CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Across the globe, one of the most vibrant and quickly expanding sectors is construction. The world's
population is growing and urbanization is causing a daily increase in demand for the building sector.
Because of its availability, workability, and durability, concrete is a fundamental building material
that is utilized in practically every type of infrastructure.

1. RELATED READINGS
The coconut is a well-known multipurpose plant that may be utilized for a wide range of purposes (L.
Barbieri, A. Corradi, and I. Lancellotti, 2001; T. U. Ganiron Jr, 2012). Due to an expectation that it
can replace the material now used in commercial products to lower costs or improve the mechanical
qualities of composite materials, farm waste is being employed. The economic, environmental, and
technological advantages of using coconut farm trash are praised by industrialists in the majority of
the nations that produce coconuts (T. U. Ganiron Jr, 2012). Because they are often less expensive
than traditional building materials, building materials made from agricultural and forest wastes are
perfect for socialized or affordable housing (M. Lines and A. Glass, 2001).

Glass is important to modern life because of its many uses. Since its discovery in Mesopotamia over
5000 years ago, glass has been manufactured for a variety of uses. The chemical composition of glass
allows for its production in a variety of forms, including borosilicate glass, which is used in chemical
apparatus, pharmaceuticals, and tungsten sealing, aluminosilicate glass, which is used in combustion
tubes, fiberglass, and resistor substrates, and soda-lime glass, which is used in containers, sheets,
float, tempered ovenware, and light bulbs (Jani et al., 2014).

2. RELATED LITERATURE
Coconut Husk
The Philippines, a tropical nation, is a major producer of coconut-based goods like desiccated
coconut, copra, and coconut oil. However, the Southern Tagalog, Bicol, and Eastern Visayas regions,
which were once dependent on coconut palms, have a significant amount of agricultural waste.
Negligent disposal practices can lead to social and economic issues. Recycling waste, such as coconut
fiber and shell, could be a valuable alternative for home building composite materials. (L. Barbieri, A.
Corradi and I. Lancellotti, 2001).

The creation of a novel product, like a concrete hollow block made of coconut fibers and shells, is
closely related to the availability of appropriate resources. Producing this product from agricultural
waste would reduce social and environmental issues and provide low-cost alternative building
materials (M. Lines and A. Glass, 2001); T. (2013) U. Ganiron Jr. The development of contemporary
building technology addresses the environmental and social problems associated with the overuse of
natural resources.
In order to drastically lower the amount of agricultural waste produced in the country, it would be
advantageous to utilize coconut waste, such as coconut husk, in place of coarse aggregate in a
concrete mixture. Furthermore, it has been shown that recycling wastes can lower the cost of concrete
by eliminating the need for natural aggregates. (J.M Dela Cruz et al., 2020)

The increasing focus on sustainability in the building business demands the use of increasingly
renewable resources. Natural fibers are becoming more and more popular since they have better and
more durable mechanical qualities than their synthetic equivalents. These fibers are also
biodegradable and non-toxic. Coconut fibers are strongly advised by several studies as being superior
than synthetic fibers. (J. Ahmad et al., 2022)

Coconut husk's effect on chemical properties. There were significant differences in the extract's pH
and electrical conductivity between the husk sources. P, B, Cu, Fe, Ni, S, Zn, Mn, and Mo levels in
husks differed widely and ranged from nondetectable to 33 mg·L–1. In contrast, NH4 +, NO3-, Ca,
and Mg levels did not differ significantly between husk sources; they varied from 0.2 to 1.8, 0.2 to
0.9, 2.9 to 7.3, and nondetectable to 4.6 mg·L–1. The regions of Na, K, and Cl have the biggest
differences in the chemical composition of the husk sources. (S Konduru et al,. 1999).
adding 2% coconut fiber to concrete increased its ability to bear twice as much loading as it could
under normal conditions. The ability of the fiber to hold concrete together under load and postpone
early failure is what determines this improvement. The addition of coconut fiber to concrete increases
its flexibility by 30.63% for regular concrete and 53.66% for concrete composed of coconut shells.
(Sekar, A. and K. Gunasekaran, 2018).

Medicine Glass Bottle

As for the most widely used construction material worldwide, concrete (whose production reached 7
million m3 annually in 2012, three times more than wood and seven times more than steel) is utilized
worldwide (Czarnecki L., Kaproń M., 2010).

Industry data released in The Global Cement Report, 13th Edition (The Global Cement Report, 2019)
indicates that global cement consumption rose to 4.08 million tonnes in 2019—a 2.8% rise. As a
result, substitute materials for aggregate or cement must be sought for (The Global Cement Report,
2019). In order to reduce energy consumption and produce concrete that is ecologically friendly,
recycled materials are employed in the concrete industry. (Hendi A. et al., 2019; Małek M. et al.,
2020; Soliman N.A. & Tagnit-Hamou A., 2016; Kadela M. et al., 2017)

However, because of its chemical makeup and physical characteristics, glass may be thought of as the
material most appropriate for a sand and cement substation (Meyer C., 2009; Nassar R.-U.-D., et al.,
2012).

The most common kind of glass used for windowpanes and glass containers is soda-lime glass.
Because waste soda-lime glass powder contains pozzolanic qualities, as demonstrated by recent
study, it can be used in cementitious materials. Approximately 90% of glass that is made is soda-lime
glass (Shi and Zheng, 2007).

Since the 1960s, a large number of researchers have examined the use of leftover glass as a substitute
for coarse aggregate in concrete. The use of glass chips to create exposed aggregate for architectural
applications was investigated by Schmidt and Saia in 1963. Using discarded glass, a number of
different studies have examined the characteristics of both fresh and hardened concrete (Johnston,
1974; Polley et al., 1998; Topçu and Canbaz, 2004; Terro, 2006; Yu, 2016).

Numerous investigations have been conducted to examine the compressive strength of concrete that
contains crushed glass as a fine aggregate. Recycled glass sand (RGS) was discovered to gradually
enhance compressive strength (Pereira de Oliveira et al., 2008; Ismail and Al-Hashmi, 2009; Du and
Tan, 2014a; Wang et al., 2016; Batayneh et al., 2007).

Up to the optimal percentage, or maximum compressive strength, an increasing trend was observed
with the inclusion of RGS; after that, a decreasing trend was observed (Polley et al., 1998; Al-qatan et
al., 2011; Dumitru et al., 2010; Gautam, 2012; Malik et al., 2013; Tejaswi et al., 2015; Adaway and
Wang, 2015; Hunag et al., 2015). Higher percentages of strength loss may result from insufficient
cement paste in the mixture to promote bonding inside the concrete, creating tiny cavities as a result
(Adaway and Wang, 2015).

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