MARTINEZ, Karlo John C.

BSECE III GG
What is Data Communication?
The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to information
presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data communications are
the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
What is Data Communication?
Data communications is the process of transferring digital information between two or more points. Information
is defined as the knowledge or intelligence. Data communications can be summarized as the transmission,
reception, and processing of digital information. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices
must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
Fundamental Characteristics of a Data Communication System
1. DELIVERY
-The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.
2. ACCURACY
-The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
Fundamental Characteristics of a Data Communication System
3. TIMELINESS
-Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as
they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
4. JITTER
-Refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packets.
Components of Data Communication
1. SENDER
-The device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
2. MESSAGE
-The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
3. TRANSMISSION MEDIUM -The physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and
radio waves.
4. PROTOCOL
-A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices.
 5. RECEIVER
-The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
Data Representation
TEXT
- Represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to
represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.
NUMBER
-Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers;
the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.

Data Representation
IMAGE
-An image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the
pixel depends on the resolution.
BIT DEPTH
-Specifies how much color information is available for each pixel in an image.
AUDIO
-Refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It is continuous, not discrete.
VIDEO
-Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video cban either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged
to convey the idea of motion.
Data Transmission
SIMPLEX
-The communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive.
-The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

HALF-DUPLEX
-Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa.
-In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time.
FULL DUPLEX (DUPLEX)
-Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
-In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in the other
direction.
-Used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however,
must be divided between the two directions.

Network
-A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
DATA TERMINATING EQUIPMENT (DTE)
-Used primarily for those devices that display user information. It also includes any devices that store or
generate data for the user.
DATA COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT (DCE)
-Any device which can be used to gain access to a system over telecommunication lines.
NETWORK

Network Criteria
1. PERFORMANCE
TRANSIT TIME
-The amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another
RESPONSE TIME
-The elapsed time between an inquiry and a full response
FACTORS
1. Number of users
2. Type of transmission medium
3. Capabilities of the connected hardware Efficiency of the software.
METRICS
- THROUGHPUT
How many bits per second are going through the network
-DELAY
How long does it take a bit to travel from one end to the other

Network Criteria
2. RELIABILITY
-Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure,
and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
3. SECURITY
-Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Network Connections
-A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another.
POINT – TO – POINT (P2P)
-Provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.
Network Topology
-The geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to
one another.
Bus Topology
-Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks (LANs).
Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology.
-Characterized by a P2P connection.
ADVANTAGES
-Ease of installation
-Uses less cabling than mesh or star
topologies (less redundancy)
-Only the backbone cable stretches
through the entire facility.
DISADVANTAGES
-Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
-Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
-Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone.
-A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
Ring Topology
-Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
-A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
-When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along
ADVANTAGES
- Easy to install and reconfigure.
-To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections:
-Fault isolations are simplified.
DISADVANTAGES
-Unidirectional traffic
-A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.
Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring.
Star Topology
-Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
-The devices are not directly linked to one another.
-If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device
ADVANTAGES
-Less expensive than a mesh topology
-Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
-Easy to install and reconfigure
-Robust connection
-Easy fault identification
DISADVANTAGES
-Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
-More cabling is required in a star than in bus and ring.
High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.
MESH TOPOLOGY
Every device has a dedicated point-to point link to every other device.

ADVANTAGES
-Robust connection
-Promotes privacy and security
-Easy fault identification and fault isolation
DISADVANTAGES
-Costly installation
-Bulky
-Hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive)
Network Categories
The category into which a network falls is determined by its size.
Local Area Network
-Usually private-owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or campus.
-Size is limited to a few kilometers (less than 2 miles)
-A given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium.
-Most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star
-Speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps
Metropolitan Area Network
-A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers
the area inside a town or a city.
-It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
-A network with a size between a LAN and a WAN
-Provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas
that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.
a. Switched WAN
Usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
b. Point-to-Point WAN
Normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small
LAN to an lSP.

What is a protocol?
Is the directives that are entered by the user or a system administrator into the communication software before
any communication can occur between computers on a network such as internet.
Elements of a Protocol
Syntax -Structure or format of the data. Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
Semantics - Interprets the meaning of the bits. Knows which fields define what action
Timing - When data should be sent and what. Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.
The data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the efficient and error free
transmission of data.
1. Data sequencing: A long message to be transmitted is broken into smaller packets of fixed size for error free
data transmission.
2. Data Routing: It is the process of finding the most efficient route between source and destination before
sending the data.
3. Flow control: All machines are not equally efficient in terms of speed. Hence the flow control regulates the
process of sending data between fast sender and slow receiver.
4. Error Control: Error detecting and recovering is the one of the main functions of communication software.
It ensures that data are transmitted without any error.
Data Communication Standards
Standards also mean that customers are not locked into one vendor. They can buy hardware and software
from any vendor whose equipment meets the standard. In this way, standards help to promote more competition
and hold down prices.
Two types of Standards
A formal standard is developed by an official industry or government body. For example, there are formal
standards for applications such as Web browsers (e.g., HTTP, HTML), for network layer software (e.g., IP),
data link layer software (e.g., Ethernet IEEE 802.3), and for physical hardware (e.g., V.90 modems). Formal
standards typically take several years to develop, during which time technology changes, making them less
useful.
Two types of Standards
De facto standards are those that emerge in the marketplace and are supported by several vendors but have no
official standing. For example, Microsoft Windows is a product of one company and has not been formally
recognized by any standards organization, yet it is a de facto standard. In the communications
industry, de facto standards often become formal standards once they have been widely accepted.
Standard Organizations for Data Communications
International Standard Organization
ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It is comprised mainly of
members from the standards committee of various governments throughout the world. It is even responsible for
developing models which provides high level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved
productivity and reduced costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other
standards organizations.
International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Sector
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva,
Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: The V series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its
extension Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from
many countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is comprised of electronics,
computer and communications engineers. It is currently the world’s largest professional society with over
200,000 members. It develops communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal of
advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical engineering.
American National Standards Institute
ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting representative for the ISO.
ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of data
processing equipment and services. ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional societies,
industry associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.
Electronics Industry Association
EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. EIA activities
include standards development, increasing public awareness, and lobbying and it is responsible for developing
the RS (recommended standard) series of standards for data and communications.
Telecommunications Industry Association
TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology industry. It facilitates
business development opportunities through market development, trade promotion, trade shows, and standards
development. It represents manufacturers of communications and information technology products and also
facilitates the convergence of new communications networks.
Internet Architecture Board
IAB earlier known as Internet Activities Board is a committee created by ARPA (Advanced Research Projects
Agency) so as to analyze the activities of ARPANET whose purpose is to accelerate the advancement of
technologies useful for U.S military. IAB is a technical advisory group of the Internet Society and its
responsibilities are:
I. Oversees the architecture protocols and procedures used by the Internet.
II. Manages the processes used to create Internet Standards and also serves as an appeal board for complaints
regarding improper execution of standardization process. III. Responsible for administration of the various
Internet assigned numbers
IV. Acts as a representative for Internet Society interest in liaison relationships with other organizations.
V. Acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and officers of Internet Society concerning
various aspects of internet and its technologies.
Internet Engineering Task Force
The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators, vendors and researchers
concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and smooth operation of the Internet.
Internet Research Task Force
The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by creating focused, long-term
and small research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture and
technology.
Forums
Telecommunications technology development is moving faster than the ability of standards committees to ratify
standards. Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature slow-moving. To accommodate the need
for working models and agreements and to facilitate the standardization process, many special-interest groups
have developed forums made up of representatives from interested corporations. The forums work with
universities and users to test, evaluate, and standardize new technologies. By concentrating their efforts on a
particular technology, the forums are able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the
telecommunications community. The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
Regulatory Agencies
All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies such as the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public
interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable communications. The FCC has authority over interstate
and international commerce as it relates to communications.
Internet Standards
An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those who work with
the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be followed. There is a strict procedure by which a
specification attains Internet standard status. A specification begins as an Internet draft. An Internet draft is a
working document (a work in progress) with no official status and a 6-month lifetime. Upon recommendation
from the Internet authorities, a draft may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is edited,
assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties. RFCs go through maturity levels and are
categorized according to their requirement level.