LESSON 24

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

WARNING! DO NOT PROCEED IF YOU HAVE NOT READ AND

UNDERSTAND LESSON 23

TARGET

This lesson will be dealing with, meridians, expedient methods of establishing

meridians, units of angular measurement, and designation of north points.

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Define and discuss the different terms involving meridians, and north points.
2. Discuss expedient methods of establishing meridians.
3. Solve problems involving conversion of units of angles.

REMEMBER
To make this learning material help you, don’t just read the lesson like reading a
novel or pocketbook. Reading alone will make you forget easily. Instead, write or jot down
important terms and events transpired in the discussion. This is the best way that you can
visualize and interpret the words/ instrument carefully. For problem solving and
computation discussion see to it that you have calculator, paper and pen or pencil. Write
the numbers/ essential details being talked about. There are two important questions that
should be answered in studying involving computation, the How it is done? and most
important the why it is done? As much as possible answer the “how, why” question in
order not to forget easily the discussion. Do not be satisfied just to know the “how” part.

ANCHOR
You have learned on our previous lesson about cross-section leveling and adjustment of
level circuit.

Cross-sections are short profiles taken perpendicular to the centerline of projects such as
highway, railroad, irrigational canal, or sewer line. They may also be taken for borrow-pits
and excavations required for buildings, structures and quarries. It provides necessary
data needed for estimating quantities of earthwork and other related purposes.

Roadway Cross-Sections
• More accurate than single profile leveling.
 • Done by measuring cross sections at right angles to the centerline, usually at
intervals of 10 m, 20m etc.
• Readings at each cross section are taken at the centerline and critical points
perpendicular to the centerline.
• Cross sections are drawn and design templates are superimposed, the
difference in the area is the area of cur or fill at that section (end area)

Borrow pit Cross-sections.

• A borrow pit is an open area which is usually adjacent to the construction project
where suitable fill material is excavated.
• The site is divided into squares.
• Elevations are then measured at the corners of the grid, which are given names
or labels that corresponds to the coordinates of the corner say 2E, 6B …

A level circuit or loop is a line of levels which begins and ends at the same point or line of
levels between points of precisely known elevation. In conducting a closed loop, it will
always been expected that the observed elevations will not agree with known elevations
of the previously established point within the loop. The difference between the observed
and known elevations of the initial point or benchmark are referred to as error of closure.

The error of closure is determined by subtracting the observed elevation from the
observed elevation in levels with single route.

The elevation correction is determined by dividing the error of closure by the length (or
perimeter) of the level circuit and multiplying by the distance from the initial benchmark of
the point considered.

If the error of closure is negative, all computed elevation corrections are to be added to
the corresponding observed elevations, if positive corrections are subtracted. A negative
sign is affixed in the equation above to simplify the process of calculation and in applying
correction.

When the elevation of a benchmark is to be established by running several lines of levels

over different routes from a common point of origin, it will always be certain that different
results will be obtained.

The weight given to each route equals the reciprocal of its length

The most probable value of the benchmark’s elevation will then be the weighted mean of
the observed value. Should there be other points established along a particular level
route, the elevations of these points in turn would require adjustment after the most
probable value of the elevation of the terminal benchmark has been determined.

Note: Recall also the relation of weights and probable error, that is weights are inversely
proportional to the square of the corresponding probable errors.
 IGNITE

Meridians

Meridians are fixed line of reference for determining direction of lines.

Four Types of Meridians

1. True Meridian
It is a North-South line passing through the geographical poles of the earth. It is
sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic meridian. It is the generally
adapted reference line in surveying practice. The direction of true meridian at a
survey station is invariable and any record of true directions taken remains
permanent and unchanged regardless of time.
2. Magnetic Meridian
The lines lies parallel to the magnetic lines of force of the earth and is indicated by
the direction of the magnetized needle. Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the
true meridian since it converge at a magnetic pole which is located some distance
away from the true geographical poles. Location of magnetic poles changes
constantly.
3. Grid Meridian
It is a reference line parallel to the central true meridian of a system of plane
rectangular coordinates, One central meridian which coincide with the true
meridian is selected, and all other meridians are made parallel to this meridian.

4. Assumed Meridian
It is a line of reference arbitrarily chosen for convenience. This meridian is usually
the direction from a survey station to an adjoining station or some well-defined
permanent point.
Expedient Method of Establishing Meridian

1. Establishing Magnetic Meridian by Compass

a. Set up the compass at any convenient point.
b. Sight a distant object that marks another point on the meridian.

Note: Several sights should be taken during the set up and compass should be
rotated about its vertical axis and then positioned until the needle reads zero. The
mean of the points established is taken as the magnetic meridian, to accurately
determine the magnetic meridian.

2. Determining True North by the Aid of Sun and a Plumb Line

a. In a level piece of ground, lean a pole approximately toward the north and rest
it in a crotch made by two sticks.
b. Suspend a weight from the end of the pole so that it nearly touches the ground.
c. About an hour before noon, attached a string driven directly under the weight
and with a sharpen stick attached to the other end of the string, draw an arc
with a radius equal to distance from the peg to the shadow of the tip of the pole.
d. Drive a peg on the arc where the shadow of the of the tip of the pole rest.
e. At about an hour after noon, watch the shadow of the tip as it approaches the
easter side of the arc and drive another peg where it crosses.
f. By means of a string, find the middle point of the straight line joining the two
pegs.
g. A straight line joining the mid-point and the peg under the weight, will be
pointing towards the direction of the True North.
3. Determining the True North by the Rising and Setting of the Sun
a. From a convenient position or station, observe the rising and setting of the sun
on the same day or at setting on one day and rising the next day.
b. Along each direction establish a peg or marker.
c. Measure the horizontal angle between the two markers, then establish another
marker to define half of the measured angle. The line joining the observation
station and the last marker established should point towards the direction of
true north.
 4. Determining the True North by Polaris
a. Look for the big dipper on the northern hemisphere.
b. Identify the two stars of the big dipper, Merak and Dubhe, forming the sides of
the big dipper. (pointing stars)
c. Look for the Polaris or North star with the aid of this pointing stars.
d. Polaris lies almost directly above the earth’s north pole.
Note: Polaris is visible the whole year but only in the northern hemisphere
5. Determining the True South by Southern Cross
a. Look for the crux or southern cross on the southern hemisphere.
b. Look for an imaginary line joining the two stars forming the longer side of the
cross.
c. Extend the imaginary line and use it to locate a point 4.5d from the lower star.
d. The south pole is directly below this point.
 6. Determining Direction of True North (or South) by a wristwatch
(Ordinary wristwatch can approximately determine the direction of true north)
North Temperate Zone
a. Hour hand is pointed toward the sun. (4:55 PM)
b. A south line can be found midway between the hour hand and 12 o’clock.

South Temperate Zone

a. Twelve is pointed toward the sun, and halfway between12 and hour hand will
be the direction towards true north. (3:30PM)

Note: The two methods apply primarily to standard time. This method is applicable in the
temperate zones from 23.5 degrees to 66.5 degrees in both hemispheres.
Units of Angular Measurement
1. Degree
• sexagesimal system
• circumference of the circle is divided by 360 parts or degrees
• 1 revolution = 360 degrees
• 1 degree = 60 minutes
• 1 minute = 60 seconds
• °– degree
• ‘– minute
• “– seconds
2. Grad
• centesimal System
• circumference of the circle is divided into 400 parts called grads
• 1 revolution = 400 grads
• 1 grad = 100 centesimal minutes ( 1g = 100c)
• 1 centesimal minute = 100 centesimal seconds (1c = 100cc)
• g – grad
• c – centesimal minutes
• cc – centesimal seconds
3. Mil
• circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils
• 1 revolution equals 6400 mils
• 1600 mils equal 90 degree
• commonly used in military operations
4. Radians
• one radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of the circle by
an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle
• sometimes referred as the natural angle because there is no arbitrary
number in its definition
• 1 revolution equals 2 𝜋 radians
• 1 radian equals 180/𝜋
•
Designation of North Points
(map users are concerned with the north point for determination of directions)
1. True North
• North point of the true meridian
• It portrays the actual direction of the actual location of the earth’s
geographical pole
• Symbols used (star, asterisk, TN)

2. Magnetic North
• North point established by magnetic compass when there ar no local
attractions affecting it
• Magnetic north maybe located either east or west of the true north
• Symbols used (half arrowhead, MN)
3. Grid North
• North point established by lines on map which are parallel to selected
central meridian
• Symbols used (Full arrowhead, GN or Y)

4. Assumed North
• Used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point
• Symbols used (small blackened circle, AN)
Conversion of Angles

Convert 45°25’30” to:

a. degrees expressed in decimal.
b. grad
c. mils
d. radians

Solution
a. 1° = 60’ ; 1’ = 60”
let x = the value of 30” in minutes
1′
x = 30” ( )
60"
x = 0.5’
let y = the value of 25.5’ in degrees
1°
y = 25.5’ ( )
60′
y = 0.425°
let z = angle expressed in decimal degrees
z = 45.425°

or simply input the angle in your calculator then press the second function for degree

(note: different models and brand of calculator also differs od its syntax)

b. 400g = 360°

let x = the angle expressed in gradient

400𝑔
x = 45°25’30” ( )
360°
x = 50.4722g

c. 6400 mils = 360°

Let x = the angle expressed in mils
6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
x = 45°25’30” ( )
360°
x = 807.556 mils

d. 2𝜋 radians = 360°
let x = the angle expressed in radians
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
x = 45°25’30” ( )
360°
x = 0.7928 radians
More discussions and illustrative problems are available on your book. It is
recommended that you also read, understand the discussions and solve the
illustrative problems from your book.

EXPLORE

After reading, understanding and solve problems on the topics, meridians,

expedient methods of establishing meridians, units of angular measurement, and
designation of north points you can now answer/solve the question/problems in UE 5
problems 1 – 2, 4, 9 – 10

Note: Compile your work (UE 5). Follow the guide in compiling UE problems.
(Deadline of Submission will be posted on the GC. Thank you.)

IN A NUTSHELL
In this lesson you have learned about, meridians, expedient method of determining
meridian and angle unit of measurements..

Meridians are fixed line of reference for determining direction of lines.

Four Types of Meridians

True Meridian is a North-South line passing through the geographical poles of the earth.
It is sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic meridian. It is the generally
adapted reference line in surveying practice. The direction of true meridian at a survey
station is invariable and any record of true directions taken remains permanent and
unchanged regardless of time.

Magnetic Meridian are lines lies parallel to the magnetic lines of force of the earth and is
indicated by the direction of the magnetized needle. Magnetic meridians are not parallel
to the true meridian since it converges at a magnetic pole which is located some distance
away from the true geographical poles. Location of magnetic poles changes constantly.

Grid Meridian is a reference line parallel to the central true meridian of a system of plane
rectangular coordinates, one central meridian which coincide with the true meridian is
selected, and all other meridians are made parallel to this meridian.
Assumed Meridian is a line of reference arbitrarily chosen for convenience. This meridian
is usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining station or some well-defined
permanent point.

Expedient Method of Establishing Meridian

1. Establishing Magnetic Meridian by Compass

2. Determining True North by the Aid of Sun and a Plumb Line
3. Determining the True North by the Rising and Setting of the Sun
4. Determining the True North by Polaris
5. Determining the True South by Southern Cross
6. Determining Direction of True North (or South) by a wristwatch

Units of Angular Measurement

1. Degree
• sexagesimal system
• circumference of the circle is divided by 360 parts or degrees
2. Grad
• centesimal System
• circumference of the circle is divided into 400 parts called grads
3. Mil
• circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils
4. Radians
• one radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of the circle by
an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle

Designation of North Points

(map users are concerned with the north point for determination of directions)
1. True North
• North point of the true meridian
• It portrays the actual direction of the actual location of the earth’s
geographical pole
• Symbols used (star, asterisk, TN)
2. Magnetic North
• North point established by magnetic compass when there ar no local
attractions affecting it
• Magnetic north maybe located either east or west of the true north
• Symbols used (half arrowhead, MN)
3. Grid North
• North point established by lines on map which are parallel to selected
central meridian
• Symbols used (Full arrowhead, GN or Y)
4. Assumed North
• Used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point
• Symbols used (small blackened circle, AN)