SCIENCE

Seismic waves- waves that transmit energy released by an earthquake.
TWO TYPES:
Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers. Body waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.
 Primary wave (P-wave) is a longitudinal or compressional wave because of the pushing and pulling they do. It travels
fastest in materials, so the P-wave is the first-arriving energy on a seismogram.
 Secondary wave (S-wave) which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do not
exist in Earth's liquid outer core or in air or water or molten rock (magma).
Surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water. Traveling only through the crust, surface waves are of
a lower frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.
 Love wave produce entirely horizontal motion.
 Rayleigh wave moves the ground up and down and side- to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving.
Earthquakes happen around the world. But most of the epicenters are located in certain areas. Most of the active volcanoes are found in
the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mountain belts are formed due to the compression of two continental crusts.
The geologic events that occur at convergent boundaries include volcanic activity, earthquakes, mountain formation, and
subduction. Earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth's mantle to the surface, solidifying to create new
oceanic crust. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of divergent plate boundaries.
Hazard is a dangerous condition or events that threaten or have the potential for causing injury to life or damage to property or the
environment.
1. Natural Hazards (hazards with meteorological, geological or even biological origin)
2. Human-induced Hazards (hazards with human-caused or technological origin)
1. Preparedness - This protective process embraces measures which enable governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly
to disaster situations to cope with them effectively
2. Mitigation – Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard itself and the vulnerable conditions to it in
order to reduce the scale of a future disaster.
Stress is the force applied to an object. In geology, stress is the force per unit area that is placed on a rock. Three types of stresses may act
on materials.
Causes and Types of Stress
Compression squeezes rocks together, causing rocks to fold or fracture (break). Compression is the most common stress at convergent
plate boundaries.
Rocks that are pulled apart are under tension. Rocks under tension lengthen or break apart. Tension is the major type of stress at
divergent plate boundaries.
When forces are parallel but moving in opposite directions, the stress is called shear.
Shear stress is the most common stress at transform plate boundaries.
Divergent plate boundaries are considered as constructive margins because it is where the new ocean floor is generated.
Convergent plate boundaries are areas where tectonic plates move towards each other. Along convergent plate boundaries within the
oceanic lithosphere, portions of oceanic crust descend into the mantle and called destructive margins.
Transform boundaries are conservative margins. In these regions, no production or destruction of crust occurs. There is no upwelling of
magma that is why there is no active volcanism.
In oceanic-continental convergent margins, the denser oceanic crust goes under the lighter continental crust. This process forms
continental volcanic arcs.
In oceanic-oceanic convergent margins, the older and much denser plate subducts under the younger plate. This process forms volcanic
island arcs.
A continent-continent collision occurs when a continent or large island that has been moved along with subducting oceanic crust collides
with another continent. This process forms mountain ranges with linear elevated regions.
Continental rifting occurs within a continent and is caused by opposing tensional forces that stretch and thin the lithosphere, causing the
outermost crustal rocks to break through normal faulting, thus forming what is known as a continental rift.
Transform boundaries are conservative margins.

Fault zones are areas where rocks are being broken and weakened by ongoing fault action. Displacement on the rocks is discernible.
Fracture zones occur as curvilinear breaks in the seafloor; they are traces of the transform boundary past the ridges and trenches which no
longer experience movement.

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Seismic waves- waves that transmit energy released by an earthquake.

Transform boundaries are conservative margins.

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