METAL WORKS

LESSON 1
What is Metalworking?

Metalworking is the process of changing the shape of metal to fit the required
application. Metalworking techniques can alter the form, area, length, thickness, shape, and
even the surface finish of metal objects. The shaping can be done by force, temperature, or
removing excess material from the metal objects.
Traditionally, metalworking was done by professionals in dedicated workshops. However, the last
few decades saw many advancements in machining processes and technologies like CNC. This
has led to metalworking becoming an integrated part of modern assembly lines.

Computer numerical control (CNC) is a manufacturing method that automates the control,
movement and precision of machine tools through the use of preprogrammed computer software,
which is embedded inside the tools. CNC is commonly used in manufacturing for machining metal
and plastic parts.

Brief History of Metalworking

Metalworking predates earliest civilizations for a long time. Metal objects of copper have
been dated back to as early as 8700 BC. Early metalworking processes were very basic, such as
hammering. In later millennia, metalworking began incorporating heat to melt and reform the molten
metal.

Where was metalworking invented?

The Middle East is often speculated as the region where metalworking was invented. The
earliest known metal object in Israel dates back to 6000 BC. However, there is no concrete evidence
of metalworking invention because ancient metalworking processes have been indicated in
Southwest Asia, Greece, and Egypt.
African civilizations started working with steel around 1400 BC. In 600 BC, Copper found
popular use in the American region. Fast forward two millennia, and the first iron foundries opened
up in Great Britain. This became the driving factor towards the industrial revolution.

What is the Importance of Metalworking?

Metalworking processes are the basis of the operations of every other industry. Most
manufacturing industries directly use materials output from one or more metalworking processes.
If an industry does not use metal raw materials, it definitely uses tools and products of metalworking
processes.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF METALWORKING TECHNIQUES

There are many different types of metalworking processes, categorized by their class.
Common metalworking classes are joining, cutting, casting, and forming processes. Let us go
through all the different techniques that fall under these classes of metalworking:

METAL CUTTING PROCESSES

Metal-cutting processes divide metal sheets or blocks in multiple pieces by removing a small
amount of material from the cut location. Metal cutting processes also shape metal workpieces into
the desired object. The material removal can be done with force, friction, heat, or electricity. Here
are some of the metal-cutting techniques:

Milling
 Milling is one of the common mechanical cutting techniques. It uses high-speed rotary cutting
tool to remove material from a workpiece. The workpiece is typically stationary. The cutting tools
come in various shapes to fulfill the required purpose. Common types are end mills, face mills, and
thread mills.

Turning

Turning uses a non-rotary cutting tool working on a rotating workpiece. The workpiece for turning
processes usually has circular elements. The turning process inscribes a helical path on the
workpiece.

Grinding

Metal grinding uses rotary discs with an abrasive surface. The discs remove minimal material from
the workpiece to smooth the surface. Grinding is also done to make micro-adjustments to a
workpiece’s dimensions to make it fit into the required application.
 Drilling

Drilling is one of the most common metalworking processes. It uses a rotary drill bit to create holes
in the workpiece. The holes can be of varying sizes based on the thickness of the drilling bit. Drilling
machines have varying scales, from handheld manual options to large-scale structures operating
on CNC.

Threading

Threading tools create the helical line on the metal workpieces. The lines are used to fit the
workpiece’s screws, nuts, and bolts. The helical grooves made by threading also help assemble
two workpieces together.

Filing

Metal filing is similar to the grinding process. It removes minimal amount of material from the
workpiece for minute adjustments or surface finishing. Filing is also used for same applications as
grinding, i.e. smoothening surface finishes. However, filing is more versatile and can easily work
on surfaces where grinding wheels cannot reach.
 Sawing

Sawing is more commonly used for wood but also applies to metalworking processes. Metal sawing
uses a blade with sharp, toothed edges. The blade is usually flexible and rotates quickly between
two wheels. There are many different configurations of metal saws, such as horizontal and vertical
band saws.

Shaping (or planing)

Shaping and planing are two different metalworking tools with very similar principles. Shaping
consists of a cutting tool moving across a stationary workpiece. In planing, the workpiece is moved
along a stationary cutting tool. Either case uses a single-point cutting tool to accomplish the job.

Broaching

Broaching uses a moving cutting tool with toothed edges. The particular design of the cutting tool
varies based on application. Broaching can be done on the exterior of the workpiece as well as its
interior. Exterior broaching is known as surface broaching. Broaching done inside the workpiece is
called internal broaching. A broaching machine is referred to as a broach.
 Laser Cutting

Laser cutting uses high-energy sources of light for melting the metal. The melted material is
removed with airflow, which creates smooth and clean cuts. The width of the light beam is very
narrow. The accuracy of the process is very good due to the narrow beam.

Waterjet Cutting

Waterjet cutting is one of the most popular metalworking processes. It uses the high force of water
for metal erosion and cutting. The water jet can be adjusted to any direction, making it usable for
linear, non-linear, and 3-dimensional cuts. Waterjet cutting does not have thickness limits for metal
objects. This provides it a huge edge over any other metalworking process.
METAL JOINING PROCESS

Joining is a metalworking process of merging two workpieces together using heat techniques.
Joining processes are fundamental in every metalworking industry, be it aerospace, automobile, or
electronics.
The different metal joining techniques are:

Welding

Welding is one of the most common metal joining process. Welding machines are everywhere, from
small-scale workshops to large manufacturing industries. There are many types of welding, such
as TIG and MIG. Welding processes melt a filler metal and use it to fuse the two workpieces
together. The choice of filler material and the process of fusion varies based on the type of welding
method.

Soldering

Soldering is similar to welding but on a very smaller scale. It uses a filler metal that is melted and
placed between the target metals. The target metals are fused due to the high heat and the action
of the filler metal. Soldering is one of the oldest metal fabrication processes, with applications as
early as 5000 BC.

Brazing

Brazing is another metal joining process similar to welding. The main defining factor of brazing is
that it does not melt the workpiece materials. It melts only the filler material and pushes the molten
metal between the workpieces. However, welding melts the workpiece as well as the filler metal.
 Riveting

Riveting is a mechanical joining process. This is very different from the joining processes like
welding and soldering, which are based on using molten metal. The rivets are drilled or punched
into the workpieces. The tail of the rivet is then forced to expand. This creates a tight and secure
joint with a lot of tensile strength.

Bolting

Bolting is a non-permanent type of metal joining process. The other processes mentioned above
join materials permanently. However, bolted materials can be unscrewed and assembled again,
leading to better portability and management. Bolting can use bolts, screws, and nuts.
 LESSON 2
Use Basic Hand Tools and Equipment

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this Lesson, you are expected to
do the following:

LO 1. select and classify hand tools and equipment ;

LO 2. use hand tools and equipment; and
LO 3. maintain hand tools.

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 Definition of Terms

Adjustable wrench- a tool with movable jaw which makes it adjustable to

various sizes of nuts

Ball peen hammer- a tool for straightening bending and deforming metals

Chipping hammer- used for removing slag on weld and with two faces, the tapered
from one side and round pointed on the other side

Cold chisel- a wedge-shaped tool used to shear, cut and chip metal

Files- made of high grade steel hardened and tempered. A file has rows of teeth
that form, shape and finish metal by removing small chips and smoothing rough
edges of the metal surface

Hacksaw - a tooth- cutting tool usually with a solid and adjustable frame
Lubricating- a process of maintenance wherein oil is put in between moving parts
of a tool or equipment to prevent the tool from rust or damage

Maintenance- following routine procedures to keep the tools or equipment at its

most efficient condition

Measuring tools- tools used to measure the dimension of an object or metal

Micrometer caliper- a precision measuring instrument used to measure dimensions
in thousandths of an inch

Pliers- a tool for holding, cutting and twisting wires

Punches-tools- used for permanent marking on surface of metal

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Scraper- a tool for removing points, burrs, and sharp edges from metal
surface and similar parts

Screw driver- a hand tool that is designed to turn screws. The blade is made of
steel, attached to one end of which a wooden or plastic handle

Tightening/ loosening- a process where tools and equipment are adjusted based
on standard procedure
Try square- an instrument used to measure the squareness of an object

Vernier caliper- a precision measuring instrument used to measure the inside,

outside diameter, as well as depth of hole and slot

Wrench- used for loosening and tightening light and heavy nuts and bolts

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 Each classification has different types and uses.

1. MEASURING TOOLS

Pull-push rule. This flexible rule when extended will support itself, but may also be
used to measure curved, irregular surfaces. Steel tape rule blade is usually ½ inch
wide and 72 inches long. The graduation is sixteenths, except for the first 6 inches
which are graduated in thirty-seconds of an inch.

 Steel tape is similar to a steel tape rule except for its flexible number of feet that are
marked on the tape. The tape is 3/8 inch wide and available in lengths from 25 to
100 feet.

 Steel rule. This is the most common tool used in tool room. It is made of tampered
steel about 1/8 inch thick and ¾ inch wide and 6 to 12 inches long. The same
style maybe obtained in length from 1 to 48 inches.

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◻Try square is an instrument used to measure the square of an object.

 Combination square. It is an instrument combined with 45°, 90° and a protractor.

 Micrometer caliper. Is a precision measuring instrument used to measure dimensions in

thousandths of an inch.

 Vernier caliper is a precision measuring instrument used to measure the inside,

outside diameter, as well as depth of hole and slot.
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  Dividers. These are used for measuring or setting of distances, and to lay out arcs
and circles.

2. CUTTING TOOLS

 Hacksaw is a tooth-cutting tool usually with a solid and adjustable frame. The main
parts are handles, blade, tightening screw and nuts. The tool is mainly used in
cutting metals like plates, pipes, rods, bars, angular, etc. but of minimal thickness,
width and length. Sometimes this tool is used for cutting plastic pipes and other
materials to suit to its purpose.

o Frame. It is the main body of the hacksaw which holds the blade. The different
types of frames are the following:

a. Fixed or solid frames are intended to hold only one size of blade
about 10 inches long

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 b. Adjustable frame is frame that can be adjusted to hold blades of different
sizes such as 10, 12 and 14 inches in length.

o Blade. It is made of thin, high grade steel usually 1.27 mm thick and 30.48cm
long with an inclined row of teeth serving as cutter.

The two types of blades are:

a. All hard. In this type, the entire blade is hardened and tempered, making
it very brittle. Use this type in cutting steel and cast iron.

b. Flexible back. In this type, only the teeth portion is hardened and

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 tempered, making the blade springy and less likely to break.

The following are the recommended teeth-per-inch of blades for different kinds
of stocks to be cut:
a. 14 teeth-per-inch. It is used for brass, aluminum, cast iron and soft iron.

b. 18 teeth-per-inch. It is used for drill rod, mild steel, tool steel and general work
c. 24 teeth-per-inch. It is recommended for thin tubing and pipe.

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FILES - are made of high- g r a d e steel which are hardened and tempered. Each file has rows
of teeth that form, shape and finish metal by removing small chips and smoothing rough edges
of the metal surface. They differ in length, shape, cut and coarseness.

Kinds of files:

1. Mill file a single-cut file used for filing and finishing brass and bronze.

2. Flat file is usually rectangular in shape and tapered slightly in width and
thickness. It is one of the most commonly used files for general work.

3. Square file is intended for filing square or rectangular holes.

4. Round file is used primarily for enlarging holes.

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 5. Half-round file is used for filing curved or concave surfaces.

6. Triangular file is used for filing surfaces that meet at least 90º. It is exclusively used
for sharpening wood saws and for smoothening rectangular opening. It is also
known as three- square file.

Cold chisel.

A wedge-shaped tool used to shear, cut, and chip metal Types of cold chisel and
their particular functions:

7. Flat chisel is used for chipping flat surfaces, cutting off rivets or metal
fasteners, thin sheets, and small bars, and for general purposes. Its cutting
edge ranges from 13 to 25mm.

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 8. Cape chisel has a narrow edge suited for cutting narrow grooves or slots.

9.Diamond-point chisel has a diamond-shaped cutting edge intended to cut

V- grooves.

3. Round-nose chisel has a round nose cutting edge for cutting round and
semi-circular grooves.

SCRAPER is used in removing points, burrs and sharp edges from metal surface and
similar parts.This tool is made of hardened steel of various shapes that fit according

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to each purpose. There are bearing scrapes, flat, sharper, three-connected scraper.
Below are types of scrapers and their uses:

10. For the removal of the high spots on metal surface.

11. For scraping the surface of cylindrical bearing when fitting shafts into place.

12. For the removal of burrs and sharp internal edges from soft brushing and similar
parts

PUNCHES are used for permanent marking on the surface of metal.

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 KINDS AND USES OF PUNCHES

o Prick punch has a small center punch which is also known as a layout puncher.
Its point is placed at an angle of 30 degrees.

o Center punch has one end-guard to a 90 degrees conical point.

3. DRIVING TOOLS

o Hammers

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 1. Ball peen hammer is used for straightening bending and deforming metals. It
has two faces. One is flat in striking cold chisels and punches. The other side
the “peen” is rounded for bending and shaping metals.
Ball peen hammer generally has a wood or fiberglass handle measuring 10-16
inches long. Head weight ranges from 2-48 oz. A 20oz hammer is good for
general purpose.

2. Chipping hammer is used for removing slag on weld and with two faces, the
tapered from one side and round pointed on the other side.

o Wrench is used for loosening and tightening light and heavy nuts and bolts. There
are different kinds and sizes of wrenches designed according to uses and functions.

1. An adjustable wrench has a movable jaw which makes it adjustable to various

sizes of nuts. A heavy type of adjustable wrench is the monkey/pipe wrench.

Adjustable Wrench

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Pipe Wrench

2. Oxy acetylene wrench- A type of wrench used for tightening hose and fitting connection
on oxy-acetylene unit.

Oxy- Acetylene Wrench

3. an open-ended wrench is one that is made to fit one size of nut or bolt. This is the
most inexpensive type of wrench that is quite efficient in ordinary situations.

Single-ended

Double-ended

4. A closed-end wrench is similar to a single-ended wrench, but as it entirely

encloses a nut, there is a little danger of the wrench slipping off the nut or the
jaws spreading apart.

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 Single-ended

Double-ended

SOCKET WRENCH is a tool with usually interchangeable socket to fit over a nut or
bolt.

o Screwdriver is hand tool that is designed to turn screws. The blade is made of
steel, attached to one end of a wooden or plastic handle. The other end is
flattened to fit slots in the heads of screws on bolts. The other kinds of screw
drivers are called a Phillips screw driver and helical-ratchet screw driver.

Phillips Flattened Helical-ratchet

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HOLDING TOOLS

 Clamps are made of different sizes and appearance that are fitted for its purpose. These
devices have been designed to hold work securely while performing skills such as
grinding, bending, fitting, and cutting of metals. Some types of clamps and metal
vises are:

1. Tool-maker clamp is used for holding small parts both at the bench
and at the machine. This tool is also known as a parallel clamp.

2. C-Clamp is an all-purpose clamp that is generally used for all kinds of work.

3. Drill vise is a sturdy steel vise with movable jaw that easily goes back or
forth by raising the handle.

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 4. Machinist vise is a work holding tool for machining activity.

5. Hand vise V block with clamp is used to hold metal stocks for small
machining operation.

6. Vise Grip is a tool used to grip the stock tight enough to hold the object.

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7. Tong is used to hold the metal to be forged and must be held securely while
working.

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Pliers are used for holding, cutting and twisting wires.

Combination pliers

Side cutting pliers

Long nose pliers

Slip joint pliers/Mechanical pliers

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 DEFECTIVE AND NON-DEFECTIVE HAND TOOLS

Introduction:

There are many ways of identifying hand tools. One of these is to identify them
according to their function. However, awareness of defective and non-defective hand tools
is a primordial concern of workers/welders to be effective in their jobs.

Below are the recommended practices to identify defective and non-defective hand tools.

1. Visual inspection

Defective tools can easily be distinguished from the functional ones through visual
inspection. The physical appearance of tools will describe such characteristics as dullness,
sharpness, dismantled parts, and unevenness of the teeth of the cutting tools.

2. Functionality

Another way is to check the quality of the manufactured tools. Is it already

susceptible to wear and tear? Has it already exceeded its service life? Has it passed
the manufacturer’s quality control test?

A few pieces of hand tools issued in the shop can be subjected for condemnation
if they are no longer serviceable.

3. Performance

Performance of hand tools is determined not only during the actual use but also
after use to find out whether the hand tools are still worth using.

4. Service span

Hand tools are issued to shop teachers at one time. However, this must be recorded

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to determine when it was received and how long the tools have been kept in the shop. A
hand tool which is too old is unsafe for both the students and workers. Such tool
should be marked defective and segregated from the good ones.

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Procedures on using different hand tools and equipment

Hacksaw

Steps in Mounting Blade to the Metal Frame

TEETH

1. Select the correct type of blade.

2. Attach the blade to the frame by pointing the teeth away from the handle.
3. Tighten the wing nut of the handle until the blade is tight enough.

Safety Measures:

Tighten the wing nut securely enough to prevent from buckling and breaking.

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 Steps in Fixing Stock In Metal Vise and Operation Position

25-30 cm

1. Fasten the stock in vise with lay-out line as close as possible to the end of the
used vise jaws.
2. Stand with your feet 25 to 30 centimeters apart and one foot forward.
3. Lean the body a little forward as shown in the drawing

Steps in Sawing the Stock

1. Start the saw by guiding the blade with the thumb of your left hand while taking
one or two light strokes with your right hand.
2. Move the saw with a light, steady, and even motion of about 40 to 50 strokes per
minute.
3. Apply pressure during the forward stroke and release during the return strokes.
4. Hold the stock with your left hand to avoid cuts upon sawing with your right hand

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 Steps in Bending 90o with Ball Peen Hammer

1. Force the metal over the vise jaws using left-hand.

2. Strike it several times near the hand with flat head of a hammer.

Steps in Squaring off a 90 o Bend

3. Place the metal in the bench vise and tighten strongly.

4. Strike the metal with the flat head of a hammer in the direction of the arrow indicated.

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Circular Bend

1. Place the metal over a pipe or round bar and clamp in a bench vise.
2. Strike the metal with a glancing blow using the flat head of a hammer until the
desired curve is obtained.

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Cold Chisel

Cold Chisel is used for cutting and chipping cold metals.

 The illustration above presents the Two-Hands Positioning in cold chiseling which
shows the proper grip in using the tool. For heavy work, hand gripping of tool should be
strong and tight; for fine and small work, hold the tool lightly.

Look at the person work with the ball peen hammer and the chisel, as shown in the
illustration above. A cold chisel will cut metals only if you strike it with the flat head of a
ball peen hammer. The complete safety protection device and the body position when
performing the task (chiseling) are evidently done.

Wrench

Wrench is used for loosening and tightening light and heavy nuts and bolts. There
are various kinds and sizes of wrenches designed according to use and function.
It is tool steel on movable jaws.

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

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K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
 A combination wrench of open-end and a box-end will tell the advantage of box-end
over open lid. Box-end wrench has complete contact with six points on the bolt head. This
completely surrounds the grip of the bolt head or nut allowing less chances of wrench
slippage.
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of hand tools and machines are both primodial concerns of a repair
technician in the welding shops and/or in the welding production.
The activities should be on schedule and with proper coordination with the production
people. The term “repair” and “maintenance” works mean differently.
Repair, unusually focuses on the program of works done in the operation of power plants
in machines that are in trouble of stopping its function.
While the term “maintenance” means a scheduled or a planned visit of tools or
equipment for inspection and from there, reports and recommendation developed and the
next tasks to be decided such as cleaning, application of lubricants, dismantling and etc.
Some of the simple maintenance activities for hand tools, and the maintenance
schedule should be posted in a visible corner of the shop where everybody can read it.

 Lubricating. A task performed in the shop/production through the application of

lubricant substance to the identified items in parts like barrels, rollers, springs, bearing,
bolts and nuts, and other automotive parts.

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

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K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education
 Tightening/Loosening. In an assembly of structures, we have tools for fittings
that need to be tightened and loosened in as much as they pose high risk to
safety. Tightening bolts and nuts and other fittings requires procedures that should be
carried out for compliance.

 Tool for Hand Sharpening. Some tools need to be sharpened such as blades
of knife, cold chisel, punches and many others. To do hand sharpening for hand
tools requires techniques and application. In some multi knives cutter,
manufacturers produce knife sharpening system to hold or clamp the blade for
ensuring strong blade to stone contact during sharpening and also provides with
course to fine honing stones. For cold chisel and punches, the right file-size
and grades are used for repairing the defective anvil curve.
 Simple Repair. Repair practices of hand tools are still available anytime. But, to
some extent, tools are checked yearly and many of the hand tools are eligible for
condemnation and the whole items are to be replaced by new units. However, there
are instances when minor repair can be performed, like replacement of wooden
handle of a hammer and mushroomed head of a cold chisel.
 Cleaning. Simple process applied to hand tools. The cleaning approach may
differ from one another. For example, cleaning of the rack corners of hand tools
by using air vacuum or by a piece of cloth. Similar process may be applied to
identical cleaning situations.

By piece of cloth By air vacuum

 PROPER STORAGE OF HAND TOOLS/EQUIPMENT

(5S Implementation)

 Clearly label machinery, equipment, part, jigs, tools, and their locations,
so that everything is understandable and visible to everyone at a
glance.
 Don‟t pile up jigs, tools, and materials without separators (shelves). They
should be picked up easily.
 Rearrange machinery and equipment to make smooth production flow,
when necessary.
 Maintain the space around the fire extinguishers and evacuation passages free.

REFERENCES

 Welding Principles and Application

Johnson

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

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K to 12 – Technology and Livelihood Education