ṁf ηith )2

= = (16.20)
imep1 ρin1 ηv1 (ṁf ηith )1
Dividing numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq.16.19 by

imep1 , we get
imep2 f mep2
= f mep1
×
bp1 1− imep1
sp1
f mep2
− imep1 sp2
= f mep1
× (16.21)
1− imep1
sp1
From the above relation the power output at condition 2 (bp2 at mean effective
pressure, imep2 and speed, N2 ) can be obtained if the bp1 at imep1 and N1
are known. In order to determine the complete performance at condition 2,
the brake specific fuel consumption at condition 2 should be determined. The
brake specific fuel consumption, bsf c, which indicates the economy of the
engine operation, is related to the indicated specific fuel consumption, isf c
by the following relation:
isf c isf c
bsf c = bmep
= (16.22)
imep 1 − fimep
mep
Therefore, the ratio of specific fuel consumption at condition 2 to that at

condition 1 is given by the following relation,
f mep1
bsf c2 isf c2 1− imep1
= f mep2
f mep1
isf c2 imep1
= 1− f mep2
(16.23)
isf c1 ×imep1
When engine speed is constant, power developed is proportional to bmep2 and

therefore, bp2 can be obtained from the relation
bp2 bmep2 imep2 − f mep2
= = (16.24)
bp1 bmep1 imep1 − f mep1
For four-stroke cycle unsupercharged engine, the change in f mep with change
in power output at constant speed is negligibly small.
520 IC Engines
Therefore, we can assume
f mep1 = f mep2 = f mep
Therefore, the ratio of brake outputs is given by

imep2 f mep f mep
bp2 imep1 − imep1 − imep1
= f mep
= f mep
(16.25)
bp1 1− imep1 1− imep1
f mep
= f mep
f mep
isf c2 1− imep1
= f mep
(16.26)
isf c1 1− ×imep1
Value of air capacity is given by the product of inlet density and volumetric
efficiency (ρin × ηv ) for a spark-ignition engine and it increases with increase
in average piston speed and reaches a maximum value at a particular piston
speed. The indicated thermal efficiency is nearly constant with increasing
speed if the fuel-air ratio and the spark timing are adjusted to best power
condition at each speed. Therefore, the ratio of indicated mean effective pres-
sures, imep, is approximately equal to the ratio of air capacities at different
speeds. The mean effective pressure, due to mechanical losses, f mep changes
with change in average piston speed. The variation of f mep with variation of
piston speed for different designs of engine are obtained from motoring tests.
The values of f mep1 and f mep2 are taken from the test data of similar engine
at piston speeds sp1 and sp2 . The air capacities and f mep at two condition
being known, the power output and brake specific fuel consumption at condi-
tion 2 can be calculated (by Eqs.16.21 and 16.23. When the power output of
the engine is decreased at a constant speed, the value of ρin ηv decreases appre-
ciably (resistance at inlet increases due to throttling). The indicated thermal
efficiency, ηith , also decreases and the change in indicated thermal efficiency
being known, the ratio of indicated mean effective pressures, can be calcu-
lated. The power output and brake specific fuel consumption at condition 2
can be calculated using Eqs.16.25 and 16.26.
When the speed of a compression-ignition engine increases the value of air
capacity ρin ηv first increases and then decreases after reaching its maximum
value. The indicated thermal efficiency ηith increases with increase in speed as
long as the fuel feed system operates satisfactorily and the air capacity remains
sufficiently high. Therefore, the ratio of indicated mean effective pressures,
increases with speed upto a particular value. The f mep also increases with
speed of the engine (average piston speed). The variation of f mep with piston
speed is obtained from motoring tests. Knowing the value of and f mep2
the power output and brake specific fuel consumption at condition 2 can be
calculated.
When the power developed at a constant speed is reduced by decreasing
the amount of fuel injected the volumetric efficiency and indicated thermal
efficiency increases with decrease in power developed. Therefore, though the

fuel-air ratio decreases, the net effect is an increase in the indicated mean
effective pressure. Therefore, the value of increases with decrease in load
at constant speed. The f mep at constant speed and varying power output
(varying load) practically remains constant and knowing the value of output
and brake specific fuel consumption at condition 2 can be determined.
Other factors (except the speed and load of the engine) commonly affect-
ing engine performance are the atmospheric conditions (pressure, temperature
and humidity), the fuel-air ratio and the compression ratio. The effects of vari-
ation of these factors on the volumetric efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency
and mechanical efficiency within the range of speed and output of the engine
have been discussed in previous chapters.
If the fuel-air ratio is maintained nearly constant during change of inlet
conditions (other factors remain constant), the indicated thermal efficiency
may be assumed constant. Therefore, the indicated mean effective pressure
will depend on ρa × ηv . √Under this condition, the volumetric efficiency is
inversely proportional to √ T0 (pin = p√
ex at all conditions). Therefore, ρa × ηv
is proportional to p0 /T0 × T0 or p0 / T0 . Therefore,
1
imep2 p02 T01 2
= = (16.27)
imep1 p01 T02
Using this value of the performance of the engine at condition 2 can be
obtained if their performance at rated condition is known.
The effect of altitude on engine performance is important when the engine
operates at different heights in mountainous region or for the aircraft engines.
With change in altitude both the inlet pressure and temperature (also the
exhaust pressure) change. Therefore, their performance using constant fuel-
air ratio can be obtained as in the previous case.
Fuel-air ratio has a marked effect on the indicated thermal efficiency of
an engine. Its effect on volumetric efficiency, is however, small (may be ne-
glected). Therefore,
imep2 (ṁf ηith )2
= = (16.28)
imep1 (ṁf ηith )1
when all other conditions remain the same but the fuel-air ratio of the charge is
changed. The performance at condition 2 can be obtained if the performance
at conditions 1 is known.
Compression ratio has significant effect on indicated thermal efficiency.
Therefore, when the compression ratio is changed all other conditions of op-
eration remaining the same, the ratio of indicated mean effective pressures is
given by,
imep2 (ηith )2
= = (16.29)
imep1 (ηith )1
Worked out Examples
16.1 A four-stroke gas engine has a bore of 20 cm and stroke of 30 cm and

runs at 300 rpm firing every cycle. If air-fuel ratio is 4:1 by volume and
522 IC Engines
volumetric efficiency on NTP basis is 80%, determine the volume of gas

used per minute. If the calorific value of the gas is 8 MJ/m3 at NTP
and the brake thermal efficiency is 25% determine the brake power of
the engine.
Solution
π 2 π
Vs = D L = × 202 × 30 = 9424.8 cc
4 4
Total charge taken in per cycle

V̇C = 0.8 × 9424.8 = 7.54 × 10−3 m3
Volume of gas used per minute

7.54 × 10−3 300
V̇g = ×
4+1 2
= 0.2262 m3 at NTP/min
Heat input = 8000 × 0.2262 = 1809.6 kJ/min

0.25 × 1809.6
bp = ηbth × Heat input =
60
Ans
= 7.54 kW ⇐=
16.2 The following observations have been made from the test of a four-
cylinder, two-stroke gasoline engine. Diameter = 10 cm; stroke = 15 cm;
speed = 1600 rpm; Area of the positive loop of the indicator diagram =
5.75 sq cm; Area of the negative loop of the indicator diagram = 0.25
sq cm; Length of the indicator diagram = 55 mm; Spring constant =
3.5 bar/cm; Find the indicated power of the engine.
Solution
Net area of diagram = 5.75 − 0.25 = 5.5 cm2
5.5
Average height of the diagram = = 1 cm
5.5
pim = Average height of the diagram × Spring constant
= 1 × 3.5 = 3.5 bar
pim LAnK 3.5 × 105 × 0.15 × π4 × 0.12 × 1600 × 4

ip = =
60000 60000
Ans
= 43.98 kW ⇐=
16.3 A single-cylinder engine running at 1800 rpm develops a torque of 8

Nm. The indicated power of the engine is 1.8 kW. Find the loss due to
friction power as the percentage of brake power.
Solution
2πN T 2 × π × 1800 × 8
bp = = = 1.508 kW
60000 60000
Friction power = 1.8 − 1.508 = 0.292
0.292 Ans
Percentage loss = × 100 = 19.36% ⇐=
1.508
16.4 A gasoline engine working on Otto cycle consumes 8 litres of gasoline

per hour and develops 25 kW. The specific gravity of gasoline is 0.75
and its calorific value is 44000 kJ/kg. Determine the indicated thermal
efficiency of the engine.
Solution
Heat equivalent of ip
ηith =
Heat input
25 × 60 × 60 Ans
= × 100 = 34.1% ⇐=
(8 × 10−3 × 750) × 44000
16.5 A four cylinder engine running at 1200 rpm delivers 20 kW. The average
torque when one cylinder was cut is 110 Nm. Find the indicated thermal
efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43 MJ/kg and the engine
uses 360 grams of gasoline per kW h.
Solution
2πN T 2π × 1200 × 110
Avg. bp for 3 cylinders = = = 13.82 kW
60000 60000
Avg. ip with 1 cylinder = 20 − 13.82 = 6.18 kW
Total ip = 4 × 6.18 = 24.72 kW

bp 20
isf c = bsf c × = 360 ×
ip 24.72
= 291.26 g/kW h
isf c × ip 291.26 × 24.72

Fuel consumption = =
3600 × 1000 3600 × 1000
= 2 × 10−3 kg/s
524 IC Engines
ip 24.72
ηith = = × 100
ṁf × CV 2 × 10−3 × 43000
Ans
= 28.74% ⇐=
16.6 The bore and stroke of a water-cooled, vertical, single-cylinder, four-

stroke diesel engine are 80 mm and 110 mm respectively and the torque
is 23.5 Nm. Calculate the brake mean effective pressure of the engine.
Solution
2πN T pbm LAn
P = =
60000 60000
2πN T 2πN T 16T
pbm = = = 2
LAn L × π4 × D2 N2 D L
16 × 23.5 Ans
= = 5.34 × 105 Pa = 5.34 bar ⇐=
0.082 × 0.11
16.7 Find the mean effective pressure and torque developed by the engine in
the previous problem if its rating are 4 kW at 1500 rpm.
Solution
P × 60000
pbm = π 2 N
× 10−5 bar
4D L 2
4 × 60000 Ans
= π 1500 × 10−5 = 5.78 bar ⇐=
4 × 0.082 × 0.11 × 2
P × 60000 4 × 60000 Ans

T = = = 25.46 Nm ⇐=
2πN 2 × π × 1500
16.8 Find the brake specific fuel consumption in kg/kW h of a diesel engine
whose fuel consumption is 5 grams per second when the power output
is 80 kW. If the mechanical efficiency is 75%, calculate the indicated
specific fuel consumption.
Solution
ṁf 5
bsf c = = = 0.0625 g/kW s
bp 80
0.0625 Ans
= × 3600 = 0.225 kg/kW h ⇐=
1000
Ans
isf c = bsf c × ηm 0.225 × 0.75 = 0.169 kg/kW h ⇐=
16.9 For engine in the previous problem find the brake specific energy con-
sumption, bsec, given the fuel consumption 5.55 g/s and the lower heat-
ing value of the fuel as 43 MJ/kg. Find also the indicated specific energy
consumption.
Solution
kW heat input CV × ṁf
bsec = = = CV × bsf c
kW work output P
5.55
bsf c = = 0.069 g/kW s = 0.069 × 10−3 kg/kW s
80
CV = 43 MJ/kg = 43 × 103 kJ/kg
Ans
bsec = bsf c × CV = 43 × 103 × 0.069 × 10−3 = 2.97 ⇐=
Ans
isec = bsec × ηm = 2.97 × 0.75 = 2.23 ⇐=
16.10 Find the air-fuel ratio of a four-stroke, single-cylinder, air-cooled engine

with fuel consumption time for 10 cc is 20.4 s and air consumption time
for 0.1 m3 is 16.3 s. The load is 17 kg at the speed of 3000 rpm.
Find also brake specific fuel consumption in g/kW h and brake thermal
efficiency. Assume the density of air as 1.175 kg/m3 and specific gravity
of fuel to be 0.7. The lower heating value of fuel is 43 MJ/kg and the
dynamometer constant is 5000.
Solution
0.1
Air consumption = × 1.175 = 7.21 × 10−3 kg/s
16.3
10 1
Fuel consumption = × 0.7 × = 0.343 × 10−3 kg/s
20.4 1000
7.21 × 10−3 Ans
Air-fuel ratio = = 21 ⇐=
0.343 × 10−3
WN 7 × 3000
Power output, P = = = 4.2 kW
5000 5000
Fuel consumption (g/h)
bsf c =
Power output
0.343 × 10−3 × 3600 × 1000

=
4.2
Ans
= 294 g/kW h ⇐=
4.2 Ans
ηbth = × 100 = 28.48% ⇐=
0.343 × 10−3 × 43000
526 IC Engines
16.11 A six-cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four-stroke cycle. The

bore of each cylinder is 80 mm and the stroke 100 mm. The clearance
volume per cylinder is 70 cc. At a speed of 4000 rpm the fuel consump-
tion is 20 kg/h and the torque developed is 150 Nm. Calculate (i) the
brake power (ii) the brake mean effective pressure (iii) brake thermal
efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg and (iv) the
relative efficiency on a brake power basis assuming the engine works on
the constant volume cycle. γ = 1.4 for air.
Solution
2πN T 2 × π × 4000 × 150 Ans
bp = = = 62.8 kW ⇐=
60000 60000
bp × 60000 62.8 × 60000
pbm = =
LAnK 0.1 × 4 × 0.082 × 4000
π
2 ×6
Ans
= 6.25 × 105 Pa = 6.25 bar ⇐=
bp 62.8 × 3600 Ans
ηbth = = × 100 = 26.3% ⇐=
ṁf × CV 20 × 43000
Vs + Vcl
r =
Vcl
π 2 π
Vs = D L = × 82 × 10 = 502.65 cc
4 4
502.65 + 70
r = = 8.18
70
1
ηOtto = 1− = 0.568
8.180.4
0.263 Ans
ηrel = × 100 = 46.3% ⇐=
0.568
16.12 An eight-cylinder, four-stroke engine of 9 cm bore and 8 cm stroke with
a compression ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which
has 54 cm arm. During a 10 minutes test the dynamometer scale beam
reading was 42 kg and the engine consumed 4.4 kg of gasoline having
a calorific value of 44000 kJ/kg. Air 27 ◦ C and 1 bar was supplied
to the carburettor at the rate of 6 kg/min. Find (i) the brake power
delivered (ii) the brake mean effective pressure (iii) the brake specific
fuel consumption (iv) the brake specific air consumption (v) the brake
thermal efficiency (vi) the volumetric efficiency and (vii) the air-fuel
ratio.
Solution
2πN T
bp =
60000
2 × π × 4500 × 42 × 0.54 × 9.81 Ans

= = 104.8 kW ⇐=
60000
bp × 60000 104.8 × 60000
bmep = =
LAnK 0.08 × π4 × 0.092 × 4500
2 ×8
Ans
= 6.87 × 105 Pa = 6.87 bar ⇐=
4.4
10 × 60 Ans
bsf c = = 0.252 kg/kW h ⇐=
104.8
6 × 60 Ans
bsac = = 3.435 kg/kW h ⇐=
104.8
bp 104.9 × 60 Ans
ηbth = = 4.4 × 100 = 32.5% ⇐=
ṁf × CV 10 × 44000
Volume flow rate of air at intake condition

ṁa RT 6 × 287 × 300
V̇a = = = 5.17 m3 /min
p 1 × 105
π 2 π 4500
Vs = D LnK = × 0.092 × 0.08 × × 8 = 9.16 m3 /min
4 4 2
5.17 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 56.44% ⇐=
9.16
6.0 Ans
A/F = = 13.64 ⇐=
0.44
16.13 The following details were noted in a test on a four-cylinder, four-stroke
engine, diameter = 100 mm; stroke = 120 mm; speed of the engine =
1600 rpm; fuel consumption = 0.2 kg/min; calorific value of fuel is 44000
kJ/kg; difference in tension on either side of the brake pulley = 40 kg;
brake circumference is 300 cm. If the mechanical efficiency is 80%, cal-
culate (i) brake thermal efficiency (ii) indicated thermal efficiency (iii)
indicated mean effective pressure and (iv) brake specific fuel consump-
tion
Solution
2πN T 2πN W R W N 2πR
bp = = =
60000 60000 60000
40 × 9.81 × 1600 × 3
= = 31.39 kW
60000
bp 31.39 × 60 Ans
ηbth = × 100 = × 100 = 21.40% ⇐=
ṁf × CV 0.2 × 44000
ηbth 0.214 Ans

ηith = × 100 = × 100 = 26.75% ⇐=
ηm 0.80
528 IC Engines
bp 31.39
ηm × 60000 0.8 × 60000
imep = =
LAnK 0.12 × π4 0.12 × 1600
2 ×4
Ans
= 7.8 × 105 Pa = 7.8 bar ⇐=
ṁf 0.2 × 60 Ans
bsf c = = = 0.382 kg/kW h ⇐=
bp 31.39
16.14 The air flow to a four cylinder, four-stroke oil engine is measured by
means of a 5 cm diameter orifice having a coefficient of discharge of 0.6.
During a test on the engine the following data were recorded : bore =
10 cm; stroke = 12 cm; speed = 1200 rpm; brake torque = 120 Nm;
fuel consumption = 5 kg/h; calorific value of fuel = 42 MJ/kg; pressure
drop across orifice is 4.6 cm of water; ambient temperature and pressure
are 17 ◦ C and 1 bar respectively. Calculate (i) the thermal efficiency on
brake power basis; (ii) the brake mean effective pressure and (iii) the
volumetric efficiency based on free air condition.
Solution
2πN T 2 × π × 1200 × 120
bp = = = 15.08 kW
60000 60000
15.08 × 60 Ans
ηbth = 5 × 100 = 25.85% ⇐=
60 × 42000
bp × 60000
pim =
LAnK
15.08 × 60000 Ans
= = 4 × 105 Pa = 4 bar ⇐=
0.12 × π4 × 0.12 × 1200
2 ×4
ρw
!
V̇a = Cd A 2gΔhw
ρa
p 105 3
ρa = = = 1.20 kg/m
RT 287 × 290
!
π 1000
V̇a = 0.6 × × 0.052 × 2 × 9.81 × 0.046 × × 60
4 1.2
= 1.938 m3 /min
π 2
Vs = d LnK
4
π 1200
= × 0.12 × 0.12 × × 4 = 2.262 m3 /min
4 2
1.938 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 85.7% ⇐=
2.262
16.15 The following observations were recorded during a trial of a four-stroke,

single-cylinder oil engine. Duration of trial is 30 min; oil consumption is
4 litres; calorific value of the oil is 43 MJ/kg; specific gravity of the fuel
= 0.8; average area of the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm2 ; Length of the
indicator diagram = 8.5 cm; spring constant = 5.5 bar/cm; brake load
= 150 kg; spring balance reading = 20 kg; effective brake wheel diame-
ter = 1.5 m; speed = 200 rpm; cylinder diameter = 30 cm; stroke = 45
cm; jacket cooling water = 10 kg/min; temperature rise is 36 ◦ C. Calcu-
late (i) indicated power (ii) brake power (iii) mechanical efficiency (iv)
brake specific fuel consumption in kg/kW h and (v) indicated thermal
efficiency.
Solution
Area of the diagram
pim = × Spring const.
Length of the diagram
8.5
= × 5.5 = 5.5 bar
8.5
pim LAn
ip =
60000
5.5 × 105 × 0.45 × π4 × 0.32 × 200
2
=
60000
Ans
= 29.16 kW ⇐=
2πN W R πN W d
bp = =
60000 60000
π × 200 × (150 − 20) × 9.81 × 1.5
=
60000
Ans
= 20.03 kW ⇐=
20.03 Ans
ηm = × 100 = 68.7% ⇐=
29.16
4
ṁf = × 60 × 10−3 × 800 = 6.4 kg/h
30
6.4 Ans
bsf c = = 0.3195 kg/kW h ⇐=
20.03
ip 29.16 × 3600 Ans
ηith = = × 100 = 38.14% ⇐=
ṁf × CV 6.4 × 43000
16.16 A four-stroke cycle gas engine has a bore of 20 cm and a stroke of 40

cm. The compression ratio is 6. In a test on the engine the indicated
mean effective pressure is 5 bar, the air to gas ratio is 6:1 and the
calorific value of the gas is 12 MJ/m3 at NTP. At the beginning of
530 IC Engines
the compression stroke the temperature is 77 ◦ C and pressure 0.98 bar.

Neglecting residual gases, determine the indicated power, the thermal
efficiency and the relative efficiency of the engine at 250 rpm.
Solution
π 2 π
Vs = D L = × 202 × 40 = 12566.4 cc
4 4
Volume of gas in the cylinder

1
= × V1
1 + A/F
Vs 6 1 6
V1 = Vs + = Vs × = × 12566.4 ×
r−1 5 6+1 5
= 2154.24 cc/cycle
Since the residual gases are to be neglected, one can assume a volumetric
efficiency of 100%
Normal pressure = 1 bar
pV p2 V2
=
T NT P T2 working
Volume of gas at NTP conditions

0.98 273
= 2154.24 × × = 1646.7 cc
1 350
Heat added = 1646.7 × 10−6 × 12 × 103 = 19.76 kJ/cycle
250
pim Vs n 5 × 105 × 12566.4 × 10−6 × 2
ip = =
60000 60000
Ans
= 13.09 kW ⇐=
ip 13.09
ηith = × 100 = 250 × 100
Heat added (in kW) 19.76 × 2×60
Ans
= 31.8% ⇐=
1
ηair−std = 1− = 0.512
60.4
0.318 Ans
ηrel = × 100 = 62.11% ⇐=
0.512
16.17 A four-stroke, four-cylinder gasoline engine has a bore of 60 mm and a

stroke of 100 mm. On test it develops a torque of 66.5 Nm when running
at 3000 rpm. If the clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc the relative

efficiency with respect to brake thermal efficiency is 0.5 and the calorific
value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg, determine the fuel consumption in kg/h
and the brake mean effective pressure.
Solution
π
Vs = × 0.062 × 0.1 = 2.83 × 10−4 m3 /cylinder
4
= 283 cc/cylinder
283 + 60
r = = 5.71
60
1
ηair−std = 1− = 0.50
5.710.4
ηbth = Relative η × Air-standard η = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25
2 × π × 3000 × 66.5
bp = = 20.89 kW
60000
20.89
Heat supplied = = 83.56 kJ/s
0.25
83.56 × 3600 Ans
Fuel consumption = = 7.16 kg/h ⇐=
42000
P × 60000 20.89 × 60000
pbm = =
Vs nK 2.83 × 10−4 × 3000
2 ×4
2 Ans
= 7.38 × 105 N/m = 7.38 bar ⇐=
16.18 The power output of a six cylinder four-stroke engine is absorbed by

a water brake for which the law is W N/20000 where the brake load,
W is in Newton and the speed, N is in rpm. The air consumption is
measured by an air box with sharp edged orifice system. The following
readings are obtained.
Orifice diameter = 30 mm
Bore = 100 mm
Stroke = 120 mm
Brake load = 560 N
C/H ratio by mass = 83/17
Coefficient of discharge = 0.6
Ambient pressure = 1 bar
Pressure drop across orifice = 14.5 cm of Hg
Time taken for 100 cc of fuel consumption = 20 s
Ambient temperature = 27 ◦ C
Fuel density = 831 kg/m3
532 IC Engines
Calculate (i) the brake power (ii) the torque (iii) the brake specific fuel
consumption (iv) the percentage of excess air and (v) the volumetric
efficiency
Solution
p 1 × 105 3
ρa = = = 1.16 kg/m
RT 287 × 300
ρHg
!
V̇a = Cd A 2gΔHg
ρa
π
= 0.6 × × 0.032 ×
4
!
13600
2 × 9.81 × 0.145 ×
1.16
= 0.077 m3 /s
π 2400 6
Vs = × 0.12 × 0.12 × ×
4 2 60
= 0.113 m3 /s
0.077 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 68.1% ⇐=
0.113
WN 560 × 2400 Ans
bp = = = 67.2 kW ⇐=
20000 20000
bp × 60000
bmep =
LAnK
67.2 × 60000 × 10−5
= = 5.94 bar
0.12 × π4 × 0.12 × 2400
2 ×6
bp × 60000
T =
2πN
67.2 × 60000 Ans
= = 267.3 Nm ⇐=
2 × π × 2400
100
ṁf = × 10−6 × 831 × 3600 = 14.96 kg/h
20
14.96 Ans
bsf c = = 0.223 kg/kW h ⇐=
67.2
32 8
O2 required/kg of fuel = 0.83 × + 0.17 ×
12 1
= 3.57 kg/kg of fuel
Since, air contains 23.3% of O2 by weight,

3.57
Air required/kg of fuel = = 15.32 kg
0.233
Actual mass flow rate of air = 0.077 × 1.16 = 0.089 kg/s
0.089 × 3600
Actual mass A/F ratio = = 21.42
14.96
21.42 − 15.32 Ans
%of excess air = × 100 = 39.8% ⇐=
15.32
16.19 A six-cylinder, four-stroke cycle gasoline engine with a bore of 120 mm

and a stroke of 200 mm under test was supplied with gasoline of compo-
sition C = 82% and H2 = 18% by mass. The dry exhaust composition
by volume was CO2 = 11.2%, O2 = 3.6% and N2 = 85.2%. Determine
the mass of air supplied per kg of gasoline at 17 ◦ C and 1 bar which
were the conditions for the mixture entering the cylinder during the test.
Also determine the volumetric efficiency of the engine based on intake
conditions when the mass of gasoline used per hour was 30 kg and the
engine speed was 1400 rpm. The gasoline is completely evaporated be-
fore entering the cylinder and the effect of its volume on the volumetric
efficiency should be included. Take the density of gasoline vapour as 3.4
times that of air at the same temperature and pressure. One kg of air
at 0 ◦ C and 1 bar occupies 0.783 m3 . Air contains 23% oxygen by mass.
Solution
32 8
0.82 × 12 + 0.18 × 1
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio = = 15.77
0.23
Let y mol of air be supplied per kg of fuel then
0.82 0.18
C+ H2 + 0.21yO2 + 0.79yN2 = aCO2 + bO2 + cH2 O + dN2
12 2
0.82
From carbon balance, = a = 0.068
12
0.18
From hydrogen balance, = c = 0.09
2
c
From oxygen balance, 0.21y = a+b+
2
= 0.068 + b + 0.045
= 0.113 + b
From nitrogen balance, 0.79y = d

534 IC Engines
0.068 11.2
From exhaust gas analysis. =
d 85.2
85.2
d = × 0.068 = 0.517
11.2
0.79y = 0.517
y = 0.655 mol of air/kg of fuel
Molecular wt of air = 0.23 × 32 + 0.77 × 28
= 28.92 kg/mol
Actual air-fuel ratio = 0.655 × 28.92

Ans
= 18.94 ⇐=
18.94 − 15.77
% excess air = × 100
15.77
= 20.1%
Volume of air = Va × m
290
Va = 0.783 × = 0.832 m3 /kg
273
= 0.832 × 18.94 = 15.76 m3
Volume of fuel = Vf × m
0.832
= × 1 = 0.245 m3
3.4
Total volume = 15.76 + 0.245
= 16.005 m3 /kg of fuel

16.005 × 30
Mixture evaporated = = 8.002 m3 /min
60
π 1400
Vs /min = 6× × 0.122 × 0.20 ×
4 2
= 9.5 m3 /min
8.002 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 84.2% ⇐=
9.5
16.20 An indicator diagram taken from a single-cylinder, four-stroke CI engine

has a length of 100 mm and an area of 2000 mm2 . The indicator pointer
deflects a distance of 10 mm for pressure increment of 2 bar in the
cylinder. If the bore and stroke of the engine cylinder are both 100 mm
and the engine speed is 1000 rpm. Calculate the mean effective pressure
and the indicated power. If the mechanical efficiency is 75% what is the
brake power developed.
Solution
Mean height of the indicator diagram

2000
= = 20 mm
100
20 Ans
mep = × 2 = 4 bar ⇐=
10
pim LAn
ip =
60000
4 × 105 × 0.1 × π4 × 0.12 × 1000
2
=
60000
Ans
= 2.62 kW ⇐=
Ans
bp = ip × ηm = 2.62 × 0.75 = 1.96 kW ⇐=
16.21 A single-cylinder, four-stroke gas engine has a bore of 180 mm and a

stroke of 330 mm and is governed on the hit and miss principle. When
running at 400 rpm at full load indicator card are taken which give a
working loop mean effective pressure of 6 bar and a pumping loop mean
effective pressure of 0.4 bar. Diagrams from the dead cycle give a mean
effective pressure of 0.6 bar. When running on no load a mechanical
counter recorded 50 firings strokes per minute. Calculate at the full
load with regular firing, brake power and the mechanical efficiency of
the engine.
Solution
Assume f p to be constant at a given speed and is independent of load.

Net imep = 6.0 − 0.4 = 5.6 bar
Working cycle/minute = 50
400
Dead cycles/minute = − 50 = 150
2
In hit and miss governing the working cycle has the same indicated diagram
at any load. Since at no load, bp is zero
fp = ip − pumping power of dead cycles
π
Vs = × 0.182 × 0.33 = 8.4 × 10−3 m3
4
536 IC Engines
pim × Vs × n pf m × Vs × n
fp = −
60000 60000
5.6 × 105 × 8.4 × 10−3 × 50
= −
60000
0.6 × 105 × 8.4 × 10−3 × 150
60000
= 3.92 − 1.26 = 2.66
At full load, with regular firing (n = 400/2) per minute

pim LAn
ip =
60000
400
5.6 × 105 × 8.4 × 10−3 × 2
=
60000
= 15.68 kW
Ans
bp = 15.68 − 2.66 = 13.02 kW ⇐=
13.02 Ans
ηmech = × 100 = 83.03% ⇐=
15.68
16.22 A six-cylinder, four-stroke, direct-injection oil engine is to deliver 120
kW at 1600 rpm. The fuel to be used has a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg
and its percentage composition by mass is carbon 86.0%, hydrogen
13.0%, non combustibles 1.0%. The absolute volumetric efficiency is
assumed to 80%, the indicated thermal efficiency 40% and the mechan-
ical efficiency 80%. The air consumption to be 110% in excess of that
required for theoretically correct combustion.
(i) Estimate the volumetric composition of dry exhaust gas
(ii) Determine the bore and stroke of the engine, taking a stroke to
bore ratio as 1.5.
Assume the volume of 1 kg of air at the given conditions as 0.77 m3 .
Oxygen in air is 23% by mass and 21% by volume.
Solution
32 8
0.86 × 12 + 0.13 × 1
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio =
0.23
= 14.49
110
A/F = 1+ × 14.49 = 30.43
100
Mol wt of air = 0.23 × 32 + 0.769 × 28

Ans
= 28.9 kg/K mol ⇐=
Let y mol of air be supplied per kg of fuel and the equation of combustion per
kg of fuel is
0.86 0.14
C+ H2 + 0.21yO2 + 0.79yN2 = aCO2 + bH2 O + cO2 + dN2
12 2
0.86
From carbon balance, = a = 0.0717
12
0.13
From hydrogen balance, = b = 0.065
2
b
From oxygen balance, 0.21y = a+ + c = 0.0717 + 0.0325 + c
2
= 0.1042 + c
Number of kilo moles of air for per kg of fuel

30.43
= 1.05 = y
28.9
0.21 × 1.05 = 0.1042 + c
c = 0.116
From nitrogen balance, 0.79y = d
d = 0.79 × 1.05 = 0.8295
Ans
Volumetric composition of dry exhaust gas ⇐=
Constituent mols % Vol

CO2 0.0717 7.05
O2 0.1160 11.40
N2 0.8295 81.55
Total 1.0172 100.00
bp 120
ip = = = 150 kW
ηm 0.8
Heat equivalent of ip
Heat input =
ηith
150 × 60
= = 22500 kJ/min
0.40
22500
ṁf = = 0.523 kg/min
43000
538 IC Engines
ṁa = ṁf × Actual A/F = 0.523 × 30.43 = 15.92 kg/min
V̇a = ṁa Va = 15.92 × 0.770 = 12.26 m3 /min

12.26
Vs = = 15.32 m3 /min
0.8
π 2
Vs = D LnK
4
π 2 1600
15.32 = D × 1.5D × ×6
4 2
15.32 × 4 × 2
D3 = = 2.71 × 10−3
π × 1.5 × 1600 × 6
Ans
D = 0.14 m = 14 cm ⇐=
Ans
L = 1.5 × 0.14 = 0.21 m = 21 cm ⇐=
16.23 A six cylinder, four-stroke gasoline engine having a bore of 90 mm and

stroke of 100 mm has a compression ratio 7. The relative efficiency
is 55% when the indicated specific fuel consumption is 300 gm/kW h.
Estimate (i) the calorific value of the fuel and (ii) corresponding fuel
consumption, given that imep is 8.5 bar and speed is 2500 rpm.
Solution
1 1
ηair−std = 1− = 1 − 0.4 = 0.541
rγ−1 7
Thermal efficiency
ηrel =
Air-standard efficiency
ηith = 0.55 × 0.541 = 0.297
1
ηith =
isf c × CV
1 3600
CV = =
ηith × isf c 0.3 × 0.297
Ans
= 40404 kJ/kg ⇐=
pim LAnK
ip =
60000
8.5 × 105 × 0.1 × π4 × 0.092 × 2500
2 ×6
=
60000
= 67.6 kW
Ans
Fuel consumption = isf c × ip = 0.3 × 67.6 = 20.28 kg/h ⇐=
16.24 A gasoline engine working on four stroke develops a brake power of 20.9
kW. A Morse Test was conducted on this engine and the brake power
(kW) obtained when each cylinder was made inoperative by short cir-
cuiting the spark plug are 14.9, 14.3, 14.8 and 14.5 respectively. The
test was conducted at constant speed. Find the indicated power, me-
chanical efficiency and bmep when all the cylinders are firing. The bore
of the engine is 75 mm and the stroke is 90 mm. The engine is running
at 3000 rpm.
Solution
ip1 = bp1234 − bp234
= 20.9 − 14.9 = 6.0 kW
ip2 = bp1234 − bp134
= 20.9 − 14.3 = 6.6 kW
ip3 = bp1234 − bp124
= 20.9 − 14.8 = 6.1 kW
ip4 = bp1234 − bp123
= 20.9 − 14.5 = 6.4 kW
ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + ip4 = ip1234 = 6.0 + 6.6 + 6.1 + 6.4

Ans
= 25.1 kW ⇐=
20.9
ηm = × 100
25.1
Ans
= 83.3% ⇐=
bp × 60000
pbm =
LAnK
20.9 × 60000
= π
0.09 × 4× 0.0752 × 3000
2 ×4
= 5.25 × 105 Pa
Ans
= 5.25 bar ⇐=
16.25 A Morse test on a 12 cylinder, two-stroke compression-ignition engine

of bore 40 cm and stroke 50 cm running at 200 rpm gave the following
readings:
540 IC Engines
Condition Brake load Condition Brake load

(Newton) (Newton)
All firing 2040 7th cylinder 1835
1st cylinder 1830 8th cylinder 1860
2nd cylinder 1850 9th cylinder 1820
3rd cylinder 1850 10th cylinder 1840
4th cylinder 1830 11th cylinder 1850
5th cylinder 1840 12th cylinder 1830
6th cylinder 1855 All firing 2060
The output is found from the dynamometer using the relation

WN
bp =
180
where W , the brake load is in Newton and the speed, N is in rpm.
Calculate ip, mechanical efficiency and bmep of the engine.
Solution
2040 + 2060 200
Power output when all cylinders fire = ×
2 180
= 2277.8 kW
N
#12
Power output, bp when kth cylinder is cut-off = 180 k=1 Wk
Ans
⇐=
Cylinder number ip of kth cylinder

N
#
cut-off ipk = 2277.8 − 180 Wi (kW)
1 244.5
2 222.2
3 222.2
4 244.5
5 233.4
6 216.7
7 238.9
8 211.1
9 255.6
10 233.4
11 222.2
12 244.5
Total indicated power = ip1 + ip2 + . . . + ip12

Ans
= 2789.2 ⇐=
2277.8 Ans
ηmech = = 81.66% ⇐=
2789.2
bp × 60000
bmep =
LAnK
2277.8 × 60000
= π 2
0.5 × 4 × 0.4 × 200 × 12
Ans
= 9.06 × 105 Pa = 9.06 bar ⇐=
16.26 The observations recorded after the conduct of a retardation test on a

single-cylinder diesel engine are as follows:
Rated power : 8 kW Rated speed : 475 rpm
Time for fall of Time for fall of

S.No. Drop in speed at speed at
speed (rpm) no load, t2 (s) 50% load, t3 (s)
1. 475 → 400 7.0 2.2
2. 475 → 350 10.6 3.7
3. 475 → 325 12.5 4.8
4. 475 → 300 15.0 5.4
5. 475 → 275 16.6 6.5
6. 475 → 250 18.9 7.2
Calculate frictional power and mechanical efficiency.
Solution
First draw a graph of drop in speed versus time taken for the drop.
300
load
Drop in speed (rpm)
d
oa
200
l
50%
No
100
t3
3.4 t2
8.3
0
0 10 20 30
Time (s)
2πN T
P = kW
60000
542 IC Engines
P × 60000
Full load torque, T =
2πN
8 × 60000
= = 160.8 Nm
2 × π × 475
Torque at half load, T 12 = 80.4 Nm
From the graph, time for the fall of 100 rpm at no load, t2 = 8.3 s and time
for the fall of same 100 rpm at half load, t3 = 3.4 s.
t3
Tf = T1
t2 − t3 2
3.4
= × 80.4 = 55.8 Nm
8.3 − 3.4
2πN Tf
fp =
60000
2 × π × 475 × 55.8 Ans
= = 2.77 kW ⇐=
60000
bp 8
ηm = = × 100
bp + f p 8 + 2.77
Ans
= 74.28% ⇐=
16.27 A single-cylinder gas engine, with bore x stroke of 25 x 50 cm and

running at 240 rpm fires 100 times per min. The quantity of coal gas
used is 0.3 m3 per minute at 100 cm of water (gauge) (barometer pressure
1 bar) at 17 ◦ C while the amount of air used is 3 kg/min. Assuming
that an extra volume of air is taken in during a missed cycle equal to
that of a coal gas normally taken in, if both are measured at NTP, find
(i) the charge of air per working cycle as measured at NTP and (ii) the
volumetric efficiency. Assume 760 mm of Hg as 1 bar.
Solution
100 1
Gas pressure = 1+ ×
13.6 76
= 1.097 bar
1.097 273
Volume of coal gas at NTP = 0.3 × ×
1 290
= 0.31 m3 /min
0.31
Volume of coal gas used/explosion =
100
= 0.0031 m3 at NTP
Extra air missed/cycle = 0.0031 m3 at NTP
mRT
Volume of air taken at NTP =
p
3 × 287 × 273
=
1 × 105
= 2.35 m3 /min
The engine is running at 240 rpm and therefore there must be 120 firing cycles
per minute. However, there are only 100 cycles per minute. Hence, there are
20 missed cycles. The 2.35 m3 of air per minute at NTP must be made up of
120 normal air charges, V , together with 20 missed cycles each equivalent to
0.0031 m3 at NTP
20 × 0.0031 + 120V = 2.35
V = 0.019 m3
Total volume of charge at NTP = 0.019 + 0.0031

Ans
= 0.022 m3 ⇐=
π
Vs = × 0.252 × 0.5 = 0.0245 m3
4
0.022
ηv = × 100
0.0245
Ans
= 89.8% ⇐=
16.28 A trial was conducted on a single-cylinder oil engine having a cylinder

diameter of 30 cm and stroke 45 cm. The engine is working on the
four-stroke cycle and the following observations were made:
Duration of trial = 54 minutes
Total fuel used = 7 litres
Calorific value = 42 MJ/kg
Total number of revolution = 12624
Gross imep = 7.25 bar
Pumping imep = 0.35 bar
Net load on the brake = 150 kg
Diameter of the brake wheel drum = 1.78 m
Diameter of the rope = 4 cm
Cooling water circulated = 550 litres
Cooling water temperature rise = 48 ◦ C
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Calculate the mechanical efficiency and also the unaccounted losses.
544 IC Engines
Solution
π 12624
(7.25 − 0.35) × 105 × 0.45 × 4 × 0.32 × 45×2
ip =
60000
= 51.3 kW
7 × 10−3 × 800
Heat supplied = × 42000 = 5226.67 kJ/min
45
9.8 × 150 × π × (1.78 + 0.4) × 12624
bp =
60000 × 54
= 39.23 kW
bp 39.23 Ans
ηm = × 100 = × 100 = 76.47% ⇐=
ip 51.3
Heat equivalent of bp = 39.23 × 60 = 2353.8 kJ/min

550 × 48 × 4.18
Heat lost in cooling water = = 2452.3 kJ/min
45
Unaccounted losses = 5226.67 − (2353.8 + 2452.3)
Ans
= 420.57 kJ/min ⇐=
16.29 A four-stroke gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 25 cm and stroke

45 cm. The effective diameter of the brake is 1.6 m. The observations
made in a test of the engine were as follows:
Duration of test = 40 min
Total number of revolutions = 8080
Total number of explosions = 3230
Net load on the brake = 90 kg
Mean effective pressure = 5.8 bar
Volume of gas used = 7.5 m3
Pressure of gas indicated in meter = 136 mm water of gauge
Atmospheric temperature = 17 ◦ C
Calorific value of gas = 19 MJ/m3 at NTP
Rise in temperature of jacket = 45 ◦ C
cooling water
Cooling water supplied = 180 kg
Draw up a heat balance sheet and estimate the indicated thermal ef-
ficiency and brake thermal efficiency. Assume atmospheric pressure as
760 mm of Hg.
Solution
pim LAn
ip =
60000
5.8 × 105 × 0.45 × π4 × 0.252 × 3230

40
= = 17.25
60000
8080
9.81 × 90 × π × 1.6 × 40
bp = = 14.94 kW
60000
Pressure of the gas supplied

136
= 760 + = 770 mm of Hg
13.6
Volume of gas used at NTP

273 770
= 7.5 × × = 7.15 m3
290 760
7.15 × 19000
Heat supplied = = 3396.25 kJ/min
40
Heat equivalent of bp
Ans
= 14.94 × 60 = 896.4 kJ/min ⇐=
Heat loss in cooling medium

180 × 45 Ans
= × 4.18 = 846.5 kJ/min ⇐=
40
Heat lost to exhaust, radiation, etc. (by difference)

Ans
= 3396.25 − 896.4 − 846.5 = 1653.35 kJ/min ⇐=
ip × 60
ηith = × 100
Heat supplied/min
17.25 × 60 Ans
= × 100 = 30.47% ⇐=
3396.25
bp × 60 14.94 × 60
ηbth = = × 100
Heat supplied 3396.25
Ans
= 26.39% ⇐=
Heat input Heat expenditure

(per minute) (kJ) (per minute) (kJ)
Heat supplied 3396.25 1. Heat equivalent to bp 896.40
by fuel 2. Heat lost to cooling 846.50
medium
3. Heat lost in exhaust 1653.35
Total 3396.25
546 IC Engines
16.30 The following observations were made during a trial of a single-cylinder,

four-stroke cycle gas engine having cylinder diameter of 18 cm and stroke
24 cm.
Duration of trial = 30 min

Total number of revolution = 9000
Total number of explosion = 4450
Mean effective pressure = 5 bar
Net load on the brake wheel = 40 kg
Effective diameter of brake wheel = 1m
Total gas used at NTP = 2.4 m3
Calorific value of gas at NTP = 19 MJ/m3
Total air used = 36 m3
Pressure of air = 720 mm Hg
Temperature of air = 17 ◦ C
Density of air at NTP = 1.29 kg/m3
Temperature of exhaust gas = 350 ◦ C
Room temperature = 17 ◦ C
Specific heat of exhaust gas = 1 kJ/kg K
Cooling water circulated = 80 kg
Rise in temperature of cooling water = 30 ◦ C
Draw up a heat balance sheet and estimate the mechanical and indicated
thermal efficiencies of the engine. Take R = 287 J/kg K.
Solution
pim LAn 5 × 105 × 0.24 × π4 × 0.182 × 4450

ip = =
60000 60000 × 30
= 7.55 kW
πN dW
bp =
60000
π × 9000 × 1 × 40 × 9.81
= = 6.16 kW
60000 × 30
2.4
Heat supplied at NTP = × 19000 = 1520 kJ/min
30
Ans
Heat equiv. of bp = 6.16 × 60 = 369.6 kJ/min ⇐=
80 Ans
Heat lost to cooling medium = × 30 × 4.18 = 334.4 kJ/min ⇐=
30
Total air used = 36 m3 at 720 mm of Hg
273 720
Volume of air used at NTP = 36 × × = 32.1 m3
290 760
32.1 × 1.29
Mass of air used = = 1.38 kg/min
30
pV 1 × 105 × 2.4
Mass of gas at NTP, mg = = = 3.06 kg
RT 287 × 273
3.06
Mass of gas/min = = 0.102 kg
30
Total mass of exhaust gas = 1.38 + 0.102 = 1.482 kg
Heat lost to exhaust gas = 1.482 × (350 − 17) × 1

Ans
= 493.5 kJ/min ⇐=
Heat lost by radiation = 1520 − (369.6 + 334.4 + 493.5)

Ans
= 322.5 kJ/min ⇐=
bp 6.16 Ans
ηm = × 100 = × 100 = 81.6% ⇐=
ip 7.55
ip × 60 7.55 × 60
ηith = = × 100
Heat supplied 1520
Ans
= 29.8% ⇐=

(kJ) (kJ)
(per minute) (per minute)
Heat supplied 1520 1. Heat equivalent to bp 369.6
medium
4. Unaccounted losses 322.5
Total 1520.0
16.31 The following results were obtained in a test on a gas engine:

Gas used = 0.16 m3 /min at NTP
Calorific value of gas at NTP = 14 MJ/m3
Density of gas at NTP = 0.65 kg/m3
Air used = 1.50 kg/min
Specific heat of exhaust gas = 1.0 kJ/kg K
Temperature of exhaust gas = 400 ◦ C
Cooling water per minute = 6 kg
Rise in temp. of cooling water = 30 ◦ C
ip = 12.5 kW
bp = 10.5 kW
548 IC Engines
Draw a heat balance sheet for the test on per hour basis in kJ.
Solution
Heat supplied at NTP = 0.16 × 14000 × 60 = 134400 kJ/h

Ans
Heat equivalent of bp = 10.5 × 60 × 60 = 37800 kJ/h ⇐=
Heat lost in cooling medium

= 6 × 30 × 4.18 × 60
Ans
= 45144 kJ/h ⇐=
Mass of gas used = 0.16 × 0.65 = 0.104 kg/min
Mass of air used = 1.50 kg/min
Mass of exhaust gas = 0.104 + 1.50 = 1.604 kg/min
Heat carried away in exhaust gases

= 1.604 × 1 × (400 − 20) × 60
Ans
= 36571.2 kJ/h ⇐=
Unaccounted losses = 134400 − (37800 + 45144 + 36571.2)

Ans
= 14884.8 kJ/h ⇐=

Heat supplied 134400 1. Heat equivalent to bp 37800.0
medium
Total 134400.0
16.32 A test on a two-stroke engine gave the following results at full load:
Speed = 350 rpm
Net brake load = 65 kg
mep = 3 bar
Fuel consumption = 4 kg/h
Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 kg/h
Jacket water temperature at inlet = 20 ◦ C
Jacket water temperature at outlet = 40 ◦ C
Test room temperature = 20 ◦ C
Temperature of exhaust gases = 400 ◦ C

Air used per kg of fuel = 32 kg
Cylinder diameter = 22 cm
Stroke = 28 cm
Effective brake diameter = 1m
Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ/kg
Proportion of hydrogen in fuel = 15%
Mean specific heat of dry exhaust gas = 1 kJ/kg K
Mean specific heat of steam = 2.1 kJ/kg K
Sensible heat of water at room temp. = 62 kJ/kg
Latent heat of steam = 2250 kJ/kg
Find ip, bp and draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/min and
in percentage.
Solution
pim LAn
ip =
60000
3 × 105 × 0.28 × π4 × 0.222 × 350
=
60000
Ans
= 18.63 kW ⇐=
W πN d 65 × 9.81 × π × 350 × 1
bp = =
60000 60000
Ans
= 11.68 kW ⇐=
4 × 43000
Heat supplied/min =
60
Ans
= 2866.7 kJ = 100% (let) ⇐=
Heat equivalent of bp = 11.68 × 60

Ans
= 700.8 kJ/min = 24.4% ⇐=
Ans
Heat lost to cooling water = 696.7 kJ/min = 24.3% ⇐=
1 kg of H2 produces 9 kg of H2 O. Therefore,
H2 O produced per kg of fuel burnt

= 9 × %H2 × mass of fuel/min
4
= 9 × 0.15 × = 0.09 kg/min
60
Mass of wet exhaust Mass of air/min
=
gases/min + Mass of fuel/min
550 IC Engines
(32 + 1) × 4
= = 2.2 kg/min
60
Mass of dry exhaust Mass of wet exhaust gases/min
=
gases/min − Mass of H2 O produced/min
= 2.2 − 0.09 = 2.11 kg
Heat lost to dry exhaust gases/minute
= 2.11 × 1 × (400 − 20)

Ans
= 801.8 kJ/min = 28% ⇐=
Assuming that steam in exhaust exists as super heated steam at atmospheric

pressure and at exhaust gas temperature, total heat of 1 kg of steam at at-
mospheric pressure (1 bar) and 400◦ reckoned above room temperature,
Heat in steam = Hsup − h
where h is the sensible heat of water at room temperature.
Cpw (100 − TR ) + Cps (Tsup − 100) + L − h
= [−h + 100Cpw + L + Cps (Tsup − 100)] − h
= 100Cpw + L + Cps (Tsup − 100) − 2h
= [100 × 4.18 + 2250 + 2.1 × (400 − 100)]
−2 × 4.18 × 293 = 848.52 kJ/kg
Heat carried away by steam in exhaust gases per minute
= 0.09 × 848.52
Ans
= 76.4 kJ/min = 2.7% ⇐=
Unaccounted losses = 2866.7 − (700.8 + 696.7 + 801.8 + 76.4)

Ans
= 591 kJ = 20.6% ⇐=

(per min) (kJ) % (per minute) (kJ) %
Heat 2866.7 100 1. Equivalent of bp 700.8 24.4
supplied 2. Lost to cooling 696.7 24.3
by fuel water
3. Lost to dry 801.8 28.0
exhaust gas
4. Carried away 76.4 2.7
by steam
5. Unaccounted 591.0 20.6
losses
Total 2866.7 100.0
16.33 During the trial of a single-cylinder, four-stroke oil engine, the following
results were obtained.
Cylinder diameter = 20 cm
Stroke = 40 cm
Mean effective pressure = 6 bar
Torque = 407 Nm
Speed = 250 rpm
Oil consumption = 4 kg/h
Cooling water flow rate = 4.5 kg/min
Air used per kg of fuel = 30 kg
Rise in cooling water temperature = 45 ◦ C
Temperature of exhaust gases = 420 ◦ C
Mean specific heat of exhaust gas = 1 kJ/kg K
Find the ip, bp and draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/h.
Solution
pim LAn 6 × 105 × 0.4 × π4 × 0.22 × 250

2
ip = =
60000 60000
Ans
= 15.7 kW ⇐=
2πN T 2 × π × 250 × 407
bp = =
60000 60000
Ans
= 10.6 kW ⇐=
Heat supplied = 4 × 43000 = 172000 kJ/h

Ans
Heat equivalent ofbp = 10.6 × 60 × 60 = 38160 kJ/h ⇐=
Heat carried away by cooling water

552 IC Engines
Ans
= 4.5 × 60 × 45 × 4.18 = 50787 kJ/h ⇐=
Heat carried away by exhaust

= 4 × (30 + 1) × 1 × (420 − 20)
Ans
= 49600 kJ/h ⇐=
Unaccounted loss by difference

Ans
= 33453 kJ/h ⇐=

(per hour) (kJ) (per hour) (kJ)
Heat supplied 172000 1. Heat equivalent to bp 38160
by fuel 2. Heat lost to cooling 50787
medium
3. Heat lost in exhaust 49600
4. Unaccounted losses 33453
Total 172000
16.34 In a test of an oil engine under full load condition the following results
were obtained.
ip = 33 kW
brake power = 27 kW
Fuel used = 8 kg/h
Rate of flow of water through gas calorimeter = 12 kg/min
Cooling water flow rate = 7 kg/min
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 15 ◦ C
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 75 ◦ C
Inlet temperature of water to exhaust = 15 ◦ C
gas calorimeter
Outlet temperature of water to exhaust = 55 ◦ C
gas calorimeter
Final temperature of the exhaust gases = 80 ◦ C
Air-fuel ratio on mass basis = 20
Mean specific heat of exhaust gas = 1 kJ/kg K
Specific heat of water = 4.18 J/kg K
Draw up a heat balance sheet and estimate the thermal and mechanical
efficiencies.
Solution
8 × 43000
Heat supplied = = 5733.3 kJ/min
60
Ans
Heat equivalent of bp = 27 × 60 = 1620 kJ/min ⇐=
Heat carried away by cooling water = 7 × 4.18 × (75 − 15)

Ans
= 1755.6 kJ/min ⇐=
Heat lost by exhaust gases in exhaust calorimeter in kJ/min

= 12 × 4.18 × (55 − 15) = 2006.4
8 8
Mass of exhaust gases (fuel + air) = + 20 ×
60 60
= 2.8 kg/min
Heat lost in exhaust gases = ṁex Cpex (tex − tR )
= 2.8 × 1 × (80 − 17)
= 176.4 kJ/min
Total heat carried away by the exhaust gases

= 2006.4 + 176.4
Ans
= 2182.8 kJ/min ⇐=
Total heat accounted = 1620 + 1755.6 + 2182.8

Ans
= 5558.4 kJ/min ⇐=
Unaccounted loss = 5733.3 − 5558.4

Ans
= 174.9 kJ/min ⇐=
ip × 60
ηith = × 100
Heat supplied/min
33 × 60
= × 100
5733.3
Ans
= 34.5% ⇐=
27 × 60 Ans
ηbth = × 100 = 28.3% ⇐=
5733.3
bp 27
ηm = × 100 = × 100
ip 33
Ans
= 81.8% ⇐=
554 IC Engines

Heat 5733.3 1. Heat equivalent of bp 1620
supplied 2. Heat lost to cooling medium 1755.6
by fuel 3. Heat lost in exhaust 2182.8
Total 5558.4
16.35 A gasoline engine has a stroke volume of 0.0015 m3 and a compression

ratio of 6. At the end of the compression stroke, the pressure is 8 bar
and temperature 350◦ C. Ignition is set so that the pressure rises along
a straight line during combustion and attains its highest value of 25 bar
after the piston has travelled 1/30 of the stroke. The charge consists
of a gasoline-air mixture in proportion by mass 1 to 16. Take R = 287
J/kg K, calorific value of the fuel = 42 MJ/kg and Cp = 1 kJ/kg K.
Calculate the heat lost per kg of charge during combustion.
Solution
25 3' 3
8 2
50 4
p (bar) 300 1500 1
2' 3' V (cc)
V 1 − V2 = 0.0015 × 106 = 1500 cc

1500
V2 = = 300 cc
6−1
1500
V3 = + 300 = 350 cc
30
T2 = 350 + 273 = 623K
p3 V3 25 350
T3 = T2 = 623 × × = 2271 K
p2 V2 8 300
In order to estimate the heat added to the mixture during the process 2→3,
it is required to calculate the work done and the increase in internal energy
between 2 and 3.
25 + 8
W2−3 = × 105 × (350 − 300) × 10−6
2
Area of trapezoid 2 23 3 = 82.5 J

pV
Mixture mass, m =
RT
8 × 105 × 300 × 10−6
= = 1.342 × 10−3 kg
287 × 623
ΔE = E3 − E2
= 1.342 × 10−3 × (1 − 0.287) × (2271 − 623)
= 1.5772 kJ
Q = 0.0825 + 1.5772 = 1.6597 kJ
This is the quantity of heat actually given to the mixture in one cycle. But
the heat liberated in one cycle must have been
1
× 1.342 × 10−3 × 42000 = 3.3155 kJ
17
Heat lost during explosion = 3.3155 − 1.6597 = 1.6558 kJ
1.6558
Heat lost in kJ/kg =
1.342 × 10−3
Ans
= 1234.1 kJ/kg of charge ⇐=
16.36 The air flow to a four-cylinder four-stroke gasoline engine was measured
by means of a 8 cm diameter sharp edged orifice with Cd = 0.65. During
a test the following data were recorded:
Bore = 10 cm
Stroke = 15 cm
Engine speed = 2500 rpm
Brake power = 36 kW
Fuel consumption = 10 kg/h
Pressure drop across the orifice = 4 cm of water
Atmospheric temperature and pressure are 17 ◦ C and 1 bar respectively.
Calculate
(i) brake thermal efficiency

(ii) brake mean effective pressure
(iii) volumetric efficiency based on free air condition
556 IC Engines
Solution
36 × 60 Ans
ηbth = 10 × 100 = 30.86% ⇐=
60× 42000
bp × 60000 36 × 60000
pbm = =
LAnK 0.15 × π4 × 0.12 × 2500
2 ×4
Ans
= 3.67 × 105 Pa = 3.67 bar ⇐=
π 2 π
Vs = d LK = × 102 × 15 × 4 = 4712.4 cc
4 4
Velocity of air through the orifice,

Ca = 2gΔha
Δhw ρw = Δha ρa
p 1 × 105 3
ρa = = = 1.20 kg/m
RT 287 × 290
Δhw 1000
Ca = 2g × ×
1000 ρa
where Δhw is the pressure drop in mm of water column

!
40
Ca = 2 × 9.81 × = 25.57 m/s
1.2
ṁa = Cd Aρa Ca
π
= 0.65 × × 0.082 × 1.20 × 25.57 × 3600
4
= 360.9 kg/h
mRT 360.9 × 287 × 290

Volume of air = = = 300.4 m3 /h
p 1 × 105
2500
Vs = 4712.4 × 10−6 × × 60 = 353.43 m3 /h
2
300.4 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 85% ⇐=
353.43
16.37 A test on a single-cylinder, four-stroke oil engine having a bore of 15 cm

and stroke 30 cm gave the following results: speed 300 rpm; brake torque
200 Nm; indicated mean effective pressure 7 bar; fuel consumption 2.4
kg/h; cooling water flow 5 kg/min; cooling water temperature rise 35 ◦ C;
air-fuel ratio 22; exhaust gas temperature 410 ◦ C; barometer pressure
1 bar; room temperature 20 ◦ C. The fuel has a calorific value of 42

MJ/kg and contains 15% by weight of hydrogen. Take latent heat of
vapourization as 2250 kJ/kg. Determine,
(i) the indicated thermal efficiency
(ii) the volumetric efficiency based on atmospheric conditions
Draw up a heat balance in terms of kJ/min. Take Cp for dry ex-
haust gas = 1 kJ/kg K and super heated steam Cp = 2.1 kJ/kg K;
R=0.287 kJ/kg K.
Solution
pim LAn
ip =
60000
7 × 105 × 0.3 × π4 × 0.152 × 300
2
=
60000
= 9.28 kW
9.28 × 3600 Ans
ηith = × 100 = 33.1% ⇐=
2.4 × 42000
2.4 × 22
ṁa = = 0.88 kg/min
60
p 1 × 105 3
ρa = = = 1.19 kg/m
RT 287 × 293
0.88
Volume of air consumed = = 0.739 m3 /min
1.19
π 300
Vs /min = × 0.152 × 0.30 ×
4 2
= 0.795 m3 /min
0.739 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 93% ⇐=
0.795
2πN T 2π × 300 × 200
bp = = = 6.28 kW
60000 60000
2.4 × 42000 Ans
Heat input = = 1680 kJ/min ⇐=
60
Ans
Heat equivalent of bp = 6.28 × 60 = 376.8 kJ/min ⇐=
Ans
Heat in cooling water = 5 × 4.18 × 35 = 731.5 kJ/min ⇐=
One kg of H2 in the fuel will be converted to 9 kg of H2 O during combustion.

Assuming the steam in the exhaust is in the superheated state, heat carried
558 IC Engines
away by steam can be calculated as
Cpw (100 − Ta ) + hf g + Cpa (Tsup − 100)
where hf g is the latent heat of vapourization = 2250 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of steam = 4.18 × (100 − 20) + 2250 + 2.1 × (410 − 100)
= 3235.4 kJ/kg
Heat carried away by steam

= ṁs (h − Cpw tR )
2.4
= 9 × 0.15 × × (3225.4 − 4.18 × 20)
60
Ans
= 170.2 kJ/min ⇐=
Heat carried away by exhaust gas

2.4 2.4
= 0.88 + − 9 × 0.15 × × 1 × (410 − 20)
60 60
Ans
= 337.7 ⇐=
Unaccounted loss (by difference)

= 1680 − (376.8 + 731.5 + 170.2 + 337.7)
Ans
= 63.8 kJ/min ⇐=

(kJ) (kJ)
(per minute) (per minute)
Heat 1680 1. Heat equivalent to bp 376.8
by fuel 3. Heat carried away by steam 170.2
Total 1680.0
16.38 A four-stroke cycle gasoline engine has six single-acting cylinders of 8

cm bore and 10 cm stroke. The engine is coupled to a brake having
a torque radius of 40 cm. At 3200 rpm, with all cylinders operating
the net brake load is 350 N. When each cylinder in turn is rendered
inoperative, the average net brake load produced at the same speed by
the remaining 5 cylinders is 250 N. Estimate the indicated mean effective
pressure of the engine. With all cylinders operating the fuel consumption
is 0.33 kg/min; calorific value of fuel is 43 MJ/kg; the cooling water

flow rate and temperature rise is 70 kg/min and 10 ◦ C respectively. On
test, the engine is enclosed in a thermally and acoustically insulated box
through which the output drive, water, fuel, air and exhaust connections
pass. ventilating air blown up through the box at the rate of 15 kg/min
enters at 17 ◦ C and leaves at 62 ◦ C. Draw up a heat balance of the
engine stating the items as a percentage of the heat input.
Solution
2πN T
bp =
60000
2 × π × 3200 × 350 × 0.4
=
60000
= 46.91 kW
bp of engine when each cylinder is cut-off in turn

2 × π × 3200 × 250 × 0.4
=
60000
= 33.51 kW
ip = 6 × (46.91 − 33.51) = 80.4 kW
ip × 60000
imep =
LAnK
80.4 × 60000
=
0.1 × × 0.082 × 3200
π
4 2 ×6
= 10 × 105 Pa = 10 bar
Heat input = 0.33 × 43000

Ans
= 14190 kJ/min = 100% (let) ⇐=
Heat equivalent of bp = 46.91 × 60

Ans
= 2814.6 kJ/min = 19.8% ⇐=
Heat in cooling water = 70 × 4.18 × 10

Ans
= 2926 kJ/min = 20.6% ⇐=
Heat carried away by ventilating air

= 15 × 1.005 × (62 − 17)
Ans
= 678.4 kJ/min = 4.8% ⇐=
560 IC Engines

= 14190 − (2814.6 + 2926 + 678.4)
Ans
= 7771 kJ/min = 54.8% ⇐=

(per min) (kJ) % (per minute) (kJ) %
Heat 2866.7 100 1. Equivalent of bp 2814.6 19.8
supplied 2. Lost to cooling 2926.0 20.6
by fuel water
3. Lost to dry 678.4 4.8
exhaust gas
4. Unaccounted 7771.0 54.8
losses
Total 14190.0 100.0
16.39 A full load test on a two-stroke engine yielded the following results:
speed 440 rpm; brake load 50 kg; imep 3 bar; fuel consumption 5.4
kg/h; rise in jacket water temperature 36 ◦ C; jacket water flow 440
kg/h; air-fuel ratio by mass 30; temperature of exhaust gas 350 ◦ C;
temperature of the test room 17 ◦ C; barometric pressure 76 cm of Hg;
cylinder diameter 22 cm; stroke 25 cm; brake diameter 1.2 m; calorific
value of fuel is 43 MJ/kg; proportion of hydrogen by mass in the fuel
15%; R = 0.287 kJ/kg of mean specific heat of dry exhaust gases =
1 kJ/kg K; specific heat of dry steam 2 kJ/kg K. Assume enthalpy of
super heated steam to be 3180 kJ/kg. Determine,
(i) the indicated thermal efficiency
(ii) the specific fuel consumption in g/kW h
(iii) volumetric efficiency based on atmospheric conditions
Draw up a heat balance for the test on the percentage basis indicating
the content of each item in the balance.
Solution
2πN T 2π × 440 × 50 × 9.81 × 0.6
bp = =
60000 60000
= 13.56 kW
pim LAn
ip =
60000
3 × 105 × 0.25 × π4 × 0.222 × 440
=
60000
= 20.91 kW
20.91 × 60 Ans
ηith = 5.4 × 100 = 32.4% ⇐=
60 × 43000
5.4 × 1000 Ans

bsf c = = 398.2 g/kW h ⇐=
13.56
π 2 π
Vs = D Ln = × 0.222 × 0.25 × 440
4 4
= 4.18 m3 /min
5.4
ṁa = A/F × ṁf = 30 × = 2.7 kg/min
60
p 1 × 105
ρ = = = 1.20 m3 /kg
RT 287 × 290
2.7
Air consumption in m3 = = 2.25 m3 /min
1.2
2.25 Ans
ηv = × 100 = 53.8% ⇐=
4.18
5.4
Heat input = × 43000
60
Ans
= 3870 kJ/min = 100% (let) ⇐=
Ans
Heat equivalent of bp = 13.56 × 60 = 813.6 kJ/min = 21% ⇐=
Heat lost to cooling water

440
= × 4.18 × 36 = 1103.5 kJ/min
60
Ans
= 28.5% ⇐=
Heat carried away by dry exhaust gas

5.4
= × (30 + 1 − 9 × 0.15) × 1 × (350 − 17)
60
Ans
= 888.6 kJ/min = 23% ⇐=
Heat carried away by the steam in the exhaust gas

5.4
= 9 × 0.15 × × (3180 − 4.18 × 17)
60
Ans
= 377.7 kJ/min = 9.8% ⇐=

= 3870 − (813.6 + 1103.5 + 888.6 + 377.7)
Ans
= 686.6 kJ/min = 17.7% ⇐=
562 IC Engines

(per minute) % (per minute) %
Heat 100 1. Heat equivalent to hp 21.0
supplied 2. Heat lost to cooling water 28.5
by fuel 3. Heat carried away by dry exhaust 23.0
4. Heat lost in steam 9.8
Total 100
16.40 A gas engine working on the constant-volume cycle gave the following
results during a one-hour test run. Cylinder diameter 24 cm; stroke
48 cm; torque 770 Nm; average speed 220 rpm; average explosion per
minute 77; mep 7.5 bar; volume of gas used 12 m3 at 17 ◦ C and 770 mm
of mercury pressure; lower calorific value of gas 21 MJ/m3 at NTP;
inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water are 25 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C
respectively; cooling water used 600 kg. Determine (i) the mechanical
efficiency (ii) the indicated specific gas consumption in m3 /kW h and
(iii) the indicated thermal efficiency.
Draw up a heat balance for the engine on minute basis, explaining why
friction power has been included in or omitted from your heat balance.
NTP conditions are 760 mm of Hg and 0 ◦ C.
Solution
2 × π × 220 × 770
bp = = 17.74 kW
60000
7.5 × 105 × 0.48 × π4 × 0.242 × 77
ip =
60000
= 20.9 kW
17.74 Ans
ηm = × 100 = 84.9% ⇐=
20.9
Gas consumption at NTP, V̇f

770 273 Ans
= 12 × × = 11.44 m3 /h ⇐=
760 290
ip
ηith =
V̇f × CV
20.9 × 60 × 60 Ans
= × 100 = 31.3% ⇐=
11.44 × 21000
11.44 × 21000
Heat input = = 4004 kJ/min
60
Ans
Heat equivalent ofbp = 17.74 × 60 = 1064.4 kJ/min ⇐=
600
Heat in cooling water = × 4.18 × (60 − 25)
60
Ans
= 1463 kJ/min ⇐=
Heat in exhaust, radiation etc. (by difference)

= 4004 − (1064.4 + 1463)
Ans
= 1476.6 kJ/min ⇐=

Heat 4004 1. Heat equivalent to bp 1064.4
by fuel 3. Heat lost in exhaust 1476.6
Total 4004.0
The friction heat is not included since it is assumed that friction heat is
rejected to cooling water, exhaust, radiation etc.
Review Questions
16.1 Mention the basic aspects covered by the engine performance.

16.2 List the parameters by which performance of an engine is evaluated.
16.3 Define mean effective pressure and distinguish between brake mean ef-
fective pressure and indicated mean effective pressure.
16.4 Develop an expression for the calculation of indicated mean effective
pressure.
16.5 Derive the expression for calculating indicated power of an engine.
16.6 How is the torque of an engine is evaluated from them nomenclature of
the engine?
16.7 Distinguish between the power and specific output.
16.8 Briefly discuss the various efficiency terms associated with an engine.
16.9 Define air-fuel ratio and briefly state its effect on power output, fuel
consumption and combustion pressure.
16.10 What is the importance of specific fuel consumption?
16.11 Schematically explain the use of the study of the heat balance of an
engine.
564 IC Engines
16.12 Explain the effect of the following factors on the performance of an SI

engine: (i) compression ratio (ii) air-fuel ratio (iii) spark timing (iv)
engine speed (v) mass of inducted charge and (vi) heat losses.
16.13 Briefly explain the reason of poor part load thermal efficiency of the SI
engine compared with CI engine.
16.14 What limits the brake power and brake mean effective pressure of a CI
engine?
16.15 What are the methods available for improving the performance of an
engine?
16.16 Draw a typical performance map for a four-stroke fast burn SI engine
showing contours of constant bsf c.
16.17 Draw a typical performance map showing the effect of fuel injection
parameters, air swirl and bowl in piston design and fraction of exhaust
gas recirculation.
16.18 By means of a Sankey diagram explain the energy flow through an en-
gine.
16.19 Draw a detailed Sankey diagram for SI engine and explain.
16.20 Explain the details of the analytical method of performance estimation.
Exercise
16.1 Find the bore of the single-cylinder diesel engine working on the four-
stroke cycle and delivers 40 kW at 200 rpm from the following data:
Compression ratio : 14:1
Fuel cut-off : 5% of stroke
Index of compression curve : 1.4
Index for expansion curve : 1.3
Pressure at beginning of compression : 1 atm
Ratio of stroke to bore : 1.5 to 1
Ans: 34.5 cm
16.2 Determine the diameter of a gas engine cylinder to develop 18 kW when
making 100 explosions per minute, gives clearance volume 1/3 swept
volume, law of compression and explosion pV 1.3 , absolute maximum
pressure is 3 times the absolute pressure at the end of the stroke. Take
length of stroke to be twice the bore. Ans: 24.7 cm
16.3 A four-stroke gas engine having a cylinder of 250 mm diameter and
stroke 450 mm has a volumetric efficiency of 80%, ratio of air to gas is 8
to 1, calorific value of gas is 20 MJ/m3 at NTP. Find the heat supplied
to the engine per working cycle. If the compression ratio is 5, what
is the heating value of the mixture per working stroke per m3 of total
cylinder volume? Ans: (i) 40 kJ (ii) 1428.6 kJ/m3
16.4 The swept volume of a gas engine is 9 litre and the clearance volume is
2.25 litre. The engine consumes 3500 litre of gas per hour, when running
at 160 rpm firing every cycle and developing 4 kW. It has a mechanical
efficiency of 75%. What is the relative efficiency of the engine compared
with air-standard cycle if the calorific value of gas is 20 MJ/m3 . As-
suming a volumetric efficiency of 0.87, find the ratio of air to gas used
by 1 m3 of the mixture in the cylinder. Ans: (i) 57.68% (ii) 9.73
16.5 In order to study the effect of mixture strength on the thermal effi-
ciency of the engine, tests were made on a four-stroke gas engine and
the following heat balance results were obtained.
Engine A Engine B
Test
Lean mixture Rich mixture
Indicated work 37 33
Heat in exhaust gas 42 39
Heat lost 21 28
100 1000
In the test A the supply of gas was 0.23 m3 per minute and in test
B was 0.30 m3 per minute. The calorific value of the gas used was
20 MJ/m3 . Calculate the indicated power and the heat loss to the
cylinder walls and piston per minute in the two cases. Calculate the
indicated thermal efficiencies of the two engines and comment on the
result. Ans: (i) 1702 kJ/min; 1980 kJ/min (ii) 966 kJ; 1680 kJ
(iii) 37%; 33%
Reasons for higher thermal efficiency on lean mixtures
(i) With a weak mixture the temperature rise for a given heat input
is greater than with rich mixture since there is a little or no disso-
ciation and the specific heat is less at the lower temperature.
(ii) The smaller maximum temperature reduces the heat flow to the
cylinder walls.
The more nearly the maximum temperature approaches the tem-
perature at the end of compression will the Otto efficiency ap-
proaches the Carnot.
16.6 An engine of 175 mm bore and 375 mm stroke is governed by hit and
miss type governor to 220 rpm. With a fixed setting of the gas sup-
ply and ignition advance, indicator diagrams gave the following val-
ues of mean effective pressure. Firing, positive loop 5.7 bar, negative
loop 0.25 bar; missing negative loop 0.42 bar. When developing 6 kW
the explosions were 100 per minute and the gas used was 0.1 m3 per
minute. Calculate the friction power and assuming uniform gas sup-
ply per explosion, find the gas consumption per minute at no load.
Ans: (i) 2.13 kW (ii) 0.032 m3
16.7 Calculate the maximum brake power which can be developed in the
cylinder of a four-stroke gas engine which runs at 200 rpm. The diameter
566 IC Engines
of the piston is 300 mm and stroke 400 mm. Clearance volume is 25%
of the swept volume. The gas supplied consists of CO = 19.7%; H2
= 28.8%; CO2 = 14.4%; N2 = 37.1%. Assume that the total mixture
at NTP admitted per suction stroke is 0.875 of total volume behind
the piston at the end of the stroke and that the thermal efficiency is
35%. Calorific value of H2 = 121.4 MJ/kg; Calorific value of carbon
burning from CO to CO2 = 23.4 MJ/kg; Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 .
Ans: 47 kW
16.8 The following observations were made in a test of a gas engine in which
a waste heat boiler served as an exhaust gas calorimeter. Gross calorific
value of gas 20.0 MJ/m3 at NTP; gas consumption 9.35 m3 /h at NTP;
density of gas = 0.706 kg/m3 ; mass of water vapour of combustion
produced per m3 of gas (at NTP) = 0.72 kg; air consumption = 77.4
kg/h; temperature of air and gas = 17 ◦ C; rate of flow of water through
boiler = 168 kg/h; inlet and outlet temperature of water is 20 ◦ C and
80 ◦ C. Temperature of exhaust gases leaving the boiler 127 ◦ C. Calcu-
late the heat per hour leaving the engine and express as a percentage
of heat supplied. Assume the dew point of the exhaust gases as 50
◦
C; the total heat of dry saturated steam at 50 ◦ C = 2580 kJ/kg; the
mean specific heat of steam as 2 kJ/kg K and the specific heat of flue
gas as 1 kJ/kg K. Take atmospheric temperature = 17 ◦ C as datum.
Ans: (i) 187000 kJ/h (ii) 36.39%
16.9 In olden days in order to compare the various forms and sizes of the
engine a factor known as Tookey factor is defined. It is given by
mep of the cycle in bar
TF =
Heat equivalent of 1 m3 of cylinder mixture in MJ
Calculate the value of the Tookey factor for an engine developing 10
kW using the following data. Piston diameter = 200 mm; stroke = 300
mm; explosion per minute = 100; calorific value of gas = 19 MJ/m3
gas per hour 6 m3 ; clearance volume = 25% of swept volume; volumet-
ric efficiency = 87.5%. (Note: Modern engines will have a TF > 4).
Ans: 3.45
16.10 In a test of a gas engine, the gas used had the following composition by
volume : CH4 = 65%; H2 = 2%; N2 = 2%; CO2 = 31%. The dry exhaust
gas analysis gave O2 = 5.3%; N2 = 83%; CO = 0.3% and CO2 = 11.4%.
Find (i) the air-fuel ratio by volume, to give complete combustion (ii)
the percentage of excess air actually used in the test. Air contains 79%
by volume of nitrogen. Ans: (i) 6.238 (ii) 36.7%
16.11 Assume that an oil engine cylinder is not cooled. One kg of air and
0.00518 of fuel are introduced into the cylinder at 17 ◦ C and 1 bar and
compressed to 4 bar. Taking the specific heat of the product to 0.717
kJ/kg K, find the maximum temperature and pressure at the end of
explosion. The calorific value of the fuel is 46 MJ/kg. Take γ = 1.4.
Ans: (i) 761.55 K (ii) 7.07 bar
16.12 Assuming a volumetric efficiency of 75%, estimate the probable indi-

cated power of a four-cylinder petrol engine, given the following data, di-
ameter of cylinder = 180 mm; stroke = 210 mm; speed = 1000 rpm; air-
fuel ratio = 16:1. Engine works on a four-stroke cycle, net calorific value
of the fuel = 44 MJ/kg; thermal efficiency is 30%. Assume ρa = 1.3.
Ans: 140.8 kW
16.13 A nine-cylinder petrol engine of bore 150 mm and stroke 200 mm has a
compression ratio of 6:1 and develops 360 kW at 2000 rpm when running
on a mixture of 20% rich. The fuel used has a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg
and contains 85.3% carbon and 14.7% hydrogen. Assuming volumetric
efficiency of 70% at 17 ◦ C and mechanical efficiency of 90%, find the
indicated thermal efficiency of the engine. Air contains 23.3% by mass
of oxygen. Ans: 30.84%
16.14 In a test the percentage analysis of petrol is found to be C = 83.2%;

H = 14.3% O2 = 2.5%. Calculate the mixture strength theoretically
required for complete combustion of this fuel. Tests were conducted on
a petrol engine at full throttle and constant speed, the quantity of fuel
supplied to the engine being varied by means of an adjustable needle
valve fitted to the jet of the carburettor. The results obtained were as
follows:
Speed Torque Fuel Air Air-fuel

(rpm) (Nm) (kg/min) (kg/min) ratio
1570 122.9 0.097 1.570 16.20
1570 128.5 0.100 1.560 15.60
1573 131.5 0.103 1.570 15.20
1569 138.0 0.110 1.560 14.20
1572 139.3 0.113 1.560 13.80
1563 141.5 0.118 1.560 13.20
1560 142.7 0.123 1.560 12.70
1572 141.2 0.129 1.560 12.10
Calorific value of fuel is 42 MJ/kg. Find the mixture strength

for maximum brake power and maximum thermal efficiency.
Ans: (i) 12.1 (ii) 15.6
16.15 A four-cylinder automobile engine of 90 mm bore and 115 mm stroke

was tested at constant speed over the complete practical range of mix-
ture strength. The speed, the brake loads and the fuel consumption are
as follows:
568 IC Engines
Test Brake load Speed Fuel consumption

Number (kg) (rpm) (kg/h)
1 17.35 1510 10.99
2 17.39 1500 10.80
3 17.44 1510 10.53
4 17.48 1512 10.35
5 17.48 1510 9.99
6 17.48 1510 9.72
7 17.21 1509 9.17
8 16.35 1493 8.54
9 15.08 1513 8.08
The brake arm length was 1 m. Plot sf c vs bmep curve and find
the mixture strength for maximum power and maximum economy.
Ans: (i) 0.335 kg/kW h (ii) 0.36 kg/kW h
16.16 The following results were obtained from a set of trials at full throttle on
a single cylinder four-stroke kerosene engine working of constant volume
cycle has a bore of 110 mm and stroke of 200 mm. The speed was kept
constant at 1500 rpm and the compression ratio varied.
Compression ratio 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.4 5.8

Fuel consumption/kg/min 0.113 0.112 0.112 0.112 0.111 0.111
Brake torque (Nm) 112.03 119.77 126.69 131.99 135.92 139.32
Frictional torque (Nm) 16.97 17.38 17.92 18.33 18.87 19.28
Calorific value of kerosene = 42 MJ/kg. Plot the curves of indicated

mean effective pressure and thermal efficiency with respect to a com-
pression ratio and obtain the values at compression ratio of 5.5. Also
find the relative efficiency at the above compression ratio. Ans: 58.3%
16.17 In a test of a four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine of 75 mm bore

and 100 mm stroke, the following results were obtained at full throttle
at a constant speed and with a fixed setting of the fuel supply of 0.082
kg/min.
bp with all cylinders working = 15.24 kW
bp with cylinder number 1 cut-off = 10.45 kW
Estimate the indicated power of the engine under these condi-
tions. If the calorific value of the fuel is 44 MJ/kg, find the indi-
cated thermal efficiency of the engine. Compare this with the air-
standard efficiency, the clearance volume of one cylinder being 115 cc.
Ans: (i) ip1 = 4.79; ip2 = 4.86; ip3 = 5.01; ip4 = 4.79;
ip1234 = 19.45; (ii) 32.35% (iii) 69.1%
16.18 A six-cylinder petrol engine of 100 mm bore and 125 mm stroke was
run at full throttle at a constant speed of 1500 rpm over the practical
range of air-fuel ratio, and the following results were deduced from the
series:
bmep sf c Air-fuel ratio

(bar) (kg/kW h) (mass basis)
6.19 0.555 11.0
6.53 0.494 11.5
6.67 0.438 12.9
6.63 0.383 14.7
6.60 0.352 16.1
6.26 0.339 17.6
5.71 0.352 19.2
5.07 0.407 20.8
The engine has a compression ratio of 5. The fuel used has a calorific
value of 44300 kJ/kg and the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is 14.5. Plot
on a base of air-fuel ratio, curves of brake mean effective pressure
and the specific fuel consumption. Point out these characteristics of
petrol engine in general and this engine in particular, revealed by these
curves. Calculate the highest brake thermal efficiency given by these
tests. Ans: 24%
16.19 A four-cylinder, four-stroke automobile engine of 60 mm bore and 115

mm stroke was tested at a constant speed over the complete range of
mixture strength. The arm of the brake was 1 m. The following data
were recorded.
Speed Brake load Fuel consumption

(rpm) (kg) (kg/h)
1510 8.67 5.50
1500 8.70 5.40
1510 8.72 5.27
1510 8.74 5.18
1510 8.74 5.00
1510 8.74 4.86
1509 8.60 4.59
1493 8.17 4.27
1513 7.10 4.04
Plot a diagram showing the relation between fuel consumption in

kg/kW h and bmep. Discuss the information which this diagram pro-
vides with respect to the performance of the engine. Calculate the
power output at the most economical point and also the corresponding
brake thermal efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 44 MJ/kg h.
Ans: (i)12.54 kW (ii) 24.1%
570 IC Engines
16.20 The fuel supplied to a Diesel engine has a gross calorific value of 44800
kJ/kg and contains 85.4% C and 12.3% H2 . The average tempera-
ture of the exhaust gases is 260 ◦ C and their volumetric analysis gives
CO2 : 5.77%, CO : 0.12%, O2 : 13.09%, N2 (by difference) : 81.02%.
Find (i) the heat carried away by the exhaust expressed as a percent-
age of the heat supplied and (ii) the mass of air per kg of fuel in
excess of that theoretically required for complete combustion. Take
mean specific heat of the dry exhaust gases as 1 kJ/kg K and atmo-
spheric temperature as 17 ◦ C. Air contains 23% oxygen on mass basis.
Ans: (i) 26.61% (ii) 21.42 kg
16.21 The following set of observations refer to a trial on a single-cylinder,

four-stroke solid injection diesel engine of 200 mm bore and 400 mm
stroke; gross mep = 6.20 bar, pumping mep = 0.44 bar, speed 262 rpm,
brake torque = 468 Nm; fuel used 3.85 kg of oil per hour of gross calorific
value 46600 kJ/kg, cooling water 6 kg/min raised 47 ◦ C. Draw up a heat
balance sheet for the trial expressing various quantitative in kJ/min and
calculate the mechanical efficiency of the engine. If the fuel contains
13.5% H2 (by mass) and the air supply to the engine 1.71 kg/min at
17 ◦ C. Estimate the heat carried away per minute by the exhaust gases
when their temperature is 280 ◦ C. Assume a mean specific heat of 1
kJ/kg and specific heat of fuel to be 4 kJ/kg K. Take sensible heat of air
and fuel also in the heat balance. Ans: (i) 81.2% (ii) 678.26 kJ/min
16.22 A four-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine develops 28 kW at 2000 rpm.

Its bsf c is 0.26 kg/kW h. Calculate the power output of the en-
gine and its bsf c when the fuel rate is reduced by 40% at the same
speed. Mechanical efficiency is 0.80. Assume that the indicated ther-
mal efficiency changes linearly with equivalence ratio and there is 1%
increase in indicated thermal efficiency for 6% increase in the equiv-
alence ratio. Equivalence ratio (φ) at higher fuel flow rate is 0.6666.
Ans: (i) 16.1 kW (ii) 0.271 kg/kW h
16.23 An eight-cylinder SI engine with 90 mm bore and 110 mm stroke pro-

duces 100 kW at a mean piston speed of 660 m/min at full throttle and
the bsf c is 0.39 kg/kW h. What will be the power produced by the en-
gine and the bsf c when the engine runs with a mean piston speed of 440
m/min with the throttle set at the same position. The fuel-air ratio and
spark timing are adjusted for best power at each speed. From experi-
mental curves of similar engine it is found that for the given percentage
reduction in piston speed the air capacity of the engine is reduced by
20%. Friction mep at piston speeds of 660 and 440 m/min are 1.9 and
1.2 bar respectively. Ans: (i) 56.3 kW (ii) 0.369 kg/kW h
16.24 An eight-cylinder automobile petrol engine of 100 mm bore and 90 mm

stroke has a compression ratio of 7. The engine develops 136 kW at
4000 rpm. The engine operates at 20% rich in fuel and the atmospheric
conditions are 27 ◦ C and 760 mm of Hg barometer. The bsf c is 0.34
kg/kW h. Estimate the power output and bsf c when
(i) barometer is 740 mm of Hg and temperature is 47 ◦ C.

(ii) barometer is 775 mm of Hg and temperature is 7 ◦ C. f mep at
4000 rpm is 2.10 bar.
Ans: (i) 125.9 kW; 0.346 kg/kW h
(ii) 145.8 kW; 0.335 kg/kW h
16.25 A four-cylinder, four-stroke cycle diesel engine produces 60 kW at
2200 rpm (under maximum fuel delivery position) with a bsf c of 0.28
kg/kW h at sea level (barometer 760 mm of Hg and 27 ◦ C). Cylinder
bore of the engine is 110 mm and stroke is 140 mm. The friction mean
effective pressure obtained from motoring test at 2200 rpm is 2 bar. Es-
timate the bsf c of the engine at 2200 rpm, when it is taken to a hill top
at 3000 m altitude. Effect of humidity may be neglected. The fuel-air
ratio is maintained at a constant value. At 3000 m altitude barometer
is 540 mm of Hg and temperature is 270 K. Ans: 0.314 kg/kW h
Multiple Choice Questions (choose the most appropriate answer)
1. Thermal efficiency varies
(a) inversely as sf c
(b) directly as sf c
(c) as square as sf c
(d) as root as sf c
2. Mechanical efficiency is ratio of
(a) f p to bp
(b) f p to ip
(c) bp to ip
(d) ip to f p
3. If N is the rpm, number of power strokes/min in a four-stroke engine is
(a) 2N
(b) N/2
(c) N
(d) 4N
4. If N is the rpm, number of power strokes/min in a two-stroke engine is
(a) N
(b) 2N
(c) N/2
(d) 4N
572 IC Engines
5. An indicator from an engine has a length of 100 mm and an area of 2000

mm2 . If the indicator pointer deflects 10 mm for a pressure increment
of 2 bar, the mep is
(a) 2 bar
(b) 4 bar
(c) 8 bar
(d) 1 bar
6. The spark timing and combustion rate should be such that
(a) peak pressure occurs at TDC

(b) one half of the total pressure occurs at TDC
(c) ignition delay is reduced
(d) none of the above
7. Volumetric efficiency is a measure of
(a) speed of the engine

(b) power of the engine
(c) breathing capacity of the engine
(d) pressure rise in the cylinder
8. Indicated power is directly proportional to
(a) torque
(b) air consumption
(c) cylinder peak pressure
9. Turbocharger engines are those in which charge density is increased by
(a) separate air compressors

(b) compressors driven by exhaust gas turbine
(c) cooling inlet air
10. Brake thermal efficiency of SI engine is in the range
(a) 35% to 60%

(b) 25% to 35%
(c) 60% to 80%
11. Sankey diagram represents
(a) ηbth vs bp
(b) air consumption vs speed
(c) heat balance of the engine
(d) torque vs speed
12. Performance mep shows
(a) indicated power vs speed

(b) bmep vs piston speed under various conditions
(c) ηbth vs speed under various conditions
(d) ηith vs speed under various conditions
13. The bp of a four-cylinder engine is 30 with all cylinder firing and 20

with one cylinder cut. The mechanical efficiency is
(a) 60%
(b) 80%
(c) 75%
14. The bore and stroke of a single cylinder four-stroke engine are 100 mm
and 160 mm respectively. If the brake torque is 50 NM the bmep is
(a) 15 bar
(b) 10 bar
(c) 5 bar
(d) 7.6 bar
15. The volumetric efficiency of a well designed engine is in the range
(a) 30 to 40%
(b) 40 to 60%
(c) 60 to 70%
(d) 75 to 90%
16. The normal efficiency of petrol engine as compared to diesel engine is
(a) lower
(b) higher
(c) equal
574 IC Engines
17. For SI engine with engine speed torque
(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) increases and then decreases
(d) remains constant
18. For SI engine, air consumption with engine speed
(a) increases and then decreases

(b) increases
(c) decreases
(d) remains constant
19. Charge efficiency depend on
(a) mechanical efficiency

(b) compression ratio
(c) air-fuel ratio
(d) combustion efficiency
20. Indicated mean effective pressure is given by
(a) imep = f mep − bmep

(b) imep = f mep/bmep
(c) imep = f mep × bmep
(d) imep = f mep + bmep
21. At constant speed and constant air-fuel ratio for an SI engine
(a) bsf c is maximum at full load

(b) bsf c is minimum at full load
(c) bsf c is minimum at no load
(d) bsf c does not depend on load
Ans: 1. – (a) 2. – (c) 3. – (b) 4. – (a) 5. – (b)

6. – (b) 7. – (c) 8. – (b) 9. – (b) 10. – (b)
11. – (c) 12. – (b) 13. – (c) 14. – (c) 15. – (d)
16. – (a) 17. – (c) 18. – (a) 19. – (b) 20. – (d)
21. – (b)

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16

Internal combustion engine generally operates within a useful range of speed.

Engine performance characteristics can be determined by the following

(i) By using experimental results obtained from engine tests.

(ii) By analytical calculation based on theoretical data.

Engine performance is really a relative term. It is represented by typical

16.2 ENGINE POWER

16.2.1 Indicated Mean Eﬀective Pressure (pim )

pim × (V1 − V2 ) = Net work of cycle (16.3)

TDC Cylinder BDC

Net work of cycle

16.2.2 Indicated Power (ip)

ip = ṁa × net work (16.6)

where ṁa is in kg/s, network is in kJ/kg of air and ip is in kW.

pim Vs nK pim LAnK

16.2.3 Brake Power (bp)

Fly wheel Friction adjustment

Fig. 16.2 Adaptation of prony brake for power measurement

The torque, rf , produced by the drive-shaft is opposed by a turning moment

Work during one revolution = 2πRF

In practice, the length of the moment arm R of the measuring equipment

in order to simplify computations.

In order to have C1 = 10000, R should be 0.955 m.

16.2.4 Brake Mean Eﬀective Pressure (pbm )

imep = bmep + f mep

Equation 16.8 was developed as a means of computing ip when imep is deter-

where pbm is brake mean eﬀective pressure (N/m2 ).

16.3 ENGINE EFFICIENCIES

Apart from expressing engine performance in terms of power, it is also essential

(i) Air-standard eﬃciency

(ii) Brake thermal eﬃciency

(iii) Indicated thermal eﬃciency

(iv) Mechanical eﬃciency

(v) Relative eﬃciency

(vi) Volumetric eﬃciency

(vii) Scavenging eﬃciency

(viii) Charge eﬃciency

(ix) Combustion eﬃciency

Most of these eﬃciencies have already been discussed in various chapters.

16.3.1 Air-Standard Eﬃciency

16.3.2 Indicated and Brake Thermal Eﬃciencies

16.3.3 Mechanical Eﬃciency

(i) Friction losses as in case of pistons, bearings, gears, valve mechanisms.

(ii) Power is absorbed by engine auxiliaries such as fuel pump, lubricating

16.3.4 Relative Eﬃciency

Actual brake thermal eﬃciency

16.3.5 Volumetric Eﬃciency

16.3.6 Scavenging Eﬃciency

16.3.7 Charge Eﬃciency

(i) the compression ratio.

(iii) the valve timing of the engine.

16.3.8 Combustion Eﬃciency

16.4 ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Engine performance characteristics are a convenient graphical presentation of

Speed for max. ip

Low Engine speed High

Figure 16.4 shows some of the other important performance characteristics

Engine speed (rpm)

power produced. At the high speeds, the f p is increasing at a rapid rate,

Engine speed (rpm)