CE 111 – CALCULUS 1

1. Chapter 1: Functions and Limits

2. Overview/Introduction

- Functions
- Graph of a Function
- Classification of Functions
- One-Valued and Many-Valued Functions
- The Square Root
- The Absolute Value Symbol
- The Signum Function
- Definition of a Limit
- Theorems on Limits
- Right-Hand and Left-Hand Limits
- Continuity
- Missing Point Discontinuities
- Finite Jumps
- Infinite Discontinuities
3. Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:

1. Define what is a function;

2. Identify the different classifications of functions;
3. Determine and draw the graph of a particular function;
4. Define what is a limit;
5. Evaluate limits of functions; and;
6. Determine the domain of a function.

4. Learning Content/Topic

I. FUNCTIONS

When two quantities x and y are related, so that for some range of values of x the value of y is
determined by that of x, we say that y is a function of x. For a square with side of length c, the area is
given by
2
A=c ; c >0

Therefore, A is a function of c, the range of values of c being determined by the physical meaning of the
quantities involved.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1. A right triangle has a fixed base of length 7. Express the length of the altitude “ a ”
of the triangle as a function of the length of the hypothenuse “ h” .

Solution: By use of the Pythagorean Theorem, we get:

2 2 2
h =7 +a h a
We are required to express the altitude as a function of h . So,
2 2
a =h −49
a=√ h −49
2

7
Where h>7

Other examples of functions are:

The six trigonometric functions: sin x ,cos x , tan x , etc .

The square root: y= √ x
The linear polynomial: y=mx+b
2
The quadratic polynomial y= A x + Bx+C

1 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 It is frequently desirable, particularly in the development of the theory, to work with a large class of
functions rather than with a specific one. Therefore, we use a symbol such as f(x), which is read “f of x”,
to denote a function of x. We write

y=f (x )

to convey the fact that y is a function of x, without designating the particular manner in which y is
related to x. Letters other than f are used in the same way. We may write

z=w ( v )∨u=s ( v )

to indicate that z and u are both functions of v .

If two variables x and y are related so that, for each x in a domain R of real numbers, we obtain one or
more real values for y , then y is said to be a real function of the real variable x defined in the domain
R.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2. Let f (x)=x2 +3 . Find:

a. f (2) ans: 7
b. f (−4 ) ans: 19
c. f (0) ans: 3
d. f (u−1) ans: u2−2 u+ 4
e. f (−x) ans: x 2+ 3

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3. Let g ( y )=cos 2 y −2sin y . Find:

a. g ( π ) ans: 1

b. g ( 12 π ) ans: - 3

c. g ( 0 ) ans: 1
d. [ g ( x )+ g (−x) ] ans: 2 cos 2 x

Since the implication of the above definition is that y depends on x , we call y the dependent variable
or function and x the independent variable.

The set of all admissible values of x is called the domain of the function and the set of all resulting
values of y is called the range of the function.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4. With interval notation, the domain of the function defined by the equation
2
y=x

Is (−∞,+∞) and the range is ¿.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5. Find the domain and range of the function f defined by the function,

y= √ x−2

Solution: Because the numbers are confined to real numbers, y is a function of x only for
x−2 ≥ 0 because for any x satisfying this inequality, a unique value of y is determined.
However, if x <2, a square root of negative number is obtained, and hence no real number y
exists. Therefore, we must restrict x so that x ≥ 2 . Thus the domain of f is the interval ¿, and
the range is ¿.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6. Let g be the function defined by the equation. Find the domain and the range.

y= √ x 2−9

Solution: We observe that y is a function of x only for x ≥ 3 or x ≤−3 (or simply |x|≥ 3); for any
x satisfying either of these inequalities, a unique value of y is determined. No real value of y is

2 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 determined if x is in the open interval (−3 , 3), because of these values of x , a square root of a
negative number is obtained. Hence the domain of g is (−∞ ,−3 ] ∪ ¿ , and the range is ¿.

II. ORDERED PAIRS

We can consider a function as a set of ordered pairs. For instance, the function defined by the
equation y=x 2 consists of all the ordered pairs (x , y ) satisfying the equation. The ordered pairs in this

function are (1 , 1), ( 32 , 94 ) ,(4 ,16),(0 ,0),(−1 , 1),( −32 , 94 ) ,∧(−4 , 16). Of course there is an unlimited
number of ordered pairs in the function. Some others are ( 2 , 4 ) , (−2 , 4 ) ,(5 ,25),(−5 , 25) ,( √ 3 ,3) and so
on.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7. The function f is the set of ordered pairs (x , y ) for which y= √ x−2 . With
symbols we write,

f ={ ( x , y )| y=√ x−2 }

Some of the ordered pairs in f are (2 , 0), (9 /4 , 1/2), (3 , 1) , (4 , √ 2), (5 , √ 3) , (6 , 2), (11, 3).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 8. The function g is the set of ordered pairs (x , y ) for which y= √ x 2−9 ; that is;

g= {( x , y )| y =√ x −9 }
2

Some of the ordered pairs in g are (3 , 0), (4 , √ 7) , (5 , 4) , (−3 , 0), (−√ 13 , 2).

We now state formally that a function is a set of ordered pairs. Defining a function this way, rather than
as a rule or correspondence, makes its meaning precise.

A function is a set of ordered pairs of numbers (x , y ) in which no distinct ordered pairs

have the same first number. The set of all admissible values of x is called the domain of
the function and the set of all resulting values of y is called the range of the function.

When defining a function, the domain must be given either implicitly or explicitly. For instance, if
f is defined by
2
f ( x )=3 x −5 x +2
The function has a value if x is any real number ; the domain is, therefore, the set of all real
numbers. However, if f is defined by

f ( x )=3 x 2−5 x=2 1 ≤ x ≤10

Then the domain of f consists of all real numbers between and including 1 and 10.

Similarly, if g is defined by the equation

5 x−2
g ( x )=
x +4
It is implied that x ≠−4 , because the quotient is undefined for x=−4 ; hence, the domain of g is
the set of all real numbers except −4.

If h is defined by the equation,

h ( x )=√ 4−x 2
the domain of h is the closed interval [−2 ,2] because √ 4−x 2 is not a real number for x >2 or
x <2. The range of h is [0,2].

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9. Given that f is the function defined by f ( x )=x 2 +3 x−4

Find: (a) f (0); (b) f (2); (c) f (h); (d) f (2 h); (e) f (2 x); (f) f (x+ h); (g) f (x)+ f (h).
3 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity
 Answers: (a) -4; (b) 6; (c) h2 +3 h−4 ; (d) 4 h2 +6 h−4 ; (e) 4 x 2+6 x−4 ; (f)
2 2 2 2
x + ( 2 h+ 3 ) x +(h +3 h−4); (g) x + 3 x +(h +3 h−8)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 10. Find

f ( x+ h )−f (x )
h≠0
h
If (a) f ( x )=4 x 2−5 x+ 7; (b) f ( x )= √ x .
Answers: (a) 8 x−5+ 4 h ; (b) 1/( √ x +h ¿ + √ x )¿
III. GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

The curve y=f (x ) is called the graph of the function. Many properties of the function are made more
vivid by this graphic representation.

The function A=c 2 ; c >0 , which was mentioned in the discussion on functions is represented
graphically by a half parabola as shown in Figure 1.

In Example 1, we expressed the length of the altitude of a certain right triangle in terms of the length of
the hypothenuse by means of the function shown in Figure 2. (a=√ h2−49 ; h>7 )

The topic on graphs of functions will be discussed in detail in the later chapters.

IV. OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

Given two functions f and g:

(1) Their sum, denoted by f +g , is the function defined by

( f +g ) ( x ) =f ( x )+ g (x)

(2) Their difference, denoted by f −g, is the function defined by

( f −g ) ( x )=f ( x )−g (x)

(3) Their product, denoted by f ∙ g, is the function defined by

( f ∙ g ) ( x )=f ( x) ∙ g( x )

(4) Their quotient, denoted by f /g , is the function defined by

()f
g
( x )=
f (x )
g(x)
g(x )≠ 0

In each case the domain of the resulting function consists of those values of x common to the domains
of f and g, with the additional requirement in case ( iv ) that the values of x for which g(x )=0 are
excluded.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 11. Given that f and g are the functions defined by f ( x )= √ x +1 and g ( x )=√ x−4 ,
define the following functions and determine the domain of the resulting function:

a. ( f +g ) ( x ) =√ x +1+ √ x−4

b. ( f −g ) ( x )=√ x+1−√ x−4

c. ( f ∙ g ) ( x )=√ x+1 ∙ √ x−4

4 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 d. ( fg ) ( x )= √√x−4
x +1

The domain of f is ¿ and the domain of g is ¿. So in parts (a), (b) and (c), the domain of the resulting
function is ¿. In part (d), the denominator is zero when x=4; thus 4 is excluded from the domain, and
the domain is therefore, (4 ,+∞ )

V. COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

Given two functions f and g, denoted by f ∘ g, is defined by

( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )

And the domain of f ∘ g is the set of all numbers x in the domain of g such that g(x ) is in the domain of
f.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12. If f and g are defined by

f ( x )= √ x and g ( x )=2 x−3

( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )¿ f ( 2 x−3 ) ¿ √ 2 x−3

The domain of g is (−∞ ,+∞ ), and the domain of f is ¿. The domain of f ∘ g is, therefore, the set of real
numbers x for which 2 x−3 ≥ 0 or equivalently, ¿ .

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13. Given that f and g are defined by

5
f ( x )= ∧g ( x )=2 x+ 1
x−2

Compute (f ∘ g)(3) by two methods: (a) Find g(3) and use that number to find f (g(3)); (b) Compute
(f ∘ g)(x) and use that value to find f (g(3)).

(a) g ( 3 )=2 ( 3 ) +1=7 5

(b) ( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )¿ f ( 2 x +1 )¿
2 x +1−2
Thus, 5
5 ¿
f ( g ( 3 )) =f ( 7 )¿ ¿1 2 x−1
7−2
Therefore,
5
( f ∘ g ) (3 )= ¿1
2 ( 3 )−1

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14. Given that f and g are defined by

f ( x )= √ x∧g ( x )=x −1
2

Find (a) f ∘ f ; (b) g ∘ g; (c) f ∘ g; (d) g ∘ f . Also determine the domain of the composite function in
each part.

Answer Key:

(a) √4 x D :¿
(b) x 4 −2 x 2 D :(−∞ ,+∞ )

(c) √ x 2−1 D : (−∞,−1 ] ∪ ¿

(d) x−1 D: ¿
In part (d ) note that even though x−1 is defined for all values of x , the domain of g ∘ f , by the definition
of a composite function, is the set of all numbers x in the domain of f (x) such that f (x) is in the
domain of g.

5 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 15. If h ( x )=(4 x 2 +1)3, express h as the composition of two functions f and g.

3 2
f ( x )=x ∧g ( x )=4 x +1

Because

( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )¿ f ( 4 x 2 +1 )¿(4 x 2 +1)3
The function h can be expressed as the composition of other pairs of functions. For example,
3 2
F ( x )=(4 x+1) ∧G ( x )=x
Because,

( F ∘ G )( x )=F ( G ( x ) )¿ F ( x 2 )¿(4 x 2 +1)3

SAMPLE PROBLEM 16. Given
1
h ( x )=
√ x 2 +3
Express h as the composition of two functions f and g in two ways: (a) the function f contains the
radical; (b) the function g contains the radical.
Solution: (a)
1 2
f ( x )= ∧g ( x ) =x
√ x+ 3
Solution: (b)
1
f ( x )= ∧√ x +3
2
x
VI. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

All functions are classed as either algebraic or transcendental. The algebraic functions are rational
integral functions, or polynomials; rational fractions, or quotients of polynomials; and irrational
functions, of which the simplest are those formed from rational functions by the extraction of roots. The
elementary transcendental functions are trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions; exponential
functions, in which the variable occurs as an exponent; and logarithms.

Figure 3. Classification of Functions

A linear function is defined by

f ( x )=mx+b
Where m and b are constants and m ≠0 . Its graph is a line having a slope m and y intercept b .
The function defined by f (x)=5 is a constant function and its graph is a horizontal line 5 units above
the x axis. The function defined by g(x )=−4 is a constant function whose graph is a horizontal line 4
units below the x axis.
If a function is defined by
n n−1 n−2
f ( x )=an x + an−1 x +a n−2 x + a1 x + a0

6 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 Where a 0 , a 1 , … a n are real numbers (a n ≠0 ¿ and n is a nonnegative integer, then f is called a
polynomial function of degree n .
Thus, the function f ( x )=3 x 5−x 2 +7 x−1 is a polynomial function of degree 5.
If the degree of a polynomial function is 2, it is called a quadratic function. And if the degree of a
polynomial function is 3, it is called a cubic function.
If a function can be expressed as the quotient of two polynomial function, it is called a rational
function.
An algebraic function is one formed by a finite number of algebraic operations on the identity function
and constant function. These algebraic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
raising to powers and extracting roots.
VII. ONE-VALUED AND MANY-VALUED FUNCTIONS

When the relation y=f (x ) is such that there is only one value of y for each admissible x , then f (x) is
said to be a one-valued function of x . The equivalent term single-valued function is also used.
Graphically this means that if the function is defined for x=a , the fertical line x=a intersects the curve
in one and only one point.

Frequently, however, the law connecting

x and y determines two or more
values of y , in general distinct, for each value of x . Say that there are n
values of y corresponding to each value of x . It is then possible to group
the values of y so as to form n distinct one-valued function, called the
branches of the original function. The graph consists of n branches (not
necessarily disconnected), each of which is met by the line x=a in exactly
one point.

For example, the equation

2
y =x , x ≥ 0

defines a two-valued function whose branches are

y= √ x , y=−√ x

The graphs of these functions are respectively the upper and lower halves of the parabola shown in
Figure 4.

VIII. THE SQUARE ROOT

Although every positive number of course has two square roots, one positive, one negative, by
universal agreement the radical sign (or its equivalent the exponent ½) is taken to mean invariably the
positive root.

For example

√ 3=1.732 … , not ± 1.732 …

√ 4=2 , not ± 2
√ a2−2 ab+b2=a−b if a ≥ b ,
¿ b−a if a<b ;
√ x =x if x ≥ 0√ x =−x if x <0
2 2

The graph of the function y= √ x 2 is not the 45° line but the two “half-lines” of Figure 5.

IX. THE ABSOLUTE-VALUE SYMBOL

The symbol |x|, which may be read “absolute value of x”, is defined by

7 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 |x|=x , for x ≥ 0|x|=−x , for x< 0

Example (a). |5|=|−5|=5

Example (b). If a> 0, |x|≤ a is equivalent ¿−a ≤ x ≤ a.

The absolute value of a number means the magnitude of the number regardless of its algebraic sign.

Example (c). |−3|=−(−3)

By comparing the definition in the above with the Square Root discussion, we see that

√ x 2=|x|
The graph of the curve y=| x| is that shown in Figure 5.

It is useful to recognize the geometric significance of |a−b| . Let the points associated with the real
numbers a and b marked on an axis in the usual manner; then |a−b| is the positive distance between
those points. For instance, let a=−2 and b=7, as in Figure 6.

Then

|(−2 )−7|=|−9|=9
which checks with the distance between the points x=−2 and x=7 , as shown in Figure 6.
A fundamental property of the absolute-value symbol is that the absolute value of the sum of two
numbers is never larger than the sum of their absolute values,
|a+b|≤|a|+|b|
Prove this by substituting values for a and b.

X. THE SIGNUM FUNCTION

It is sometimes convenient to make use of what is called the signum (Latin for “sign) function. In
practice, signum is usually abbreviated to sgn. We define this function by

sgn x=−1 , for x <0 ,sgn x=0 , for x=0 ,sgn x=+1 for x >0 .

The graph y=sgn x is shown in Figure 7. Except at zero, the value of the signum function is determined
by the algebraic sign of its argument. When the argument x is positive, sgn x has the value plus one;
when x is negative, sgn x has the value minus one.
The signum function may be used to write in a single formula what
would otherwise be given by two or more formulas. Suppose we
wish to use the function g(x ) for values x <c and the function h( x)
for values x >c . We write
1
[ 1−sgn ( x−c ) ] g ( x )+ 12 [ 1+ sgn ( x−c ) ] h ( x )
F ( x )=
2
Since sgn(x−c)=−1 for x <c , and sgn(x−c)=+1 for x >c , we may
conclude that,
F ( x )=g (x), for x <c
1
F ( x )= [ g ( c ) +h ( c ) ] , for x=c
2
F ( x )=h ( x ) , for x >c
At x=c , F (x) takes on the average value, the arithmetic mean of the values of g(x ) and h( x)

8 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 XI. DEFINITION OF A LIMIT
Let f(x) be a function of x and let a be a constant. If there is a number L such that, in order to make the
value of f(x) as close to L as may be desired, it is sufficient to choose x close enough to a, but different
from a, then we say that the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is L. We write
lim f ( x )=L
x →a

Which is read “the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is L”. The same idea is to be conveyed by writing:
As x → a , f ( x ) → L
read “as x approaches a , f (x) approaches L”.
There are two important aspects in regard to this statement that have to do with the use of the word
“approach”.
First, it is important to understand that the word is restricted to imply a certain degree of
“closeness”. What we actually mean is that the difference
|f ( x ) −A|
can be made as small as we desire simply by requiring x to be near enough to a.
Second, since it is possible that the function under consideration is undefined when x=a, we
restrict the symbolism “ x → a to mean “x nears but is never equal to a”.
In order that problems which involve limits may be analyzed with mathematical precision, the preceding
intuitive concept of a limit is incorporated into the following definition.
A function f(x) is said to approach a value A as x approaches a, if corresponding to every positive
number ϵ there is some positive number δ such that
|f ( x ) −A|< ϵ
is true for every x that satisfies the inequality
0<| x−a|< δ
If efficient use is to be made of the definition of a limit, the phrases “as close to L as may be desired” and
“close enough to a ” must be expressed in mathematical symbols. Therefore, we restate the definition as
follows:
We say that
lim f ( x )=L ,
x →a

if for every positive number ϵ (arbitrarily small), there exists a number δ such that in order to make
|f ( x ) −L|<ϵ ,
it is sufficient that x satisfy
|x−a|< δ , x ≠ a
The above concept of a limit is the mathematical refinement of an intuitive notion which is still of
importance in rough everyday use, that the limit L is a number which f (x)approaches as closely as may
be desired, as x creeps up on a . The idea of a moving point, x moving toward a , f (x) moving toward L,
is a relic of the Newtonian calculus.
XII. THEOREMS ON LIMITS
Although basic theorems must of necessity be proved in accordance with the preceding definition,
subsequent results are usually derived from the theorems so established.
Theorem 1. The limit of the sum of two (or more) functions is equal to the product of their limits:
lim ¿ ¿
x →a

If lim f ( x )= A∧lim g ( x )=B ,

x→ a x→a

lim [ f ( x )+ g ( x) ] =A + B
x →a

Theorem 2. The limit of the product of two (or more) functions is equal to the product of their limits
9 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity
 lim ¿ ¿
x →a

If lim f ( x )= A∧lim g ( x )=B ,

x→ a x→a

lim f ( x ) g ( x )= A+ B
x →a

Theorem 3. The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided the
limit of the denominator is not zero:
lim u (x)
u (x) x→ a
lim = ,if lim v (x)≠ 0
x →a v (x) lim v (x) x → a
x→ a

If lim f ( x )= A∧lim g ( x )=B ,

x→ a x→a

f (x) A
lim = , provided that B ≠ 0
x →a g(x) B
In these theorems, it is assumed that the limits of the two functions exist. However, even though neither
function separately approaches a limit, the sum, product, or quotient may do so.
Theorem 3 tells us nothing about what happens to the ratio u/ v if v → 0 . If u approaches a non-zero
limit and v → 0 the ratio u/v can be made to assume values numerically larger than any preassigned
quantity. Let us prove that statement.
Let u → k ≠ 0 as x → a. Then, by the definition of a limit, we may choose x close enough to a to make u
1
lie between ½ k and 3/2 k . For such values of x , |u|> |k|. At the same time, since v → 0, we may
2
choose x close enough to a to make |v|<ϵ with ϵ as small as desired. Now let x be chosen closer to a
1
than either of the above two choices. Then |u|> |k| and |v|<ϵ are both true, and it follows that
2
u |k|
>
v 2ϵ ||
, which can be made as large as we wish by choosing ϵ sufficiently small.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 17. Evaluate lim ( x + 4 x )

3

x →3

By Theorem 1,
lim ( x 3+ 4 x )=lim ( x3 ) + lim ( 4 x )
x →3 x →3 x→3

By Theorem 2,
lim ( x 3+ 4 x )=lim ( x ) ∙ lim ( x ) ∙ lim ( x ) +lim ( 4 ) ∙ lim ( x ) ¿ ( 3 ∙3 ∙ 3 ) + ( 4 ∙3 )=27+12=39
x →3 x →3 x→ 3 x →3 x→ 3 x→ 3
3
x −9 x +10
SAMPLE PROBLEM 18. Evaluate lim 2
x →2 x −4
Repeated application of Theorems 1 and 2 shows that:
lim ( x ¿¿ 3−9 x +10)=0∧lim ( x 2−4 )=0 ¿
x →2 x →2

Hence, Theorem 3 cannot be applied at this stage.

A simple exercise in synthetic division, suggested by the fact that x=2 is a zero of ( x 2−9 x +10), yields
3 2
x −9 x +10=( x−2)( x + 2 x−5)
Hence,
3 2
x −9 x +10 x +2 x−5 4+ 4−5 3
lim 2
=lim = =
x →2 x −4 x →2 x+ 2 2+2 4

The evaluation of limits as x → ± ∞ is most easily accomplished, when possible, by expressing the
function in terms of 1/ x and using the fact that 1/ x → 0 .

SAMPLE PROBLEM 19. Evaluate

10 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 3
3 x −2 x +4
lim 2 3
x→+∞ 2−3 x −2 x
2 4
3
+
3−
3 x −2 x +4 x 2 x 3 −3
lim 2 3
= lim =
x→+∞ 2−3 x −2 x x →+∞ 2 3 2
3
− −2
x x

XIII. RIGHT-HAND AND LEFT-HAND LIMITS

Once in a while, it is convenient to employ a restricted version of limit as

described below. We write

lim ¿
+¿
x→ a f ( x ) =L, ¿

+ ¿¿
and mean by x → a that each x involved is greater than a. A limit such as that in the equation above
is called a right-hand limit; the independent variable x approaches a from the right.

A left-hand limit,

lim ¿
−¿
x→ a f ( x )= M ,¿

with x remaining less than a , is also used.

If the ordinary limit exists, the right-hand and left-hand limits each exist and all three have the same
value, the limit itself exists and has that value.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 20. Evaluate lim ¿ and lim ¿

−¿ 1/x +¿ 1/x
x→ 0 2 ¿ x→ 0 2 ¿

XIV.CONTINUITY

When f (a) exists, we find for most elementary functions that this is the limit that is usually approached
by f (x) as x → a . This is important property of functions is called continuity and is defined as follows.

A single –valued function f (x) is said to be continuous at a value a of its domain provided

(1) f (a) is defined;

(2) lim f (x ) exists; and

x →a

(3) lim f (x )=f (a)

x →a

If f (x) is continuous at each point of an interval, it is said to be continuous on the interval.

A function that is not continuous at a point is said to be discontinuous at that point. Thus, the function
|x|
f ( x )=
x
is discontinuous at x=0 since 0/0 is meaningless and moreover, lim f (x ) does not exist.
x →0
Similarly, the function g(x )=( x2−4)/(x−2)is discontinuous at x=2 since g(2) is undefined. In this
case, however, lim g ( x )=4 , and we observe that the graph (Figure 8) of y=(x 2−4 )/( x−2) is the entire
x →2
line y=x +2 with the single point (2,4) omitted.
Since lim f ( x )=f (a) means that for every ϵ >0 there exists a δ >0 such that
x →a
f ( a )−ϵ< f ( x )< f ( a )+ ϵ
for every x in the interval
a−δ < x< a+δ
we see in Figure 9 that the continuity of f (x) at x=a means that the graph of f (x) for the domain
a−δ < x< a+δ is entirely within a rectangle whose center is (a , f (a)) and whose height is 2 ϵ .
Several important and useful theorems on continuity are as follows.
11 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity
 Theorem 1. If f (x) and g(x ) are two functions that are continuous at x=a , then the following functions
are continuous at x=a .

1. f (x)+ g(x ),
2. f (x) g(x ),
3. f (x)/ g(x ), provided g(a)≠ 0

Proof: If all limits are taken as x → a , we know from the continuity of f (x) and g(x ) that lim f (x )=f (a)
and lim g (x)=g (a). Hence by use of Theorem 1, in Article IX, we find:

1. lim [ f ( x )+ g ( x ) ] =lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x ) =f ( a )+ g (a);

2. lim f ( x ) g ( x )=lim f ( x ) ∙ lim g ( x ) =f ( a ) g ( a ) ;
3. lim f ( x ) /g (x)=lim f ( x ) /lim g ( x )=f (a)/g ( a ) , provided that g (a)≠ 0

and the theorem is proved.

n n−1
Since a polynomial P ( x )=a 0 x +a1 x +...+ an is a combination of sums
and products of the variable x , we have the following conclusion:
Corollary 1. A polynomial in x is a continuous function for all
values of x .
Similarly, since a rational function is the quotient of two
polynomials, we have the following result
Corollary 2. A rational function in x is a continuous function for all
values of x except those values for which the denominator is zero.
Theorem 2. When the function f (x) is continuous for a ≤ x ≤ b and
f (a)≠ f (b) , then if k is any number between f ¿ ) and f (b), there exists
some number c between a and such that f (c )=k .
Theorem 3. If the function f (x) is continuous in the closed intervala ≤ x ≤ b ,
there exists numbers x m and x M in this domain such that f (x ¿¿ m)¿ is the minimum and f (x ¿¿ M )¿ is
the maximum value of f (x) in a ≤ x ≤ b .
We shall not attempt to prove the preceding theorems, since rigorous proofs would require a more
thorough study of the number system than we can possibly make at this time. It should be noted in
Theorem 3, however, that the requirement of a closed interval is essential. The function 1/ x which is
continuous in the interval 0< x ≤1 has, for example, no maximum value in this domain.
Theorem 4. If the function f ( y ) is continuous at y=A and iflim g ( x )= A , then
x →a

[ ]
lim f [ g( x ) ] =f lim g( x) =f ( A )
x →a x→ a
Proof: The fact that f ( y ) is continuous at y= A means that for every ϵ >0 there exists a δ ' > 0 such that
|f ( y )−f (A )|<ϵ , when| y− A|< δ '
XV. MISSING POINT DISCONTINUITIES

Consider a function f (x) which is not defined when x=a , but such that lim f (x ) exists,
x →a

lim f (x )=L
x →a

The function is discontinuous at x=a because lim f (a) does not exist. Graphically, the curve appears
to the eye, to be continuous, but the single point x=a is missing.

It is always possible to repair such missing-point discontinuities by replacing the original function f (x)
with another function φ (x), defined as follows:

{φ ( x )=f ( x ) , x ≠ a
φ ( x ) =L, x=a

The function φ (x) is the same as f (x) whenever f (x) was defined, but φ (x) is continuous at x=a .

Example (). The function

12 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 3
x −9 x +10
f ( x )=
x −2

is undefined when x=2 because both numerator and denominator vanish at x=2. But,
2
x 3−9 x +10 (x−2)(x + 2 x−5)
lim =lim
x →2 x−2 x →2 x−2

lim ( x 2+2 x−5 ) =3

x →2
Since
3
x −9 x+10 2
=x +2 x−5 , x ≠ 2
x−2
The graph of f (x) shown in Figure 10 is the parabola y=x 2 +2 x−5, except for an invisible
break at x=2.

XVI. FINITE JUMPS

It may happen that, at x=a , the function has both a left-hand and a right-hand limit, but the two are not
equal:

lim ¿
−¿
x→ a f (x)= L1 , +¿
lim ¿¿
x→a f (x)=L2 ,L1 ≠ L2 ¿

At such point the function has a finite jump: the curve takes a vertical jump of width L2−L1 .

XVII. INFINITE DISCONTINUITIES

A frequently occurring type of discontinuity is that in which the function increases numerically without
bound as x approaches a : we say that the function has an infinite discontinuity at x=aFigure
. Graphically
11 this
means that the curve approaches the line x=a , usually without ever reaching it, at the same time
receding from the x-axis. It may happen that f (x) becomes large both sides of the line x=a (Figure);

If so, we write

lim f (x )=∞ ∨lim f (x )=−∞

x →a x→a

as the case may be.

It should be clearly understood, however, that any “equation” such as those above is not an equation at
all, in the true sense, for the reason that the symbol ∞ does not represent a number. The symbols
written tell us, not that f (x) approaches some vague, indefinite, very large limiting value, but that it
increases numerically beyond any limit whatever.

Example (). As x approaches 1, the function (Figure 11)

1
y=
( x−1 )2

Increases without limit; i.e.,

1
lim =∞
x →1 ( x−1 )2

Example (). As x approaches 2, the function (Figure 12)

2
x
y=
x−2

becomes indefinitely large, positive if

x >2, negative if x <2
:

13 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 lim ¿
2
+¿x
x→ 2 =∞ , lim ¿¿
x−2 x→2
x
−¿
2
=−∞ ¿
x−2

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

I. Definition of Functions
II. Evaluating Functions
III. Graph of Functions
IV. Theorems on Limits
V. Evaluating Limits

Exercise I
2
a. Let f ( x)=x +3 . Find:
 f (2) ans: 7
 f (−4 ) ans: 19
 f (0) ans: 3
 f ( u−1 ) ans: u2−2 u+ 4
 f (−x) ans: x 2+ 3
b. Let g ( y )=cos 2 y −2sin y . Find:
 g (π ) ans: 1

 g ( 12 π ) ans: - 3

 g ( 0) ans: 1
 [ g ( x )+ g (−x) ] ans: 2 cos 2 x
c. If g(x) = √ 25−x 2 ,find:
 g ( 0) ans: 5
 g (−3 ) ans: 4
24
 g(7 /5) ans:
5

d. If φ ( x )=4 x , find: φ ( 0 ), φ (−2 ), φ ( 12 )

e. If h ( θ ) =cos2 θ, find h ( 0 ), h ( 14 π ), h( 12 π ) ans: 1, ½, 0

f. If f ( x )=log 10 x , find f ( 1 ) , f ( 10 ), f ( 5 )

6. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Face to Face Discussion
7. Assessment Task
Exercises
Functions
In Exs. 1-10, certain functions are explicitly defined. Perform the indicated operations in each exercise.

1. If f ( x )=x 2−x +3 , find f ( 0 ), f ( 2 ), f (−4 ), f (−2 x ). ans: f (−4 )=23

2. If f ( x )=7−2 x+ x2 , find f ( 0 ), f ( 3 ), f (−2 ), f (− y ) ans: f ( 3 )=10
3. If F ( y ) = y ( y−3)2, find F ( c ) , F ( 0 ), F ( 3 ), F (−1 ) , F ( x +3 )

ans: F ( x +3 ) =x2 ( x +3)

2
b−b
4. If F ( b )= 2 , find F ( 0 ), F ( 1 ) , F ( 1/2 ) , F ( tan x )
1+b
5. If g ( x )=4 x 4−3 x 2+ 2 x−2 , find g ( 2 ), g (−2 ), g
1
2 ()
, g (−x )

6. If g ( x )=x 4−2 x 3−7 x 2 +8 x+ 16, find g (−1 ), g (−2 ), g ( 2 ), g ( 3 ).

14 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 ( 12 π ),φ ( π ), φ (−x ), φ (− y ).
7. If φ ( x )=cos x , find φ ( 0 ), φ

If H ( y )=cos y−sin y , find H ( 0 ) , H ( π ), H ( π ).

1
8.
2
Also, show that
H ( 12 π + x)=H ( π −x )=−H (−x )
If ψ ( x )=tan x , find ψ ( π /6 ) , ψ ( x− π ), ψ (−x ), and express ψ ( 2 x ) as a function of ψ ( x )
1
9.
2

If g ( x )=cos 2 x , find g ( π ) , g ( π ) , g (−x ) , g ( π −x ) , g ( π + x ) , g ( x− π ).

1 1 1
10.
4 2 2

If g ( x )=√ 25−x ,find g ( 0 ) , g (−3 ) , g ( )

2 7
11.
5

If φ ( x )=4 , find: φ ( 0 ), φ (−2 ), φ ( )

x 1
12.
2

If h ( θ ) =cos θ, find h ( 0 ), h ( π ), h ( π )
2 1 1
13.
4 2

If G ( x )=sin 2 x , find G ( 0 ), G ( π ), G ( π ).
−1 7
14.
4 8

If ψ ( t ) =t , find ψ ( 1 ) , ψ (−2 ) , ψ ( )
2 1
15.
2
a+1
16. If R ( a , b )=¿ , find R ( 5 ,−3 ), R ( a−1 , 4 )
b+1
1 1
( )
17. If F ( m , n )=m2−n2, find F , , F ( x + y , x − y ).
3 6

Find the domain of the variable x for which the following equations determine y as a real function of x .

18. y−xy =5 21. 4

y =4−x
2

19. y= √ 4−x2 22. y=tan x

20. 2
y =x−3 23. y=log(1−2 x )

24. y 3=1−x 2If f (x)=x(x +1), show that f (x+ h)−f (x)=h(2 x+1+ h) .
1
25. If g( y )= y /(1− y ), show that [ g ( y )+ g (− y ) ] =g( y ).
2
2
26. If ϕ ( r )=2 r, show that ϕ ( r +1 )=2 ϕ ( r ).
27. If P ( x )=√ x, show that P ( x+ h )−P ( x )=h /( √ x+ h+ √ x ).
1
28. If f ( x )=sin x , show that f ( 2 x )=2 f ( x ) f ( π−x ).
2
29. If f ( x )=x −1 and g ( x )=2 x+1 , show that f [ g( x) ] =4 x (x+ 1).
2

30. If f ( x )=10 x and ϕ ( x )=log 10 x , show that f [ ϕ ( x ) ] =ϕ [ f (x) ] =x .

31. If f ( x , y )=x 3 +4 xy 2 + y 3 , show that f ( ax , ay ) =a3 f ( x , y) .
u−v
32. If F ( u , v )=¿ , find F (1/u ,1 /v)+ F (u , v ).
u+ v
33. Prove that |a+b|−|a−b|≤ 2|b|.
34. For the function f ( x )=tan x , show that
2
sec x tan y
f ( x + y )−f ( x )=
1−tan x tan y
35. For the function f (x)=sin x, with the aid of elementary formula
2 1
sin A= ( 1−cos 2 A ) , show that
2
f ( x + y )−f ( x )=cos x sin y−2 sin x sin 2 ( 12 y)
For Exercises 13-25, express the function by a formula and draw the graph, indicating that portion of the
graph which has a meaning in the problem.
15 | C a l c u l u s 1 – M o d u l e 1 : F u n c t i o n s , L i m i t s & C o n t i n u i t y
 36. The volume of a sphere as a function of the radius.
37. The radius of a sphere as a function of the volume.
38. The volume of a cube as a function of the length of an edge.
39. The surface area of a cube as a function of the length of an edge.
40. The length e of an edge of a cube as a function of the surface area of the cube.
41. The surface area of a cube as a function of the volume of the cube.
42. The altitude of a right triangle as a function of the base, if the hypothenuse is given.
43. The hypothenuse of a right triangle as a function of the base, if the altitude is given.
44. The height of a cylindrical can as a function of the diameter, if 18π sq. in. of sheet metal is used.
What kind of curve is this?
45. In exercise 21, the diameter as a function of the height. What kind of curve is this?
46. A man drives from Detroit to Chicago, say 300 mi., at an average speed of 60 mi. per hr., stops 1
hr. in Chicago, and returns at a speed of 50 mi. per hour. Neglecting variations of speed en route,
write formulas expressing x (distance from Detroit) as a function of t , and draw the graph.
47. In exercise 23, graph the speed v as a function of t .
48. In exercise 23, graph the speed v as a function of x .
49. An open-top box is made by cutting equal squares of side x out of the corners of a piece of
cardboard 8 in. square and turning up the sides (Figure below). Plot the volume V as a function of x
.
50. In exercise 26, find x if V = 37.5 cu. In.

In the exercises below, draw the curve:

51. y=x |x|

52. y=x −|x|
53. y= √ x 4 −2 x 2 +1
Find the equivalent functional definitions for each of the following and draw a graph of the function

54. f ( x )=2 x−|x|+| x−1|

55. f ( x )=x +|x|
56. f ( x )=| x|∙|x−1|

Limits
Evaluate the limits below:
2 2
57. lim ( x +3 x−5) x + x−12
x→ 4 68. lim 2
2 x →3 2 x −7 x+ 3
58. lim (2 x + x+ 4) 2
x→−1 2 x − x−3
3 69. lim
59. lim ( y −2 y +7) 2
x→−1 3 x +5 x+2
x →3 2
3
lim ( y +5 y−1) 2 x −7 x−4
60. 70. lim 2
x→−2 x→ 4 x −x −12
2
2 t +1 3
y − y − y−2
2
61. lim 2 71. lim
t →0 t + 3 t−4 3
y → 2 2 y −5 y +5 y−6
2

(t +1)2 3
y −13 y +12
62. lim ¿ 72. lim 3
t →1 2(t ¿¿ 2+3) y →3 y −14 y +15
2
3 w −4 w+2 3 2
β + β −8 β−12
63. lim 2 73. lim
w→2 w −5 3
β →3 β −4 β −3 β+ 18
2
3
3 w −2 w+7 3
β −7 β−6
64. lim 2 74. lim
w →−1 w +1 3
y → 2 2 β −11 β + 12 β +9
2
2
sin θ 3
4 x −3 x+ 1
65. lim 3 lim
75. 1 12 x 3−8 x 2−x+ 1
θ → π tan θ
1
2 x→
2
sin 2 θ 3 2
2 a −5 a −4 a+12
66. limπ sin θ tanθ 76. lim 3
θ→
6 a →2 a −12 a+ 16
4
x −1
2
x +5 x+6
67. lim 2 77. lim 4
x →1 x +3 x−4 x→−2 x + 5 x−6

16 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 4 3 2
2 x −2 x −x +1 1−cos y
78. lim 4 2
81. lim 2
x →1 x −x −2 x+2 y → 0 sin y
2
tan θ sin y
79. lim 82. lim
θ → 0 sin 2 θ y → π 1+cos y
cos 2 θ sin α sin 2 α
80. lim 1 tanθ
83. lim
α →0 1−cos α
θ→ π
2 2
sin α
84. lim
α →0 sin α −tan α

CONTINUITY
Find the points of discontinuity of the following functions:
2
x +3 93. cos θ
85. 2 94. sin θ
x −16
3 x +2 95. csc θ
86. 2 96. sec θ
x −6 x+ 9 1
x−2 97. (1+ x )2
87. 2
x +9 −1

x +3 98. ( 1−x ) 2

88. 2 −1
4 x −x +2 99. (1−x ) 2
2
x −3 x 100. √ x 2−a2
89. 3 2
x +2 x +5 x 101. √ 1+ √ x
2
3 (x+ 2)
90. √ a+ x
102. 2 2
x3 +4 x2 + x−6 x −a
4
91. 3 2
103. √ x 2−2 ax+ a2
x −4 x −3 x +18
3
x +2 x −1 104.
√2 ax− x2
92. 4 3 2 a2−x 2
4 x + 4 x +3 x −x−1 105. y=x −|x|

106. If f (x) is continuous, is its square continuous? Is its reciprocal continuous?

π
107. Show that as x approaches zero, the function sin oscillates between -1 and 1 without
x
approaching any limit.

8. References (Copyrighted within the last 10 years)

Love, C.E. Ph.D, Rainville E.D. Ph.D. 1981. Differential and Integral Calculus.
MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO., INC.
Peterson, T.S. Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Ken Incorporated, Quezon City

17 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity