Panimalar Engineering college

Tamils and Technology

Unit-1 Weaving & Ceramic Technology
Part-B
1. Explain the names of clothes with examples?
The name of various types of clothing used by the sangam people can be seen,from
the details given in “Pathuppattu”
(i) Leaf Dress
a) Narikurava women put bunches of mango leaves in between and wore a
veil of leaves ,which they placed around the bouquets.

Proof: Thirumuruga lines 201-203

b) Neithal women wore a leafy dress made of shoots,leaves and flowers

Proof: Pattinapalai line 91
(ii) DhuKil-Kalingam
The king was also wearing dhukil(clothes) which had been washed with
mash.The queen wore a flower-Designed dress so that her husband would
not leave her.During separation from her husband,she wore
kalingam(Garment)made by dirty thread.

Proof: Nedunalvadai 145-6

From this evidence,it is clear that ‘dhukil’ is a type of clothing and it is also
understood that ‘Kalingam’ is another type of clothing.
(iii) Katchal-Katchu(Dress)
a) The chief son(lover) of Kuriniji land was wearing a finely carved girdle.
Proof: Kurinji line125
b) Sirupanartupadai tells us that Archunan wore a broad Kachai(Dress)
having flower designs.
Proof:Sirupanatrupadai Line:239
C) Nalloor Naththathanar while talking about Veman says that like
Archuna,Veeman was also great warrior and wore the dress having flower
designs.
Proof:Nednalvadai
d)Nedunalvadai says that the queen had tied ‘ Vambu’(Kachu) on her chest.
 Proof:Nednalvadai Line 145-150
(iv) Padam(Shirt)
a)’Padam’ means shirt. Perumpanartuppadai says that the soldiers guarding
the highways of Thondai Country wore shirts.
Proof: Nachinarkiniyar Urai Line 69,Mullaipattu Thodar Line 66
b)During the sangam period,’Yavanans ‘ traded in Tamilnadu.During their
stay here,they wore saree dress on their waist.Above their waist,they
wore meipai(shirt).
Proof: Mullaipattu Line 59-61
(V) Sithar-Sitharvai
Dirty torn rags were called ‘Sithar’ and ‘Sitharvai’
Proof: Porunarartrupadai Line 154 & 468
(vi)Kaazhagam
It is a type of garment,wore by priests.It is a garment woven and sent from a
Town called Kadaram.
(vii) Aruvai
It is the highest quality fine embroidered dresses.It was worn by kings and
the Rich.
(viii) Kandam
The rough clothe used to wrap around the tent like a wall was called
Kandam.
Proof: Nachinarkiniyar,Mullai 44
2. Explain the types of fabrics with eamples?
There are evidences from the sangam period to show that many types of clothing
were woven from the yarns.
(i) Thin fabrics
(ii) Beautiful high quality fabrics like sanke skin
(iii) Rough Clothes
(iv) Silk Clothes
(i)Thin Fabrics
They enjoyed dressing their waists in clothes like milk spirit,thin paper woven
With very fine thread.
Proof: Malaipadukadam 565

(ii) High Quality Fabrics like Snake Skin

 They also spun high quality beautiful clothes with floral designs like snake
Skin shirts.
Proof: Purananooru 397
(iii) Rough Cloth
Evidences say that pure coarse cloth was also produced by peeling off the
Inner core of the bamboo.
Proof: Sirupanattrupadai 83
(iv)Silk Clothes
Silapathikaraum speaks of weavers who knew the technique of weaving
With silk thread and rat hair as ‘ Nun Vinaikarugar’
Proof: Silapathikaram
(v)Other types of Clothing
(i) Women used to wear red clothes during the puberty period
(ii) During day time,women wore silk dresses and at night wore cotton
dresses
This is started by Pattinappalai,a book of the sangam period.
Proof: Manimegalai 16-30,Seethalaisathanar
(iii)It is also evident from the statement of Elango adigal that sangam women
Were separate dresses for night
Proof: Elango Adigal,Silambu,9-4
3.What are the processes of pottery making?
Pottery items are made using a variety of methods.Among them pottery wheel is
important.
 In the process of ‘throwing’,the clay is
Potter’s Wheel wheeled into the middle of the spinning
platform called ‘Chakrathali’
 The potter rotates the wheel with a stickat the
required speed.
 As the wheel rotates,the solid sphere of fine
clay is pressed,squeezed and
gently pulled upward and outward to form a
vacuum pot
 Then the vacuum pot with the hole should be
slightly dried and enlarged with a stone and a
plank to close the hole.

 Kinds of Rotators
In Tamilnadu,there are two types of rotators
1.Ball Point Rotator
2.Cone Slot roatator
I.Ball point Rotator
 Ball ,Hollow rotates can be rotated with a bar.
 At the bottom of the wheel there is a small
ball.
 It has a plinth with a small hollow for fitting it.
 As it rotates using a rod,it is straight only
when it rotates ,when it stops rotating ,it tilts.

II.Cone-Slot Rotator

 Soil mixed with wood or coconut fiber,Black stone.

 At the lower part of the upper wheel,there is a black stone
area with a conical structure and a flat ring around it.
 It has a conical bottom so that it fits just right.
 The hole can be rotated.
 The rotator will not incline.
 Men sit in front of the rotator on the seat and shape the
soil.
 His wife would sit on the ground opposite to him and spin
the rotator
 Only a small amount of soil can be placed in ball point
rotator.
 Large amount of soil cam be placed in the cone-slot
rotator.

Evidences:
(i) Both types of rotators are shown onbstone carvings on Thiruchengode Hill.The
stone and plate are carved along with the rotator
(ii) In the Kovoorkizhar lyrics,only the cone-slot rotator is mentioned.

4.Explain the types of clay with archeological Evidences?

Generally there are two types of clay are found in nature

I.First layer clay

It is found in the rock from which it was obtained.It does not contain any sediments.It is
heavy ,dense and pure.
II.Second layer clay
It forms a light sedimentary mixture.It is stored and submerged in water.They are fner and
lighter than the primary clays.
Excavation Evidense
The 17 pottery sherds found in the excavation were analyzed by the Geosciences of the
university of pisa in Italy.The pots found at Kizhadi were used for collecting water and
for cooking..Based on the nature of the minerals and rock particles found in these pots,it
was confirmed that these pots were made locally using a unique pottery technology.It was
identified by comparing the local soil sample.
It is understood that technique of pottery found at Kizhadi,the composition of elements
prove that the nature of clay remained the same from the 6th century BC to 2nd century BC
,according to the study report by the University of Pisa in Italy.
The research report explains that some of the pottery samples are similar to the soil type
found in other parts of Tamilnadu and the period is considered to be 2nd Century BC.
5.Explain the salient features of Nano-technology in black-Red pottery?
An examinationof the pot shell found at Kizhadi excavation reveals the techniques used
during the sangam period really excite us.One of them is the use of elements of nano-
technologyin the heating process of the pot.
The world renowned journal’The Nature Scientific Report’ published this article.
CARBON NANOTUBES
Chemical Analysis of the interior pot shells found at Kizhadi confirmed the presence of
nanotubes in the black paint.The Researchers proved that the carbon nanotubes were
responsible for the black coating on the inner side of the pot shell that did not decay or
did not lose luster.
The tensile strength of carbon nanotubes is 100times higher than that of the same size
steel.This tenacity is the reason why the black paint on the pottery does not disintegrate
even after 2000 years.
Carbon nanotubes have been discovered in the archeological excavations.Nano particles
and carbon nano tubes have been found in the materials from the excavations in the
Mediterranean regionand in Damascus steel.These nanotubes date back to 8 or 9th century
AD.The carbon nanotubes found at Kizhadi are more than 2400 years old.
Both single walled and multibwalled nanotubes were found in the pottery excavated at
KiZhadi.now,carbon nanotubes are formed by heating a carbon based compound to a very
high temperature i.e 1200oC.So sangam people could have made this possible by heating
at very high temperatures.
6.Write in detail about the Scratch marks on the Vessels
I.Potter’s Seal
Wooden mallet is used for the decorative work on pottery.It has a flower or an image
carved on both ends.If the vessels are properly dry,and are tapped in a row with a wooden
hammer,the flower on the tip of the hammer will form a row.
II.Scratching on Pot
Scratched letters on the pots were found during the sangam period.Old tamil scripts are
found in abdundance on pot shells.A number of scratch paintings have also been found
before the introduction of material encrusted letters.These are called Graffiti marks.The
description of the Indus alphabet written from the right to the left was discovered from
the scratch scripts found on the pots.
The oldest of the scribbles is the 450 year old Indus script.Between the close of the Indus
valley civilization and emergence of the Tamil –Brahmi script,there was a
typeface.Researchers call such pattern as scratches and symbols.These scratch marks are
found in the copper Age and Paleolithic cultures.It should be noted that such symbols are
found on black-Red pottery.
Evidences:
1.Excavations carried out at Adichanallur,korkai and mangalam in Tamilnadu have given
pot shells with symbols.
2.In Srilanka ,objects with similar identations were also found in places like
kantharodai,manthai,Rithiyagama.
From the above evidences,it is certain that 75% of the symbols discovered in south india
are found in Tamil nadu.
Pre-tamil Brahmi script was a script that reflected the thinking of the Paleolithic and Iron.
 Age people.1001 pot shells inscribed withsuch scratches found at Kizhadi indicate that
sangam people knew the basic writing system to express their thoughts.
7. How was the weaving industry during sangam period? Explain.
GARMENTS ARE MADE THROUGH VARIOUS STEPS.
Tamil Civilization is ancient. The relationship with cotton and India is ancient. Artifacts
found in the Indus Valley Civilization show that the ancients knew the art of weaving cotton
cloth. Foreign references and archeological evidence confirm the Indian origin of cotton.
Before the rest of the world became civilized, the people of India learned to produce and
weave clothes from cotton. Tamils knew how to spin yarn from cotton through rattan,
handloom and sewing.
Weaving is the art of making garments like dhoti, sari or shawl.
VARIOUS STEPS INVOLVED IN WEAVING
1. Cleaning of cotton
2. Women spinning yarn
3. Sizing of yarn
4. Dyeing
5. Weaving cloth
6. Selling woven garments

CLEANING OF COTTON
The raw material of the textile industry is cotton. Cotton was grown in abundance in the
Mullai lands. The cotton pulp had to be collected and cleaned to remove seeds, unwanted dirt
etc. and make it suitable for weaving is called Ginning.
[Ginning is a process in which the cotton fibers are separated from the cotton seeds]
For this, people of the Sangam period used tools like bows and steel to beat
the cotton then, the outer shell cotton and the nut were thoroughly scrubbed to remove dirt
and dust.And changed it to fit the thread.
This can be known from the Natrinai

‘வில் லலறி பஞ் சின் மல் கு திரை” (நற் . 299)

From the old Tamil songs, have highlighted the glory of weaving. The stored fluff is a special
analogy for the gentle movement of a cloud. The old Tamil people thought that when they
saw a white cloud, it was like fluff spreading.

WOMEN SPINNING YARN: [cotton women/ 'Paruthy Pendir' (பருத்திப்

லபண்டிை்)
Sangam women were skilled at spinning yarn with cleaned cotton.
Also, women who have lost their husbands have worked up to nights to fulfill the economic
needs of their families. They were called 'Paruthy Pendir'. Spinning wheel,
charkha, and
takli are used in making yarn from fibre by the process known as spinning.
This can be known from Sangam classical songs

“பருத்திப் லபண்டிை் பனுவல் ”(புறம் . 125)

“ ஆளிற் லபண்டிை் தபளிற் லெய் த நுணங் குநண்பனுவல் ” (நற் . 353)

வழிதுளி லபொழிந்த இன்குைல் எழிலி

எஃகுறு பஞ் சிற் றொகி” (நற் . 247; 3 - 4)

“சிரறயும் லெற் ரறயும் புரையுருள் எழுந்த

பருத்திப் லபண்டின் சிறுதீ விளக்கத்து” (புறம் . 326; 4 - 5)

SIZING OF YARN (paving)

After cleaning the cotton, before weaving, the yarn is spread into length (wrap) and or
crosswise (weft) in a large loom and glued. The glued yarn is then polished by rubbing
gently. This practice of sizing the yarn is said to be ‘pa’ in Sangam literature
For Example, we can mention the following Agananooru song

“துகிலொய் ெ் லெய் ரகப் பொவிைித்தன்ன

லவயிலவிை்வு நுைங் கும் லவவ் வங் கள் ளின்" (அகம் .293)

DYEING:
The people of the Sangam period had done the process of dyeing the woven cloth perfectly.
As people like to wear multi-colored clothes, they use many colors like red, yellow, blue and
black to make cloth.

The Perunkathai (லபருங் கரத) Kaappiyam mentions the method of dyeing.

“ லவண்ணூல் பூந்துகில் வண்ணம் லகொளீஇ

நீ லக்கை்டியும் மைகதத் தகரவயும்

பொசிரலக்கை்டியும் வீதகப் பிண்ைமும்

பிடித்துருக் லகொளீஇக் ககொடித் திைிகயொை்டிக்

ரகயரமத் தியற் றிய கலிங் கத் துணியினை்” (லபருங் கரத 42 ; 193 96)
The lyrics show that the people of that time wore clothes with colour and make-up.

“அவிழ் ந்த கூந்தலை் லநகிழ் ந்த ஆரையை்

இரணயொ விருப்பிற் நம் விரளயொை்டு முரனக்

கயம் பொைவிய புறங் கரற கபொந்த பின்” (லபருங் கரத 42 ; 193 96)
Avuri, saffron, turmeric,mustard,lacquer, konrai, and dye root kasukatti are used for
making dye.
Not only literature. Excavations have also confirmed this. Excavations at Arikamedu,
unearthed two brick- built dye tanks used for dyeing white clothes. Excavations at the
Sangam Chola capital have uncovered the ruins of a dye tank used for weaving.

WEAVING:

The ancient people wove cloth with dyed yarn. A machine called loom (தறி) is used for
weaving. A garment is formed by combined efforts of different parts of the loom. The basic
purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of
the weft threads. Weaving is the most basic process in which two different sets of yarns or
threads are interlaced with each other to form a fabric or cloth. One of these sets is called
warp which is the lengthwise yarn running from the back to the front of the loom.
Weaving methods include handloom weaving, finger weaving, upward weaving, and
downward weaving.
In the Sangam period, clothes were woven with beautiful color work.

“புகொப் புகை் லகொண்ை புன்பூங் கலிங் கலமொடு” (நற் .90)

The ancient people wore clothes with beautiful embroidery, like snake skin, thinly
worn, like the inner skin of a bamboo tube.

“கதம் பொயுள் ள கதங் கமழ் மைருளப்

பொம் புைியன்ன வடிவன கொம் பின்

கரழபடு லெொலியின் இரழயணி வொைொ” (புறம் . 383)

SALE OF WOVEN GARMENTS

During the Sangam period, weavers used to sell woven clothes in shops. Textiles of
high quality and softness were woven and used in Tamil Nadu and were exported to foreign
countries as well.
Pandiyans kingdom woven cloths of Bandi decorated were sold in the palaces of the
kingdoms of Rome, Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Gadaram, Savagam etc.

Queen Elizabeth of England's bed chamber was decorated with silk known as
Bangaya silk.
Sangam period Tamils have been wearing cotton, silk and woolen clothes since
ancient times and making clothes with silk designing.

Professional tax and sales tax in textile industry:

Professional Tax
(i)The practice of taxing only the functioning ‘Weaving looms’existed during the sangam
period. A Non-Weaving loom was called ‘Madi loom’.it was not taxed.
(ii)For the Adai looms, only half the duty was indicated as tax,
(iii)Some of the weavers had also paid common village tax. Taxes were imposed on the
looms according to the country and down.
(i) Pulavarash says that there was a ‘Passage Tax’ (Vasul vari) for using the road for
looms
Sales Tax
They had gone to other places and sold the woven clothes.The taxpaid for selling the
streets was called ‘Kulavari’
In General,the weaving industry had been the most tax paying industry for the
country,according to the lithographer pulavar rasu.

Fabric types of the Sangam period

Tamils wore different types of clothes according to their wealth and tradition.
The royal family and the wealthy were dressed to the nines.

Men - Dukil, Kalingam, Sargar, Siddar, Meipai, Korai...(துகில் , கலிங் கம் , அறுரவ,

சித்தொை், லமய் ப்ரப, ககொரை...)

Women - Mandukul, Nulutkul, Poontukul, Vantukul, Kotidukul, Kalingapatu,

(நுண்துகில் ,நூல் துகில் , பூந்துகில் , வண்ணத்துகில் , ககொடிதுகில் ,

கலிங் கபை்டு)

S. No Peoples Types Of Dresses

1. King & High End Peoples Kaazhagam,
Peoples Meippai, Uttariyam Porvai

2. Public
i. Hunters Maranaarudukkai

ii. Fisher men Noolaadai

iii Vellalars, Kovalars masanoodukkai

iv. Maravar Neela kacchaadai

v.) Soldiers Kacchai,kavasam

(Kanchugam)
vi; Saint &amp Monks Skin White / Safron
3. Women Kachu Vattudai, Saree
4. Tribes Thazhiyaadai

5. Poor people sidhaar

Sculptural evidence:
Women wore sarees that hung down to their knees. The sculptures show that they
used to wear various types of knots made of four-square pieces of cloth on their heads,
Some of the sculptures found at Amaravati and Jagkaiyapet, Andhra Nadu 200BC -
100AD shoe that men wore a turban, a pleated garment hanging down to the knee, a
flower worked girdle and a small stitched towel hanging from it.
Nakkirar, one of the poets of the Sangha period says

“உண்பது நொழி, உடுப்பது இைண்கை”

It shows that ancient Tamils wore an upper garment and a lower garment (vetti).

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Part-A
1.What are the evidences of clothing in sangam period?
In the sangam period,the reference of wearing Thazhaiyudai,Maravuri and kachai is
found in kurunji Thinai songs.
Kuravars wore dresses woven from Kartazhai and the Kurinji land Kodichiyars wore leaf
dressesmade from the shoots of Ashoka tree.
2.What are the names of clothes?
1.Thazhai dress 2.Thugil -Kalingam 3.kachchai-Kachchu 4.Padam -Meippai
5.Sithar-Sitharvai 6.Kazhagam 7. Aruvai 8. Kandam
3.Who were the weaving women or cotton women?
Bow was used to extract the cotton from its cocoon.Sangam literature states that cotton
cocoon was thoroughly pounded to remove the outer skin and dust.The women who
plucked the cotton and cleaned it by removing the nuts and seeds from it were
called”Cotton Women”.They were engaged in this work even at night with lanterns.
4.What are the types of fabrics?
i) Fine Fabrics ii) Beautiful high quality fabrics like snake skin
iii) Coarse Fabrics iv) Silk clothes.
5.What substances are contained in clay soil?
The primary mineral found in clay is white clay or kaolinite.In this clay mineral,the
following items are found.
i) 40% Aluminium Oxide ii) 46% Silicon Oxide iii) 14% water
6.Give the meaning of Kachai-Kachu(Girdle)
(i) The chief son of kurinji land was wearing an elaborate girdle called Kachu.
(ii)The chief daughter of kurinji land was wearing a dress called kachai.
7.What is sculptural evidence?Give evidences.
Women wore sarees that hung down to their knees.The sculptures show that they used to
wear various types of knots made of four-square pieces of cloth on their heads,
Some of the sculptures found at Amaravathi and Jagkaiyapet,Andhra Nadu 200BC -
100AD shoe that men wore a turban ,a pleated garment hanging down to the knee,a
flower worked girdle and a small stitched towel hanging from it.
8.How did spinning and weaving of cloth take place?
(i) Yarning Thread
Cotton was cleaned and ginned by hand and spun into cotton yarn.Women did not work.
They had learnt the technology of manufacturing women’s clothes and engaged in the
industry.
(iii) Weaving cloth
Widowed women,women separated from their husbands who had gone ot for earning or
who had gone out for war reasons took up weaving at home for their earning.Women
engaged in such occupations were called ‘cotton women’.The yarn made of cotton was
called ‘Panuval’.
9.What are the types of rotators?(Thiruvai)?
There are two types of Thiruvais in Tamilnadu,They are
(i) Ball tipped rotator
(ii) Cone-slot rotator
10.What are professional tax and sales tax in textile industry?
Professional Tax
(i)The practice of taxing only the functioning ‘Weaving looms’existed during the sangam
period.A Non-Weaving loom was called ‘Madi loom’.it wa not taxed.
(ii)For the Adai looms,only half the duty was indicated as tax,
(iii)Some of the weavers had also paid common village tax.Taxes were imposed on the
looms according to the country and down.
(iii) Pulavar rasu says that there was a ‘Passage Tax’(Vasul vari) for using the road for
looms
Sales Tax
They had gone to other places and sold the woven clothes.The taxpaid for selling the
streets was called ‘Kulavari’
In General,the weaving industry had been the most tax paying industry for the
country,according to the lithographer pulavar rasu.