A revised Introduction to

A GRAMMAR
OF
AKKADIAN

by

John Huehnergard

2020
 INTRODUCTION xxiii

The Akkadian Language

Akkadian is the language of the Assyrians and Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia, that
is, the region “between the rivers,” the Euphrates and the Tigris (roughly the area of modern
Iraq). The name Akkadian is a translation of the ancient speakers’ term for their language,
Akkadûm, which derives from Akkad(e), the name of the still-undiscovered town built about 2300
BCE by king Sargon as his capital. (In both ancient and modern times Akkadian has also been
called “Assyrian” and “Babylonian,” terms that are now generally restricted to the main geogra-
phical dialects, which are discussed below.)
Akkadian is the earliest-attested member of the Semitic family of languages. Other Semitic
languages include Arabic, Aramaic, Ethiopic, and Hebrew. As the following chart illustrates,
Akkadian and Eblaite, the language of the ancient Syrian city of Ebla, comprise East Semitic,
while all other members of the family comprise West Semitic.

It is not certain when speakers of Akkadian or its linguistic predecessor(s) first arrived in
Mesopotamia. The first written evidence of the language is found in names in texts from the 26th
century BCE, while connected texts begin to appear in the 24th century. When Akkadian ceased
to be a spoken language is debated by scholars; but it continued to be used as a written medium of
literature and scholarship until at least the first century CE (see Hackl 2021b).
After the demise of Akkadian both the language and its complicated writing system were
forgotten for over a millennium and a half. In the 17th century European travelers to the Middle
East began to bring home a few clay artifacts with unusual wedge-shaped writing. Attempts at
decipherment were aided in the mid-19th century by the publication of a long trilingual in-
scription, Akkadian–Old Persian–Elamite. After the simpler Old Persian script was decoded it
became possible to tackle the Akkadian version successfully; the Akkadian script was deciphered
and the basic elements of the grammar were established by the 1850’s. Since then, much
scholarship has been devoted to the publication of texts, to the further elucidation of the grammar,
and to the preparation of dictionaries. Today the Akkadian language may be said to be very well
— but by no means completely — understood.
Because Mesopotamian scribes were exceedingly prolific and because they usually wrote
on the virtually indestructible medium of clay, vast numbers of the ancient documents have been
preserved to posterity. The number of Akkadian texts extant has not been counted, but it is
certainly in the hundreds of thousands, and new texts are discovered in archaeological excava-
tions every year. While many thousands of texts have received scholarly publication, many other
xxiv INTRODUCTION

texts remain unpublished, awaiting interested scholars in museums around the world.
As was just noted, Akkadian texts were usually written on clay, a material found in great
abundance in Mesopotamia. Moist clay was molded into a rectangular tablet and the writing was
impressed into the clay with a stylus made of reed. The size of tablets varied from about 2 or 3
cm on a side to much larger formats; the most common shape was a rectangle that was longer
than it was wide. The reed stylus made wedge-shaped, i.e., cuneiform, impressions in the clay.
(For more detail about cuneiform writing, see Finkel and Taylor 2015; Streck 2021.) Because the
writing system is very cumbersome, modern publications, including this textbook, present
elements of Akkadian grammar in transcription; and because the writing system is the most dif-
ficult aspect of learning Akkadian, it is not introduced here until Lesson 9, by which time the
student will have acquired some familiarity with Akkadian forms and structures. (It is worth
remembering that ancient Mesopotamian students were fluent in Akkadian — it was their native
tongue — before they began to tackle the writing system.)

Dialects of Akkadian
All languages change over time. English texts of a few centuries ago, such as the writings
of Shakespeare, contain spellings, words, phrases, and grammar that are sometimes unfamiliar;
the 14th-century writings of Chaucer are more difficult to understand still; and Old English, of the
7th–11th centuries, must essentially be studied as a foreign language to be understood by modern
speakers of English. When we consider that the recorded history of Akkadian is over twice as
long as that of English, we should not be surprised to witness the development of significant
chronological variations in Akkadian as well. Further, geographical variations are also evidenced
in the texts, particularly between those of Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south (see
further below), but also in many smaller dialect regions. Although these developments arose
continuously, so that neat divisions cannot be drawn in actuality, scholars refer nevertheless for
the sake of convenience to the following sub-phases, or dialects, of Akkadian, which correspond
roughly to periods in Mesopotamian political history (common abbreviations for the dialects are
given in parentheses):
Old Akkadian (OAkk) dialects, mid-3rd to end of 3rd millennium
Old Assyrian (OA) 2000–1500 Old Babylonian (OB)
Middle Assyrian (MA) 1500–1000 Middle Babylonian (MB)
Neo-Assyrian (NA) 1000–600 Neo-Babylonian (NB)
600–100 CE Late Babylonian (LB)
The following paragraphs briefly review these dialects in turn. (For more detailed histories of
Akkadian, see George 2007 and especially Vita 2021.)
Old Akkadian refers, collectively, to the earliest Akkadian texts, to about the end of the
third millennium. The texts, which reflect a number of local dialects, include documents dating to
the reigns of Sargon, Naram-Sin, and other kings of Akkad. There are Old Akkadian letters, legal
texts, economic dockets, royal inscriptions, and a few literary texts (such as a love incantation).
(A reference grammar of Old Akkadian is Hasselbach 2005, and see also Sommerfeld 2021; a
textbook is Breyer 2014; a glossary of Old Akkadian royal inscriptions is Kienast and Sommer-
feld 1994; an older glossary of Old Akkadian is Gelb 1957.)
 INTRODUCTION xxv

The grammar of the closely related Eblaite language (or dialect) is described in Catagnoti
2012, 2020, and Kogan and Krebernik 2021.
In the second and first millennia, two major geographical dialects are attested, Assyrian in
northern Mesopotamia and Babylonian in the south. Linguistically these are distinguished by a
number of phonological, morphological, and lexical differences. (This textbook presents the
grammar of [Old] Babylonian; see Appendix E for major features of Assyrian.) The Assyrian and
Babylonian scripts also developed somewhat independently of one another.
Old Assyrian is known from over 22,000 letters and legal and economic documents dating
from the mid-20th to the mid-18th century, most of which have been found in Cappodocia
(eastern Turkey) at the site of Kanesh (modern Kültepe), although other sites in Anatolia and
Assyria have also produced similar texts. Most of these documents concern the business activities
of Assyrian merchant houses and their trade with outposts in Anatolia. (A detailed reference
grammar of Old Assyrian is Kouwenberg 2017; a textbook is Kouwenberg 2019; see also Michel
2003, Kouwenberg 2021.)
Middle Assyrian is attested in nearly 4,000 texts in a variety of genres, including letters,
legal and economic texts, and inscriptions of the kings of the nation and early empire of Assyria.
There is also a set of harem decrees and, of great interest, 14 tablets containing the Middle As-
syrian laws, discovered in the city of Asshur. (A detailed reference grammar of Middle Assyrian
is de Ridder 2018; see also Jakob 2021.)
Neo-Assyrian is the spoken language of first-millennium Assyria, attested until the down-
fall of the empire late in the seventh century. There are a great many letters and administrative
texts. Many royal inscriptions and scholarly writings are also attested; as in all periods, literary
texts exhibit a considerable amount of linguistic influence from the more prestigious Babylonian
dialect. (No complete grammar of Neo-Assyrian has been published; see, however, Hämeen-
Anttila 2000; Luukko 2004; Fales 2021.)
Old Babylonian is the Akkadian of southern Mesopotamia during the period of the first
dynasty of Babylon. It is the dialect covered in the present textbook, and is described in detail
further below.
Middle Babylonian is the language of texts from the period of the Kassite domination of
Babylonia, after the fall of Hammurapi’s dynasty to the Hittites in 1595. Like Middle Assyrian,
Middle Babylonian is less well represented than the dialects that precede and follow it. It is
known from letters, legal texts, economic texts, a few royal inscriptions, and inscribed boundary
stones (kudurrus). (On Middle Babylonian, see Aro 1955 and van Soldt 2021.)
Already during the Kassite period, Old Babylonian had come to be regarded as the classical
period of Akkadian language and literature, and scribes in both Babylonia and Assyria attempted
to duplicate it in a purely literary (i.e., unspoken) dialect that Assyriologists call Standard
Babylonian (SB). The scribes’ efforts to reproduce the classical language usually had mixed
results, as their own language patterns frequently intruded. Standard Babylonian is the dialect in
which such important works as Enūma eliš and the later, longer version of Gilgamesh are written,
indeed, all of the literary texts of the late second and the first millennia, as well as many royal
inscriptions. The grammatical features of Standard Babylonian are presented in Appendix D. (A
presentation of Standard Babylonian morphology and syntax in Groneberg 1987. The German
term for Standard Babylonian is Jungbabylonisch.)
xxvi INTRODUCTION

Beginning in the Old Babylonian period, but especially in the second half of the second
millennium, Akkadian, particularly in its Babylonian form, was used as an international lingua
franca; Akkadian texts have been found in a great many sites outside Mesopotamia, including
Ugarit (Ras Shamra) and Emar (Tell Meskeneh) in modern Syria, Ḫattusas (modern Boğazköy,
the capital of the Hittite empire) and Alalaḫ (Tell Açana) in Turkey, and el-Amarna in Egypt, to
name a few. The language of these texts, which was often written by non-native speakers, is
termed Peripheral Akkadian; the texts vary considerably in their fidelity to the grammar of na-
tive Mesopotamian Akkadian and frequently betray the influence of the scribes’ own languages.
(For overviews of peripheral Akkadian, see van Soldt 2011 and Vita 2020.)
Neo-Babylonian is the spoken language of southern Mesopotamia until the end of the
Assyrian empire, after which the term Late Babylonian is used for the final period of texts
written in Akkadian. These dialects are attested in large numbers of letters and administrative
documents. For literary and monumental texts, Standard Babylonian (see above) was employed.
(Grammatical aspects of Neo-Babylonian and Late Babylonian are presented in Woodington
1982, de Vaan 1995, Streck 1995, Hess 2021, Hackl 2021a.)

Akkadian and Sumerian

Akkadian was not the first language to be given written form in Mesopotamia. History’s
earliest writing appeared in southern Mesopotamia, near the end of the fourth millennium; the
language for which this first writing was invented was Sumerian, which was not genetically
related to the Semitic languages, or indeed to any other known language. Speakers of Sumerian
and speakers of Akkadian coexisted in southern Babylonia for centuries, and the two languages
naturally had a significant impact on each other. Thus, many features of Akkadian grammar, from
its phonology to its syntax, reflect Sumerian influence, and many Akkadian words are loans from
Sumerian. (Conversely, many original Akkadian words were borrowed into Sumerian.) And the
writing system originally devised for Sumerian was taken over to write the very different
Akkadian as well. (On contact between Sumerian and Akkadian see most recently Zólyomi 2011
and Crisostomo 2020.)
Sumerian died out as a spoken language long before Akkadian; the date of its demise is
much debated, placed variously between the mid-third and the early second millennium. Even
after it ceased to be spoken, however, Sumerian remained a language of learning and scholarship,
like Latin in medieval Europe. (Reference grammars of Sumerian are Edzard 2003, Jagersma
2010; textbooks are Foxvog 2016, Zólyomi 2016; see also Michalowski 2008, 2020. The standard
dictionary is The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary, abbreviated PSD, edited by S. Tinney et al.:
http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/ and http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/.)

Old Babylonian
It is customary to begin the study of Akkadian with Old Babylonian. Old Babylonian
Akkadian was spoken and written in southern Mesopotamia during the first half of the second
millennium BCE. Several tens of thousands of documents are attested from the first dynasty of
Babylon, from the Isin and Larsa dynasties and from other cities in Babylonia, from sites in the
 INTRODUCTION xxvii

Diyala region, and from farther afield, such as the city of Susa in Elam and the city of Mari in
Syria some 250 miles up the Euphrates from Babylon (see Lesson 29.4).
There are several reasons to choose Old Babylonian as the entry to Akkadian language
study. Although there was naturally some dialectal diversity among the wide geographical range
of texts, on the whole the Old Babylonian corpus presents a remarkably uniform grammar.
Moreover, many texts, especially those of the royal court, were carefully written in a clear and
relatively simplified system of signs that is considerably easier to learn than, for example, the
more cumbersome sign set used later to write Standard Babylonian. The grammar of Old Babylo-
nian exhibits both a consistency and a number of significant features that were lost in later
dialects, including Standard Babylonian; it is therefore easier to move from a familiarity with Old
Babylonian to the later dialects than it is to work one’s way back in time. The Old Babylonian pe-
riod is also the time in which Akkadian literature began to blossom, in such stunning works as the
Epic of Gilgamesh. Indeed, the Old Babylonian literary dialect (see Lesson 30.2) was considered
the classical form of Akkadian for the rest of Mesopotamian history, and was the model for the
later literary dialect of Standard Babylonian.

Text Genres
An extremely diverse variety of genres has been preserved, nearly all of which are
represented in Old Babylonian documents. In addition to the myths and epics such as Gilgamesh,
mentioned just above, there are other literary genres, such as hymns and prayers. Still other
intellectual works include a wide range of scholarly texts, among which are lexical texts
(encyclopedic lists of words, often with their Sumerian counterparts), grammatical texts, medical
texts, and mathematical texts. Texts written for public display include many royal inscriptions
and documents like the famous “code” of laws of Hammurapi (the longest single Old Babylonian
document). (A recent introduction to Akkadian literature of all periods is Lenzi 2019; a large
selection of Akkadian literature in translation is Foster 2005.)
Equally important are the many documents that inform us of matters of everyday life.
There are thousands of letters, from kings to their viziers, from men and women to their business
partners, and from schoolchildren to their parents. Much greater in number still are the legal
contracts and economic documents that record marriages, adoptions, sales, rentals, leases, loans,
guarantees, and the proceedings of lawsuits. Finally, there are the many omen texts, records of
attempts to foretell the future, from which we learn both what was seen as normal and what was
considered unusual.

About this Book

The present textbook is a graded introduction that covers the grammar and writing system
of Old Babylonian Akkadian in 38 lessons. It is primarily intended to be used under the
supervision of an instructor in a college class, but it is also meant to be sufficiently clear,
thorough, and self-contained to be used profitably by an individual in independent study. The 38
lessons require the better part of a full academic year to cover adequately, but at the end of the
lessons the student will be familiar with all the main and most of the minor points of Old
Babylonian grammar and script, will already have read quite a few texts, and will be ready to
xxviii INTRODUCTION

move on to additional Old Babylonian texts and to begin the study of Standard Babylonian texts
(with the aid of Appendix D).
In each lesson two or three points of grammar are covered. The grammar sections are
followed by ten to fifteen vocabulary items to be learned and, beginning in Lesson 9, by about ten
cuneiform signs that are also to be memorized. (It should be noted here that the English glosses
given in the vocabularies are for the most part based on those of the Chicago Assyrian
Dictionary, about which see the next section. See above on the rationale for delaying presentation
of the writing system until Lesson 9.) The vocabulary items (and signs) are followed in turn by a
series of exercises that are intended to drill the points of grammar covered in the lesson, to review
new and old vocabulary (and signs), and to present samples of Akkadian texts.
One of the first exercises in each lesson consists of words, phrases, or short sentences to
“write in Akkadian.” One sometimes encounters the view that it is unrealistic to ask students to
“compose” in a dead language. Without the repeated need to reproduce forms accurately,
however, a student’s knowledge of a language remains passive rather than active, and an active
knowledge is essential for full understanding of the details of grammar, for attention to the fine
points and nuances of a sentence or text, and for awareness of unusual or even improper con-
structions on the part of the scribe. Students are therefore encouraged to make use of flashcards
for vocabulary, signs, and paradigms, and to learn not only to recognize forms but also to repro-
duce them.
Other exercises ask the student to translate Akkadian phrases and sentences. In the earliest
lessons, these have of necessity been invented, although they are modeled on phrases and
sentences found in actual texts. As early as is practical, authentic sentences from Old Babylonian
texts are given, either reproduced verbatim or adapted slightly to accommodate the grammar and
vocabulary that have been introduced to that point.
Beginning in Lesson 13, thus, by about the mid-point of the first semester, actual Old
Babylonian texts are reproduced as part of the exercises. The texts introduced in Lesson 13 are
contracts; laws from Hammurapi’s “code” are introduced in Lesson 17, omen texts in Lesson 22,
letters in Lesson 24, Mari letters in Lesson 29, royal inscriptions in Lesson 30, hymns and prayers
in Lesson 33. In the presentation of real texts it has of course been necessary to provide glosses
and explanatory notes for words and features that have not yet been covered in the grammar
sections and vocabularies. The presentation of a significant number of texts in a wide range of
genres is intended both to hold students’ interest and to introduce them to the rich variety of
textual material preserved to us in Akkadian.
In deciding how many exercises to include in this textbook it seemed preferable to err on
the side of overabundance. Quite simply, there are too many, especially if one wants to complete
the book within a single academic year. Thus, both instructors and independent students should
choose a selection of the exercises and texts to work through, sometimes only half of them,
particularly in the later lessons; this, at least, has proven to be a successful strategy with fore-
runners of this textbook to teach Akkadian. Nevertheless it has not seemed unreasonable to
provide additional texts and exercises for students who have more time available to them or who
want additional practice.
A Key to most of the exercises is published separately.
 INTRODUCTION xxix

Research Tools
Akkadian and Sumerian texts offer the modern reader extraordinary views of one of
humanity’s earliest literate societies. But the languages of the texts are obscure, and the script in
which they are written is difficult to read, both in its complexity and in its (usual) presentation as
a series of hard-to-make-out impressions in tablets of not-quite-flat clay. The most fundamental
task of the Assyriologist is to make these texts accessible to a wider audience.
The full publication of a text, either in a journal article or as one of many texts in a
monograph, involves a number of steps. The first is the reproduction of a likeness of the text.
Until recently photographs of tablets were not always successful in capturing the full three-
dimensional effect of the impressed signs; further, tablets are often inscribed around their sides
and on their edges as well as on their faces, and these marginal parts of a tablet were often dif-
ficult to photograph adequately. It has therefore been the common practice for Assyriologists to
produce a hand drawing of a text in ink; this is called an “autograph copy” or simply an “auto-
graph” or a “copy.” Recent technical advances, however, have greatly enhanced the readability of
photographic images of tablets, and editions of texts are now regularly published with photos
instead of (or in addition to) autograph copies.
The next step in the edition of a text is a sign-by-sign rendering in Latin script, called a
transliteration. For the interpretation of individual signs, a sign list is consulted. For the
interpretation of individual words, of course, one consults one of the standard dictionaries; and
for larger philological and linguistic matters there are the standard reference and dialect
grammars. A brief review of these standard Assyriological tools, with their customary abbrevia-
tions, follows.

Sign Lists. Three modern sign lists are in common use. The standard reference work is R.
Borger’s Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon (2nd ed., 2010; MZ2). Also valuable is R. Labat’s
Manuel d’épigraphie akkadienne (6th ed. by F. Malbran-Labat, 1994; MEA6), which presents the
chronological development of the forms of individual signs through all the various dialects, their
phonological values, and their usage as logograms (see Lesson 13), all in an “at-a-glance” format.
Finally, W. von Soden and W. Röllig’s Das akkadische Syllabar (4th ed., 1991; AS4) gives phon-
etic sign values, with examples, for all periods of Akkadian.
A searchable list of sign values, compiled and maintained by Ø. Bjøru and J. Weinbender,
is at https://zeichenliste-dev.herokuapp.com/. They also maintain a cross-index of the signs
presented in this book and those found in the standard sign lists listed in the preceding paragraph:
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/19ahh6bnc--OWa6SxYxta8dtEYQlKNIAUQhhQPNocFu0/edit#gid=0.
A useful tool for learning signs is D. C. Snell’s A Workbook of Cuneiform Signs (1979). W.
Schramm’s Akkadische Logogramme (2003) lists logograms alphabetically with their Akkadian
equivalents. L.-J. Bord and R. Mugnaioni’s L’Écriture cunéiforme (2002), gives lists of sign
forms by period, including a list of Old Babylonian signs. In C. Mittelmayer’s Altbabylonische
Zeichenliste (2006), signs in literary texts are listed according to their Old Babylonian shape, with
syllabic and logographic values.

Dictionaries. There are two excellent reference dictionaries of Akkadian. W. von Soden’s three-
volume Akkadisches Handwörterbuch (1965–81; AHw) lists many occurrences for each word, but
xxx INTRODUCTION

usually without extensive citation of the context and usually without translation of passages.
Useful features are the clear layout of the verb entries, the inclusion of Semitic cognates, and the
listing of roots at the beginning of each “letter.” The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute
of the University of Chicago (1956–2010), less formally known as the Chicago Assyrian Diction-
ary (CAD), was produced over more than five decades by an editorial board of noted Assyriolo-
gists. It is an encyclopedic reference work in which each volume is devoted to words beginning
with one of the Akkadian phonemes; several of the volumes are in two or even three parts. (The
volumes may be downloaded in pdf format free of charge at http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs
/catalog/cad/.) In CAD, many occurrences of each word are cited, often with their full context and
a translation; comparative Semitic data are not given. The Supplement to the Akkadian Diction-
aries, edited by M. P. Streck (2018–; SAD), provides new attestations, and even new words,
found in texts edited since the publication of these standard dictionaries; two volumes have
appeared in print form (Vol. I: B, P; Vol. II: D, T, Ṭ), and all of the material collected to date can
be accessed online at https://altorient.gko.uni-leipzig.de/etymd.html.
The inexpensive Concise Dictionary of Akkadian, edited by J. Black, A. George, and N.
Postgate (1999; CDA), is a reliable one-volume work; updates and corrections are at
https://www.soas.ac.uk/cda-archive/.
The Assyrian–English–Assyrian Dictionary, edited by S. Parpola and R. M. Whiting
(2007), covers the Assyrian and Standard Babylonian dialects of the Neo-Assyrian empire; it can
also be used to look up the Akkadian word for something, as can M. E. Cohen’s English to
Akkadian Companion to the Assyrian Dictionaries (2011) and T. Kämmerer and D. Schwiderski’s
Deutsch–Akkadisches Wörterbuch (1998).
The Rückläufiges Wörterbuch des Akkadischen by K. Hecker (1990) is a “reverse dictio-
nary” that is useful for working with damaged texts in which the beginnings of words are broken
away.

Grammars. The standard reference grammar of Akkadian is W. von Soden’s Grundriss der
akkadischen Grammatik (3rd ed., with W. R. Mayer, 1995; GAG); the presentation of the gram-
mar in the present textbook follows that of von Soden’s GAG in most details, particularly in the
few minor points over which there is some disagreement or uncertainty among Assyriologists.
Another fine reference grammar, though less complete than GAG, is A. Ungnad’s Grammatik des
Akkadischen, 5th ed. by L. Matouš (1969), translated into English by H. Hoffner, Jr. as Akkadian
Grammar (1992). Linguistically-oriented grammars of Akkadian are E. Reiner, A Linguistic
Analysis of Akkadian (1966); I. J. Gelb, Sequential Reconstruction of Proto-Akkadian (1969); G.
Buccellati, A Structural Grammar of Babylonian (1996); and N. J. C. Kouwenberg, The Akkadian
Verb and Its Semitic Background (2010).
Other textbooks of Akkadian in English are K. K. Riemschneider, An Akkadian Grammar
(3rd ed., 1977; translated from a German original), D. Marcus, A Manual of Akkadian (1978), R.
Caplice, Introduction to Akkadian (3rd ed., 1988), and, most recently, M. Worthington, Complete
Babylonian (2nd ed., 2018). In German there is M. Streck’s Altbabylonisches Lehrbuch (3rd ed.,
2018), and in French there is F. Malbran-Labat’s Manuel de langue akkadienne (2003) and
Pratique de la grammaire akkadienne (2006).
Bibliographies. The field of Assyriology is fortunate to have R. Borger’s three-volume
 INTRODUCTION xxxi

Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur (1967–75; HKL), in which all Akkadian and Sumerian texts
published in journals and monographs through the end of 1973 are listed under the names of
publishing scholars, with detailed cross-references to all subsequent discussion of individual
texts; the third volume of HKL organizes the texts by content. Updates of HKL, i.e., texts and
discussions of texts published since 1973, have appeared in the “Register Assyriologie” of the
periodical Archiv für Orientforschung, a collation of which, through 2011, was compiled by W.
Sommerfeld and S. Schulte and made available online (see Sommerfeld 2014 and Schulte 2015 in
the Bibliography). Notice should also be taken of the “Keilschriftbibliographie” published in the
journal Orientalia, available online at http://vergil.uni-tuebingen.de/keibi/.
Journals. Several scholarly journals are devoted to the field of Assyriology:1
Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)
Journal of Cuneiform Studies (JCS)
Nouvelles assyriologiques brèves et utilitaires (NABU)
Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale (RA)
Studia Mesopotamica (StMes)
Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie (ZA)
Other journals at least partly concerned with Assyriology are:
Acta Orientalia (AcOr)
Altorientalische Forschungen (AoF)
Archiv Orientální (ArOr)
Aula Orientalis (AuOr)
Bibliotheca Orientalis (BiOr)
Iraq
Journal of Near Eastern Studies (JNES)
Journal of Semitic Studies (JSS)
Journal of the American Oriental Society (JAOS)
Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University (JANES)
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (JESHO)
Oriens Antiquus (OrAnt)
Orientalia (Or.)
Orientalistische Literaturzeitung (OLZ)
Rivista degli studi orientali (RSO)
Studi epigrafici e linguistici (SEL)
Sumer
Syria (revue d’art oriental et d’archéologie)
Welt des Orients (WO)

1 Add these journal and other abbreviations to the main list on pages xix–xxi of the textbook: AcOr = Acta
Orientalia; AOAT = Alter Orient und Altes Testament (Munich); CDA = Concise Dictionary of Akkadian
(see above, dictionaries); CDLI = Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (UCLA; see below, other resources);
JSS = Journal of Semitic Studies; Oracc = Online Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (see below, other
resources); PSD = The Pennsylvanian Sumerian Dictionary; SAD = Supplement to the Akkadian Diction-
aries (see above, dictionaries); StMes (Studia Mesopotamica).
xxxii INTRODUCTION

Other Resources
The Reallexikon der Assyriologie (RLA) is an encyclopedic work covering all aspects of
Assyriology (begun by E. Ebeling et al., continued by D. Edzard, and most recently edited to
completion by M. P. Streck); see https://rla.badw.de/reallexikon.html.
Akkadian (and Sumerian) personal names (see Lesson 13.4) are treated in the now-outdated
but still-indispensable Stamm 1939; see also Rasmussen 1981, Bowes 1987, Stol 1991, and
Pruzsinszky 2021.
Geographical names (towns, cities, regions, lands, rivers) are collected in the several vol-
umes of Répertoire géographique des textes cunéiformes (RGTC; 1974–; for the Old Babylonian
period: vol. 3, by B. Groneberg, 1980).
An Akkadian Handbook, by D. B. Miller and R. M. Shipp (2nd ed., 2014), contains infor-
mation about dialects, grammar (including paradigms), signs, and names of persons, gods, and
places.
CDLI, the Cuneiform Digitial Library Initiative, at UCLA (https://cdli.ucla.edu/), is
repository of thousands of cuneiform texts. The CDLI entry for each text includes information
such as museum number, original or primary publication, provenience, period, genre, and, often,
a photograph or autograph hand copy of the text and a transliteration. Each text in CDLI has a
unique number, beginning with “P”; entering the “P” number in the “CDLI no.” box on the main
page takes the user directly to the text. A list of CDLI numbers for the texts that appear in the
present textbook appears below, following the Bibliography.
Archibab (http://www.archibab.fr/), managed by D. Charpin, is a site devoted to making
accessible over 30,000 published Old Babylonian texts; it can be searched by author, text number,
transliteration string, genre, and more.
Oracc, the Online Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/),
steered by J. Novotny, E. Robson, S. Tinney, and N. Veldhuis, is “a collaborative effort to
develop a complete corpus of cuneiform [with] rich annotation and open licensing.” A wide range
of projects, including many text corpora comprising a variety of genres, are housed on Oracc.
Especially of interest to students beginning the study of Akkadian is “Cuneiform Revealed” at
http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/saao/knpp/cuneiformrevealed/index.html.
ABZU (http://www.etana.org/abzubib) is “a guide to networked open access data relevant
to the study and public presentation of the Ancient Near East and the Ancient Mediterranean
world”; curated by C. E. Jones, it is part of the ETANA website (Electronic Tools and Ancient
Near Eastern Archives; http://www.etana.org/).
A website created and maintained by M. Worthington archives recordings of Akkadian
texts being spoken by Assyriologists from around the world: https://www.soas.ac.uk/baplar/.
A “Babylonian Verb Conjugator” has recently been created by M. Jaques and D. Koch
(under construction as of 09/2020): http://www.gilgamesh.ch/bvc/bvc.html.
 INTRODUCTION xxxiii

Selected Bibliography on Akkadian Grammar and Old Babylonian Texts

Adler, Hans-Peter. 1976. Das Akkadische des Königs Tušratta von Mitanni. AOAT 201. Kevelaer: Butzon
& Bercker / Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchen.
Arkhipov, Ilya and Sergey Loesov. 2019. Two Genitive Constructions of Old Babylonian. BSOAS 82: 395–
403.
Aro, Jussi. 1953. Abnormal plene writings in Akkadian texts. StOr 19: 3–19.
——. 1955. Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik. StOr 22. Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica.
——. 1957. Glossar zu den mittelbabylonischen Briefen. StOr 20. Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica.
——. 1961. Die akkadischen Infinitivkonstruktionen. StOr 26. Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica.
——. 1963. Präpositionale Verbindungen als Bestimmungen des Nomens im Akkadischen. Or. 32: 395–
406.
Bar-Asher Siegal, Elitzur A. 2011a. From Typology to Diachrony: Synchronic and Diachronic Aspects of
Predicative Possessive Constructions in Akkadian. Folia Linguistica Historica 32: 43–88.
——. 2011b. Notes on Reciprocal Constructions in Akkadian in Light of Typological and Historical
Considerations. Semitica et Classica 4: 23–42.
Barth, Jacob. 1887. Das Nominalpräfix na im Assyrischen. ZA 2: 111–17.
Bergmann, E. 1953. Codex Ḫammurabi. Textus primigenius. 3rd ed. Rome: Pontificium Institutum
Biblicum.
Berkooz, Moshe. 1937. The Nuzi Dialect of Akkadian: Supplements to Language 23. Philadelphia:
Linguistic Society of America.
Bjøru, Øyvind. 2020. Studies in the Historical Syntax of Akkadian. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Texas
at Austin.
—— and Na‘ama Pat-El. The Historical Syntax of the Subordinative Morphemes in Assyrian Akkadian.
ZA 110: 71–83.
Black, Jeremy A. 1984. Sumerian Grammar in Babylonian Theory. Studia Pohl Series Maior 12. Rome:
Biblical Institute.
——, Andrew George, and Nicholas Postgate, edd. 1999. A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian. Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz.
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Bord, Lucien-Jean and Remo Mugnaioni. 2002. L’écriture cunéiform: syllabaire sumérien babylonien
assyrien. Paris: Paul Geuthner.
Borger, Rykle. 1967–75. Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur. 3 vol. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
——. 2010. Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon. 2nd ed. AOAT 305. Münster: Ugarit.
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Lexicography. Quaderni di Semitistica 2. Florence: Università di Firenze.
Bowes, Alpin Wendell. 1987. A Theological Study of Old Babylonian Personal Names. 2 vol. Ph. D.
dissertation, Dropsie College.
Bravmann, Meïr M. 1947. The Plural Ending -ūt- of Masculine Attributive Adjectives in Akkadian. JCS 1:
343.
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Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Buccellati, Giorgio. 1968. An Interpretation of the Stative as a Nominal Sentence. JNES 21: 1–12.
——. 1972. On the Use of Akkadian Infinitive after “ša” or Construct State. JSS 17: 1–29.
——. 1976a. On the Akkadian “Attributive” Genitive. Afroasiatic Linguistics 3: 19–27.
——. 1976b. The Case against the Alleged Akkadian Plural Morpheme -ānū. Afroasiatic Linguistics 3:
28–30.
——. 1988. The State of the “Stative.” Pp. 153–89 in Yoël L. Arbeitman, ed., Fucus: A Semitic/Afrasian
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Gathering in Remembrance of Albert Ehrman. Amsterdam/New York: John Benjamins.

——. 1990. On Poetry — Theirs and Ours. Pp. 105–34 in T. Abusch, et al., edd. Lingering over
Words: Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Literature in Honor of William L. Moran. Harvard Semitic
Studies 37. Atlanta: Scholars.
——. 1996. A Structural Grammar of Babylonian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Cagni, Luigi. 1980. Altbabylonische Briefe, vol. 8: Briefe aus dem Iraq Museum (TIM II). Leiden: Brill.
Caplice, Richard. 1988. Introduction to Akkadian. 3rd ed. Rome: Biblical Institute.
Catagnoti, Amalia. 2012. La grammatica della lingua de Ebla. Quaderni di Semitistica 29. Florence:
Università di Firenze.
——. 2020. Eblaite. Pp. 149–62 in Rebecca Hasselbach-Andee, ed., A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern
Languages. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
Cavigneaux, Antoine. 1989. Le nom akkadien du grain. NABU 1989, no. 52.
——. 2011. Perseverare. NABU 2011, no. 13.
Charpin, Dominique. 1986. Le Clergé d’Ur au siècle d’Hammurabi. Geneva/Paris: Droz.
——, et al. 1988. Archives épistolaires de Mari I/2. ARM 26, part 2. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les
Civilisations.
Chiera, Edward. 1922. Old Babylonian Contracts. PBS 8/2. Philadelphia: University Museum.
Cochavi-Rainey, Zipora. 2011. The Akkadian Dialect of the Egyptian Scribes in the 14th and 13th Centu-
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Cohen, Eran. 2000. Akkadian -ma in Diachronic Perspective. ZA 90: 207–26.
——. 2001 Focus Marking in Old Babylonian. WZKM 91: 85–104.
——. 2003/4. Paronomastic Infinitive in Old Babylonian. JEOL 38: 105–12.
——. 2005a. Addenda to Non-Verbal Clauses in Old Babylonian. JSS 50: 247–79.
——. 2005b. The Modal System of Old Babylonian. Harvard Semitic Studies 56. Winona Lake, IN:
Eisenbrauns.
——. 2006. The Tense–Aspect System of the Old Babylonian Epic. ZA 96: 31–68.
——. 2008. Adjectival ša Syntagms and Adjectives in Old Babylonian. BSOAS 71: 25–52.
——. 2010. Conditional Structures in Old Babylonian Omens. Pp. 709–27 in L. Kogan et al., edd.,
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——. 2012b. Functional Values of iprus Forms in Old Babylonian šumma Protases. Pp. 1–11 in Rebecca
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on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 67. Chicago: The
Oriental Institute.
——. 2013. Indirect Representation of Questions in Old Babylonian Akkadian. Babel und Bibel 7: 51–84.
——. 2015. Circumstantial Clause Combining in Old Babylonian Akkadian. Pp. 365–406 in Bo Isaksson
and Maria Persson, edd., Clause Combining in Semitic: The Circumstantial Clause and Beyond.
Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Cohen, Mark E. 2011. English to Akkadian Companion to the Assyrian Dictionaries. Bethesda, MD: CDL.
Crisostomo, C. Jay. 2020. Sumerian and Akkadian Language Contact. Pp. 403–20 in Rebecca Hasselbach-
Andee, ed., A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
Dekierke, Luc. 1994–97. Old Babylonian Real Estate Documents. 6 vol. Mesopotamian History and
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Dercksen, Jan Gerrit. 2011. The Barley of Life. NABU 2011 no. 14.
Deutscher, Guy. 2000. Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
——. 2002. The Akkadian Relative Clauses in Cross-Linguistic Perspective. ZA 92: 86–105.
 INTRODUCTION xxxv

—— and N. J. C. Kouwenberg, edd. 2006. The Akkadian Language in Its Semitic Context: Studies in the
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Diakonoff, Igor M. 1980. Towards the Pronunciation of a Dead Language: Akkadian. Assyriological
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—— and Leonid Kogan. 1991. Akkadian Morphology. Pp. 3–48 in Alan S. Kaye, ed., Morphologies of
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Dijk, J. J. A. van. 1965. Cuneiform Texts. Old Babylonian Letters and Related Material. TIM 2. Wies-
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Dossin, Georges. 1951. Correspondance de Šamši-Addu et de ses fils (suite). ARMT 4. Paris: Paul
Geuthner.
——. 1978. Correspondance féminine. ARMT 10. Paris: Paul Geuthner.
Driver, G. R. 1924. Letters of the First Babylonian Dynasty. OECT 3. Oxford: Clarendon.
Durand, Jean-Marie. 1988. Archives épistolaires de Mari I/1. ARM 26, part 1. Paris: Editions Recherche
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——. 1997 Documents épistolaires du Palais de Mari, Vol. I. Littératures Anciennes du Proche-Orient 16.
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——. 2000. Documents épistolaires du Palais de Mari. Vol. III. Littératures Anciennes du Proche-Orient
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Edzard, Dietz Otto. 1965. Die Stämme des altbabylonischen Verbums in ihrem Oppositionssystem. Pp.
111–20 in H. Güterbock and T. Jacobsen, edd., Studies ... B. Landsberger. Chicago: Oriental Institute.
——. 1970a. Altbabylonische Rechts- und Wirtschaftsurkunden aus Tell ed-Dēr im Iraq Museum,
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——. 1970b. Cuneiform Texts. Altbabylonische Rechts- und Wirtschaftsurkunden aus Tell ed-Dēr bei
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——. 1973. Die Modi beim älteren akkadischen Verbum. Or. 42 (Festschrift I. J. Gelb): 121–41.
——. 1977. Der gegenwärtige Stand der Akkadistik (1975) und ihre Aufgaben. Pp. 47–51 in W. Voigt,
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——. 1978. Zu den altbabylonischen Präpositionen itti und qadum. Pp. 1.69–89 in B. Hruška and G.
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——. 1980. Keilschrift. RLA 5: 544–68.
——. 1982. Zu den akkadischen Nominalformen parsat-, pirsat-, und pursat-. ZA 72: 68–88.
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——. 1996. Die Iterativstämme beim akkadischen Verbum: Die Frage ihrer Entstehung; ihre Funktion;
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——. 2003. Sumerian Grammar. Leiden: Brill.
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Farber, Walter. 1982. Altbabylonische Adverbialbildungen auf -āni. Pp. 39–47 in Zikir Šumim (Festschrift
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London: British Museum and University Museum.

Finet, André. 1956. L’Accadien des lettres de Mari. Brussels: Palais des Académies.
Finkel, Irving and Jonathan Taylor. 2015. Cuneiform. Los Angeles: Getty Museum.
Foster, Benjamin R. 2005. Before the Muses. 3rd ed. Bethesda, MD: CDL.
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——. 1970. A Note on Morphophonemics. Pp. 73–77 in D. Cohen, ed., Mélanges Marcel Cohen. The
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 INTRODUCTION xxxvii

——. 1947a. Old Babylonian Omen Texts. YOS 10. New Haven: Yale University Press.
——. 1947b. Short or Long a? (Notes on Some Akkadian Words). Or. 16: 235–50.
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xlviii INTRODUCTION

CDLI numbers of texts in A Grammar of Akkadian, 3rd ed.

The Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (https://cdli.ucla.edu/) is described above on p. xxxii.

Below are the CDLI numbers of the texts that appear in the exercises of A Grammar of Akkadian,
by lesson number, for readers who wish to see photographs (or copies) of them. It should be kept
in mind that some of the texts, especially in the early lessons, have been adapted, omitting
grammatical constructions not yet covered (especially expressions involving numbers and
measurements), and so transliterations in the lessons (and in the Key) may be modified vis-à-vis
those in CDLI.

Laws of Hammurapi, lessons 17–38: CDLI no. P249253 and no. P464358.

13 G1 ................CT 2 28......................................................... P365109

G2 ................CT 6 42a ....................................................... P365156
G3 ................CT 6 40c ....................................................... P385860

14 F1 .................CT 8 24b....................................................... P370463

F2 .................CT 2 50......................................................... P365125
F3 .................Szlechter, Tablettes 125 MAH 16.351......... P424167
F4 .................VAS 8 123–24............................................... P372525

15 G1 ................TIM 7 23....................................................... P224714

G2 ................VAS 8 127..................................................... P372528
G3 ................Szlechter, TJA 41 ......................................... P315330

16 F1 .................VAS 8 73....................................................... P372486

F2 .................Szlechter, Tablettes 68 MAH 16.643........... P424288
F3 .................CT 8 42b....................................................... P370497

17 G1 ................Meissner, BAP no. 90................................... P512362

G2 ................Szlechter, Tablettes 110 MAH 16.148......... P424062

18 G1 ................PBS 8/2 no. 188............................................ P257642

G2 ................Meissner, BAP no. 43................................... —
G3 ................VAS 8 4......................................................... P372428

19 G1 ................Szlechter, TJA 26 ......................................... P315355

G2 ................CT 8 36a ....................................................... P365200
G3 ................TIM 7 4......................................................... P224693

20 G1 ................CT 2 41......................................................... P382523

G2 ................CT 8 37d....................................................... P370487

21 G1 ................CT 2 44......................................................... P365122

G2 ................Szlechter, TJA 42 ......................................... P315368
G3 ................PBS 8/2 no. 186............................................ P259116

22 G1–2 ............YOS 10 9 ...................................................... P293406

G3 ................YOS 10 42 .................................................... P293393
G4–7 ............YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
H1 ................CT 8 22b....................................................... P370459
H2 ................VAS 8 62....................................................... P372476
 INTRODUCTION xlix

23 F1–3 .............YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

F4–7,10–15 ..YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
F8–9,16 ........YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
G1 ................Szlechter, Tablettes 82 MAH 15.880........... P423863
G2 ................CT 4 31b....................................................... P355818

24 H1–3 ............YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

H4 ................YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
H5 ................YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
I1 ..................CT 2 35......................................................... P382521
J1..................Scheil, SFS, p. 131 ....................................... P511168
J2..................AbB 12 10..................................................... P510535
J3..................AbB 12 128................................................... P510651
J4..................CT 52 30....................................................... P481779
J5..................TIM 2 11....................................................... P222974
J6..................LIH 1 2 ......................................................... P275077

25 G1,5 .............YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

G2 ................YOS 10 24 .................................................... P293404
G3 ................YOS 10 47 .................................................... P293403
G4 ................YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
H1 ................Meissner, BAP 78......................................... —
I1 ..................VAS 7 196..................................................... P372416
I2 ..................CT 43 76....................................................... P313366

26 G1 ................YOS 10 6 ...................................................... P293420

G2 ................YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401
G3–4 ............YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
H1 ................CT 8 48a ....................................................... P365212
I1 ..................OECT 3 35 ................................................... P384922
I2 ..................AbB 12 84..................................................... P510608
I3 ..................LIH 1 45 ....................................................... P275120

27 G1 ................YOS 10 44 .................................................... P293389

G2–3 ............YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
G4 ................YOS 10 26 .................................................... P293398
H1 ................VAS 8 26....................................................... P372444
I1 ..................TCL 7 13 ...................................................... P386006
I2 ..................CT 43 96....................................................... P313386

28 G1 ................YOS 10 6 ...................................................... P293420

G2,6–7 .........YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401
G3–4,8 .........YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
G5 ................YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
H1 ................TIM 7 15....................................................... P224705
H2 ................TIM 7 32....................................................... P224723
I1 ..................TCL 7 19 ...................................................... P386012
I2 ..................LIH 2 77 ....................................................... P275150
I3 ..................CT 43 14....................................................... P313304
I4 ..................TCL 7 30 ...................................................... P386023
l INTRODUCTION

29 G1 ................YOS 10 25 .................................................... P293391

G2 ................YOS 10 46 .................................................... P293396
G3 ................YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
G4 ................YOS 10 51 .................................................... P355603
H1 ................CT 8 5a ......................................................... P365168
H2 ................Szlechter, TJA 20–21 ................................... P315373
I1 ..................LIH 2 72 ....................................................... P275145
I2 ..................VAS 7 202..................................................... P372422
I3 ..................ARM 10 90 ................................................... P350054
I4 ..................ARM 10 80 ................................................... P350044
(= ARM 26/1 197 ................................. P354754)

30 G1 ................YOS 10 14 .................................................... P293413

G2 ................YOS 10 17 .................................................... P293390
G3–4 ............YOS 10 23 .................................................... P290130
G5 ................YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
G6 ................YOS 10 41 .................................................... P293402
G7 ................YOS 10 42 .................................................... P293393
G8 ................YOS 10 44 .................................................... P293389
G9 ................RA 44 23ff. ................................................... P493059
G10 ..............YOS 10 21 .................................................... P296655
G11 ..............YOS 10 24 .................................................... P293404
H1 ................Szlechter, Tablettes 64 MAH 15.958........... P423931
H2 ................Szlechter, Tablettes 121–22 MAH 16.482... P424224
H3 ................Szlechter, TJA 151 ....................................... P315346
I1 ..................CT 29 6a ....................................................... P365941
I2 ..................PBS 7 99....................................................... P258716
I3 ..................ARM 2 105 ................................................... P273131
J....................LIH 2 94 ....................................................... P431857

31 F1 .................YOS 10 9 ...................................................... P293406

F2 .................YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401
F3–4 .............YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
F5–6 .............YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
G1 ................Szlechter, TJA 53–54 ................................... P315377
G2 ................Szlechter, TJA 102–3 ................................... P315312
H1 ................LIH 1 56 ....................................................... P275129
H2 ................LIH 1 14 ....................................................... P275089
H3 ................VAS 16 32..................................................... P372887
I ....................PBS 7 133..................................................... P257576

32 E1 .................YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

E2,8 ..............YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
E3 .................YOS 10 53 .................................................... P290129
E4–6 .............YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
E7 .................YOS 10 12 .................................................... P299597
F1 .................VAS 8 15....................................................... P372436
F2 .................VAS 8 37....................................................... P372453
G1 ................CT 29 7a ....................................................... P365942
G2 ................TCL 7 26 ...................................................... P386019
G3 ................VAS 7 201..................................................... P372421
H ..................PBS 7 133..................................................... P257576
 INTRODUCTION li

33 F1 .................YOS 10 15 .................................................... P293411

F2 .................YOS 10 25 .................................................... P293391
F3,10 ............YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
F4 .................YOS 10 33 .................................................... P293397
F5 .................YOS 10 46 .................................................... P293396
F6 .................YOS 10 50 .................................................... P293408
F7 .................YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
F8 .................Jeyes, OB Extispicy no. 14:31 ...................... P511843
F9 .................YOS 10 23 .................................................... P290130
G1 ................PBS 8/2 196.................................................. P257802
G2 ................PBS 8/2 252.................................................. P258737
H1 ................CT 43 92....................................................... P313382
H2 ................OECT 3 54 ................................................... P384850
H3 ................VAS 16 9....................................................... P372866
H4 ................ARM 4 22 ..................................................... P338784
I ....................RA 22 169–77............................................... P373971

34 F1 .................YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

F2 .................YOS 10 24 .................................................... P293404
F3 .................YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
F4 .................YOS 10 41 .................................................... P293402
F5 .................YOS 10 36 .................................................... P293392
F6 .................YOS 10 51 .................................................... P355603
G1 ................Szlechter, Tablettes 3–4 MAH 15.951......... P423925
G2 ................BE 6/1 96...................................................... P258738
G3 ................CT 6 37a ....................................................... P365151
H1 ................LIH 1 24 ....................................................... P275099
H2 ................LIH 2 80 ....................................................... P275153
H3 ................OECT 3 1 ..................................................... P384863
I ....................RA 22 169–77............................................... P373971

35 G1,2 .............YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

G3 ................YOS 10 26 .................................................... P293398
H1 ................VAS 7 16....................................................... P372239
I1 ..................TLB 4 pl. 9 LB 1897 .................................... P389774
I2 ..................TLB 4 pl. 9 and 10 LB 1771+1766 .............. P390408
I3 ..................TLB 4 pl. 16 LB 1904 .................................. P389781
I4 ..................TCL 7 64 ...................................................... P386057
I5 ..................TCL 7 16 ...................................................... P386009
J....................RA 22 169–77............................................... P373971

36 G1 ................YOS 10 25 .................................................... P293391

G2 ................YOS 10 33 .................................................... P293397
G3 ................YOS 10 36 .................................................... P293392
G4 ................YOS 10 47 .................................................... P293403
G5 ................YOS 10 52 .................................................... P293399
H1 ................CT 8 12b....................................................... P370440
I1 ..................CT 42 13....................................................... P313303
I2 ..................LIH 1 4 ......................................................... P275079
I3 ..................LIH 2 92 ....................................................... P275165
I4 ..................TLB 4 pl. 31 LB 1886 .................................. P389763
I5 ..................ARM 10 129 ................................................. P350093
J....................UET 6/2 402 ................................................. P346443
lii INTRODUCTION

37 F1 .................YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

F2,3 ..............YOS 10 17 .................................................... P293390
F4,9 ..............YOS 10 31 .................................................... P293400
F5 .................YOS 10 36 .................................................... P293392
F6 .................YOS 10 52 .................................................... P293399
F7 .................YOS 10 56 .................................................... P293395
F8 .................YOS 10 1 ...................................................... P293785
G1 ................Szlechter, Tablettes 97 MAH 16.139........... P424054
H1 ................Waterman, Business Documents 32 ............. P509376
H2 ................TLB 4 pl. 2 LB 1864 .................................... P368701
H3 ................UCP 9/4 p. 329 no. 4 ................................... P248040
H4 ................VAS 16 136................................................... P372990
I ....................LIH 1 95 ....................................................... P448474

38 E1,2 ..............YOS 10 11 .................................................... P293401

E3 .................YOS 10 20 .................................................... P293414
E4 .................YOS 10 24 .................................................... P293404
E5 .................YOS 10 25 .................................................... P293391
E6 .................YOS 10 36 .................................................... P293392
E7 .................YOS 10 44 .................................................... P293389
E8 .................YOS 10 5 ...................................................... P293430
F1 .................TCL 1 74 ...................................................... P386510
G1 ................CT 43 117..................................................... P313407
G2 ................CT 4 35b....................................................... P355829
G3 ................TCL 1 43 ...................................................... P386479
G4 ................CT 4 32b....................................................... P355822
H ..................ZA 43 306–7 ................................................. —

Supplementary Reading, OB Gilgameš Tablet II ..................... P262784