Basic building construction works

level- I

Unit of Competence:-Perform Bench Work

Module Title:-Performing Bench Work

LG Code: EIS BBCW1 M12 LO1-LG-42

TTLMCode: EIS BBCW1M 12TTLM 0919v1

LO 1: Laying out and marking dimensions/ features on work piece

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Types and characteristics of materials
 Types and uses of tools and materials
 Laying out and marking dimension and features
 Applying safety procedures and OHS
 Conversion to metric system.
 Performing mathematical calculations
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to:

 Selectmaterials according to the requirements specified drawing.

 Mark Dimensions/features out and in accordance with drawing specifications using bench work tools
and equipment.

1
  Perform and apply Lay out and mark knowledge on safety procedures and use personal protective
devices..

Introduction

The term 'bench work' refers to the production of components by hand on the bench, whereas fitting deals
which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the required fit. Both the bench
work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and considerable manual efforts.

Types and characteristics of materials of Bench working and fitting shop.

Fitting work is a very important work in engineering. in fitting shop unwanted material is removed with the
help of hand tools. it is done repair and manufacturing purposes. the person working in fitting shop is called
fitter. a fitter should have the complete knowledge of the tools used in the shop commonly used tools are
hacksaw, files, chisels etc.
Laying out and laying out tools

Layout is the process of making lines, circles, and other marks with a variety of hand tools to represent the
features on the blueprint. These marks act as a reference for the operator during machining. They indicate
features such as hole locations, dimensions, and other specific areas to be machined. The work piece is coated
with a special layout dye, which helps the lines appear more clearly. Layout lines guide the operator to ensure
the part fits within the acceptable tolerances. By preventing errors, layout reduces costs. When machining a
part on the manual mill or lathe, moving the dial incorrectly or misinterpreting a dimension can be very
costly. Laying out the part allows you to visualize the correct reference points on the part. Figure 2 shows a
part with clear reference marks. Machining from the wrong reference point can result in incorrect dimensions
throughout the machining of the part. For example, if you go to assemble a part, and the holes are misaligned,
you will have to scrap the part, which can cost your company valuable time and money.

Before you can shape or form work pieces, you have to mark them to the required dimensions. Tools that are
used to marking out are scriber, try square, calipers, punches, surface plate, surface gauge, angle plate, v -
blokes, dividers, steel rule, tap rule, vernier caliper and micro meter.

2
 1.1. Concepts of engineeringmaterials

Classification of Engineering Materials

Metal Composit
Non-metals Cerami
es
Ferrous metals Thermoplastics Metal Matrix
Glasses
Non-Ferrous Thermosets Ceramic Matrix
Crystalline
metals
Elastomers ceramics
Polymer Matrix

1.2. Identifying properties of ferrous and nonferrous metals

A metal is an element that can conducts heat & electricity. Metals have the following properties:
 Solid at room temperature
 Reflective when polished
 Expand up on heating &contract on cooling
 Good conductor of heat & electricity
1.3. Metals can be classified in to two groups:-
 Ferrous metals: - are those which contain iron as the main content. E.g. Pig iron, wrought
iron, cast iron, steel, alloy select.
 Nonferrous metals: - are those which don’t contain an iron. E.g. Copper, zinc, tin, lead, brass,
bronze, etc.
The basic source of iron is iron ore. The separation of iron from iron ore is by smelting in blast furnace.
 Pig iron: all iron and steel products are derived from pig iron. The principal raw materials of used to
produce pig iron are iron ore, coke; lime stone, coal, fluxes etc. Pig iron produce in a blast furnace is
the first product in the process of converting by melting iron ore in to useful metals.
 Steel:-is an alloy of iron and carbon. It has high compressive strength & corrosion resistance compare
to other elements. It is used for cutting tools, hand tools, building frame structure etc.
The main difference b/n pig iron & steel is the carbon content. Pig iron contains 3%-4%carbon. To make steel
the carbon has to be reduced & other additional impurity to be burnt out , the carbon content varies from
0.1%- 1.5% .
1.4. Classification of Steels on their carbon content is:-
3
  Low carbon steel:-have less than 0.25% carbon content.
It is used for making wires, rivets, nails etc.
 Medium carbon steel:-have b/n 0.15%-0.25% c- content.
It is used for garden hoes, cranes, bolts, dies etc.
 High carbon steel: - have b/n 0.5% & 1.5% c- content. It is used for making hammers, springs, chisels,
punches, hand files, reamers, screw drivers etc.
Section of steels: - steel ingots are worked in to their final shapes by rolling to produce various shapes. For
example Sheet, plate, rod, square, hexagonal angle, channel
 Cast iron: - is an easily broken iron which contains some carbon & other impurities. It contains small
amount of silicon, phosphorous, sulfur, manganese, etc. it has carbon content b/n 2%-4%
1.5. Types and characteristicsof materials can be;
 Safety at all times should be positive. You must know what to do, what to use, what to prevent
& what guards in the work area.
 You must use personal protective equipment’s (PPE).such as safety shoes, goggle, leather
gloves, apron etc.
 Don’t test sharpened tools with your finger.
 Don’t use a file without handle.
 Use wire brush to remove metal chips, don’t use your bare hands.
 Use sharp materials /tools properly used.
 Keep work area free from un necessary item, that cause slipping hazards.
 Avoid touch any machines & tools without the recognition
 Heavy hammers should not be done on

2. Types and uses of tools and materials

Introduction

Types and characteristics of materials of Bench working and fitting shop.

Fitting work is a very important work in engineering. in fitting shop unwanted material is removed with
the help of hand tools. it is done repair and manufacturing purposes. the person working in fitting shop is
called fitter. a fitter should have the complete knowledge of the tools used in the shop commonly used
tools are hacksaw, files, chisels etc.
2.1. Types and uses of tools and materials
Tools used in fitting shop

4
 Fitting shop tools are classified as:-
1. clamping tools
2. measuring and marking tools
3. cutting tools
4. striking tools
5. drilling tools
6. threading tools
1. Clamping tools
A, bench vice:- it is a common tool used for holding jobs. It consists of cast iron body and cast iron jaws.
Two jaw plats are fitted on both the jaws. Jaw plates are made up of high carbon steel and are wear resistant.
One jaw is fixed to the body and the second slider on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle.

Fig 2:1 Fig 2:2

The jaw is opened up to require length job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened with handle.
B. Hand vice:-used to grip very small objects. These are made in different shape and sizes. A commonly
used hand at the bottom. A spring is provided between two legs. The jaws may be adjusted from a flange nut.

Fig 2:3
C, pin vice: - pin vice is used to hold wire or small diameter rods. It is also used for grinding small drills. It
consists of a small chuck made up to tools steels and a mild steel handle.

Fig 2:4
D, pipe vice: - it is used to hold pipes. It consists of a vertical screw with guare threads. A handle is attaché
on the top of the screw. A movable jaw is fixed on the lower end of the screw.

5
 Fig 2:5
2. Measuring and marking tools
 Try-square:- it is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade made up of steel
which is attached to a base at 90o. The base is made up of cast iron and steel try square is also used for
marking right angle and measuring straightness of surfaces.

Fig 2:5
Combination square :-It is a multipurpose instrument that can be use a level, miter, and try square.

Fig 2:6
Scriber:- it made up of height carbon steel and hardened from the front edge. It used to marking line.
Fig 2:7
 Center punch: - it is like dot punch except the angle of the punching end is 90o. it is used to make the
center of the hole before drilling.

 Steel rules:- these are made up of stain less steel are available in many sizes ranging from ½ ft to 2ft.
these are marked in inches or millimeters.

Fig 2:8
Two types of calipers
Outside calipers, as shown in are used for measuring external dimensions such as the length, diameter,
or even the thickness of a solid

6
 Fig 2:10
Inside calipers, as shown in are used for measuring internal dimensions such as the diameter of a
hole, or the width of a slot, etc.

Fig 2:1

It can be used for measuring external and internal dimensions. It consists of a graduated bar of
rectangular section. It has two jaws one is movable with a small vernier head and the other is fixed
A fine adjustment nut is also attached to the head. The dimension is measured by the jaw and is
indicated on graduated bar. Minimum dimension that can be expressed on veriner caliper is 0.001 or
0.02mm generally. The material of the part is stainless steel.

 Divider:- these are a made up of steel. Dividers have two legs having sharp feet. These are hinged at
the top. It is used for marking arcs dividing a line or transferring the dimensions. The blade should be
tightened sufficiently.

 Scriber:- it made up of height carbon steel and hardened from the front edge. It used to marking line.

Dot punch:- it used for marking dotted lineIt made up of high carbon steel or high speed steel one end is
sharpened.

H. Center punch: - it is like dot punch except the angle of the punching end is 90o. it is used to make the
center of the hole before drilling

7
1.4Laying out & out and marking dimension and features
LAYING OUT is the term used to describethe locating and marking out of lines, circles,arcs and points for drill
ing holes. These linesand reference points on the metal show themachinist where to machine.The tools used for
this work are known asLAYOUT TOOLS. Many common hand toolsfall into this category. The accuracy of t
he jobwill depend upon the proper and careful used ofthese tools.
1.5 Conversion to metric system.
*Metric system: - is a system of measurements which is established based up on meters .
*Inch system: - is a system of measurements which is established based up on inches.
E.g.1 inch = 2.54 cm
Metric thread:-is identified by the letter ‘M’ the nominal diameter& the pitch of thread. Eg. The metric
thread is outside diameter of 5mm & the pitch of thread 0.8mm, which identified as M5*O.8mm.

Nom. Diameter Pitch of thread Nom. diameter Pitch of thread

M3 O.50mm M10 1.50mm
M4 0.70mm M12 1.75mm
M5 0.80mm M16 2.00mm
M6 1.00mm M20 2.50mm
M8 1.25mm M24 3.00mm

3.Laying out and Marking dimensions/features on work pieces

3.1. Concepts of Marking and Measuring Tools

Marking out and measuring is a critical part of manufacturing and is usually subject to a number of quality
control checks. If components are marked out and measured wrongly before being cut out, there is no chance
of them fitting together when they are assembled. Always take marking out measurements from a datum as
indicated in Figure 4.1. A datum edge is a flat face or straight edge from which all measurements are taken.
This prevents cumulative errors being made. If you are using timber, choose the face side carefully, before
marking it with a small symbol for identification purposes, as shown in Figure 4.2. Then select a face edge
that is at right angles to the face side. Take all your measurements from this side and/or edge.

Figure 3.1: Datum edges

8
 Figure 3.2: Face edges
These are tools used for marking out and measuring that you need to know about:
 rules
 punches
 squares
 templates
 gauges
 micrometers
 Scribers.
3.1.1.Measuring Tools

 Rules
There are two basic types of rule: steel rule and steel tape. Both start at zero and have millimeter
graduations.

Table 3.3: The uses of rules

 Steel rule
These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These are
marked in inches or millimeters. All the faces are machined true. The edges of steel rule should be protected
from rough handling.

Figure 3.4. Steel rule

Tape Rule (Pocket or flexible)

9
 Pocket or flexible rules (Figure 4.47) have blades made of flexible steel, which are spring-loaded into a case.
They are longer than steel rules and can therefore be used to measure much greater lengths (typically up to 3
m). They are portable, and can be carried about in the pocket.

It is difficult to take accurate readings with a rule, because you have to estimate measurements.

MICROMETER

A micrometer is a more precise measuring instrument than the vernier calipers. The accuracy is come from
the fine thread on the screw spindle. The ratchet prevents excess force from being applied. Generally, the
screw spindle has a pitch of 0.5mm. The thimble is divided into 50 equal divisions. The precision of a
micrometer is achieved by a using a fine pitch screw mechanism.

The Main Parts of Micrometers:

 Anvil: The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the thing to be measured rests against.
 Barrel: The stationary round part with the linear scale on it.
 Frame: The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each other. It is thick
because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and contraction, which would distort the
measurement.
 Lock-ring: The knurled part that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when
momentarily holding a measurement.
 Screw (not seen): The heart of the micrometer, as explained under "Operating principles". It is inside
the barrel. (No wonder that the usual name for the device in German is Messschraube, literally
"measuring screw".)
 Spindle: The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to move toward the anvil.
 Thimble: The part that one's thumb turns.

Fig. AMain Parts of Micrometer

TYPES OF MICROMETER

There are three common types of micrometer; their names are based on their application:-

I. Outside micrometer
II. Inside micrometer

10
III. Depth micrometer

I. OUTSIDE MICROMETER

Outside micrometers are used to measure the thickness or the outside diameter of parts. They are available in
different range of sizes. (Fig. A)
a) Reading of outside micrometers

The most commonly used micrometer screw pitch is 0.5mm with 50 divisions on the thimble. The reading line
on the sleeve is graduated in MI millimeters and each millimeter is also divided into half. Every fifth
millimeter is numbered. It takes two revolutions of the thimble to move the spindle 1mm.

 The beveled edge of the thimble is graduated. In 50 divisions and every fifth line is numbered. One
revolution of the thimble moves the spindle 0.5mm. Thus, each thimble graduation equals l/50 or
0.5mm or 0.01mm.

 To read the micrometer, read the number of millimeters and half-millimeters visible on the sleeve.
Add these to the number hundredths of a millimeters indicated by the thimble graduation that
coincides with the reading line the sleeve.

Example:-

Figure 3.6. Outside micrometer reading

For example
1. Upper main scale (sleeve) 12.00 mm
2. Lower main scale (no half mm) 0.00 mm
3. Circular thimble scale 0.13 mm
4. 13 X 0.01 mm = 0.13mm
5. Total reading 12.13 mm

-: The reading is 7.72 mm.

In figure 12 the last graduation visible to the left of the thimble is 7.5 mm; therefore the reading is 7.5 mm
plus the thimble reading of 0.22 mm, giving 7.72 mm.
11
II. INSIDE MICROMETER

An inside micrometer (fig. B) is used to measure inside diameters or between parallel surfaces.

Fig. B Inside Micrometer

b) Reading of inside micrometers,

The readings of inside micrometer are the same the outside micrometers.

III. DEPTH MICROMETER

A depth micrometer (fig C) is used to measure the depth of holes, slots, counter bores, and recesses, and the
distance from a surface to some recessed part. This type of micrometer is read exactly opposite from the
method used to read an outside micrometer. The zero is located toward the closed end of the thimble. The
measurement is read in reverse and increases in amount (depth) as the thimble moves toward the base of the
instrument.Micrometers are used for measuring the depth of holes, slots, grooves, Keyway and shoulders etc.
Note that the scales are graduated in reverse as compared with external or internal micrometers.

Figure

3.9. Depth micrometer reading

Fig. C : Depth Micrometer

12
c) Reading of depth gauge micrometer

An important point to remember with the depth micrometer is that it measures in reverse from other
micrometers

 The zero reading of the depth micrometer appears when the thimble is at the top most position.

 The depth micrometer graduations are in reverse order.

 The thimble reads in clockwise direction.

Venire Calipers
 Vernier caliper:- venire caliper is a precision instrument used for measuring length and diameter.
it can be used for measuring external and internal dimensions.
 In ten division parts the length is only nine millimeter. Therefore one division on the vernier scale is
equivalent to 0.9mm. these means the difference b/n one graduation on the main scale & one
graduation on the vernier scale is, 1.0-0.9 = 0.1mm

Fig 2:9
Vernier caliper:- venire caliper is a recession instrument used for measuring length and diameter.
Parts of Vernier caliper
 Outside jaw:-is used to measure external diameter or width of an object.
 Inside jaw/ear:- is used to measure internal diameter of an object.
 Main scale:- is used to scale marked every millimeter, inches & fractions.
 Dernier scale/movable scale:- is gives interpolated measurements to the
Division of 1/10, 1/20, 1/50mm etc.
 Depth gauge:- is used to measure depth of an object or a hole.
 Locking screw:- it is tighten & loosening of the sliding parts.
Methods of Reading venire caliper
The main scale is accurately graduated in 1 millimeter. A movable jaw is fixed to a caliper jaw. The
movable scale is equally divided in to 10, 20, 50 divisions.
Steps of reading venire caliper

13
 1. Read the large numbered from the main scale & multiply by 10 mm.
2. Read the un numbered division from the main scale before zero counted & add the
large number
3. Read the vernier scale which concides from the main scale& count un numbered division added &
also multiply by the accuracy 0.05or 0.02mm.
4. Last step is total value are added all steps.
.e.g.

These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also be used as a depth
gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the other jaw is made part of a
Venire scale.

Figure 3.10.Vernier caliper Figure 3.11.Digital caliper capable of recording inside,

Outside, diagonal, hole edge and hole dimensional measurements
Caliper.

A caliper (British spelling also caliper) is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides
of an object. A caliper can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of the
caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is then removed and the distance read
by measuring between the tips with a measuring tool, such as a ruler.

14
It is used in many fields such as metalworking, mechanical engineering, gun-something, hand loading,
woodworking, woodturning and in medicine
The three common types are:
Outside
inside and
odd-leg Hermaphrodite
You can use inside calipers as outside calipers by merely turning the legs about the hinge. and in the case of
inside caliper, the legs bent outwards.

Figure 3.11.Outside caliper and inside caliper.

Figure 3.13.A-firm joint outside caliper. B-Bow spring outside caliper.C-Firm joint inside caliper.

D- Bow spring in side caliper. E-Hermaphrodite caliper

Protractor
Engineer's Protractor
An engineer's protractor, as shown in Fig. 3.12, is a general purpose tool used for the measuring / checking
angles, e.g. the angle of drill head, angle of cutting tool, and even for the marking out of angles on a
component part.

Fig.3.14.Engineer's Protractor Fig.3.15.Vernier Protractor

 Vernier Protractor
This is a precision measuring tool that the accuracy of measurement can reach ±5 minutes of an angle through
the vernier scale as shown in Fig.3.16.
15
 Dial Indicator
A dial indicator (dial gauge) can measure dimensions up to an accuracy of 0.01mm or even less. The
principle of it is that the linear mechanical movement of the stylus is magnified and transferred to the rotation
of pointer as shown in Fig. 12. It is usually used as a comparator for calibration or alignment of machine.

Fig. 3.17. Dial Indicator

3.1.2. Laying out and laying out tools
I. Laying out
Layout is the process of making lines, circles, and other marks with a variety of hand tools to represent the
features on the blueprint. These marks act as a reference for the operator during machining. They indicate
features such as hole locations, dimensions, and other specific areas to be machined. The work piece is coated
with a special layout dye, which helps the lines appear more clearly. Layout lines guide the operator to ensure
the part fits within the acceptable tolerances. By preventing errors, layout reduces costs.
II. Laying out tools
 Squares
There are a number of squares:
 Try square
 Miter square
 Engineer’s square.
Both the try square and engineers square are used to mark lines at 90° to an edge. A try square is
used on timber and an engineer’s square is used on metals. Both can be used for marking out plastics. You
can also use try squares and engineer’s squares to check that a cut or an edge has been made at right angles to
another. Hold the stock part of the square tightly against the edge that you have just cut. If you can see light
between the two edges then the cut is not square. A miter square is used for marking out 45° or 135° angles
on wood and plastic. Take great care when using any form of square for marking out or checking, and ensure
that it is being held firmly and tightly against the surfaces or edges of the material.

16
Table 3.18: The uses of squares.
Gauges
There are three basic types of gauge:
 marking gauge,
 mortise gauge
 cutting gauge.
A marking gauge is used for marking lines parallel to the face edge and side on wood. It consists of a
stock that slides up and down the stem, allowing various measurements to be set. The gauge should be set
using a steel rule that has a zero end. The spur (sharp point) is pushed into the wood as the gauge is pushed or
pulled along the length of the timber. It is important to hold the stock tightly against the edge of the timber to
ensure that you mark a parallel line.
A vernier height gauge is used for measuring height of an object or marking lines onto an object of given
distance from a datum base.
A cutting gauge is used for cutting across the grain. It is used in the same way as a marking gauge, but has
a blade instead of a spur. The blade cuts the fibers across the grain, making it easier and neater to cut with a
saw.
A mortise gauge has two pins; one pin is fixed and the other is adjustable. It is used for marking two
parallel lines where a mortise and tenon joint is to be cut. The process of marking out is exactly the same tise
gauge as with the two other gauges.

17
Figure 3.19: Mortise gauge Figure 3.20: Vernier Height Gauge
Scribers
A scriber is used to scratch on the surface of metal and plastic lightly. If you are using a scriber on metal, it
is a good idea to apply a coat of engineer’s blue. This is a spirit-based liquid that is applied to a metal surface.
When the scriber is dragged across the engineer‘s blue it leaves a clean line, which can be easily seen.

Figure 3.21: A scribers

Punches
Centre punches are used to make an indent in the surface where holes are to be drilled in metal, as shown in
Figure 4.19. They provide a starting point for the drill and stop it skidding over the surface. Dot punches are
used for marking the centers where dividers are to be used. They are similar to a center punch, except that the
tips are ground to a 60° rather than a 90° point.
Center Punch Procedure
1. Make sure that the point of the punch is sharp before starting.
2. Hold the punch at a 45 degree angle and place the point carefully on the layout line.
3. Tilt the punch to a vertical position and strike it gently with a light hammer.
4. If the punch mark is not in the proper position, correct it as necessary.

Figure 3.22. A Center punch, and the punch in use

 Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the
measuring edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting
lines. It is made of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size
is specified by the length of the leg.

Figure 3.23.A-place and swing the compass on the center point of the circle or arc.
B-Use the Divider to Step off Measurement

18
Figure 3.24.Odd leg caliper and divider.
 Surface plate
The surface plate provides a 'plane of reference' for checking other surfaces. The plate is made from an iron
casting. Its top surface is perfectly flat, and the underside is ribbed to prevent distortion of the plate (Figure
3.24). It is used generally for setting up work for marking out and testing. The surface table allows larger
work to be checked for flatness.

Figure 3.25.Surface plate

 Surface gauge
You use the surface gauge for marking parallel lines and finding centers. Figure 3.25 shows the procedure:

1. Set the scriber at the height you want, using the rule
2. Hold the work against an angle plate or on a vee block.
3. Move the block until the scriber touches the work.
 Angle Plate
The angle plate is made from a good-quality casting.
It consists of two faces machined at 90° to each other (Figure 3.26). You can fix work to the plate using bolts,
which can pass through the slots provided. You can also use the angle plate to support work when you are
using the surface gauge for marking out.
 Vee Blocks
You use vee blocks to support cylindrical work when you are testing it or marking it out. The blocks, which
are supplied in pairs, are made from cast iron. There are grooves along the sides, which allow the clamp to be
used (Figure 3.27). If the work is long, you will need a 'matching pair'.

Figure3.26. Surface gauge Figure 3.27. Angle plateFigure 3.28.UsingFigure 3.29. Using
the surface gauge.theVee block.
(a) Set the scriber; (b) Hold the work against the angle plate and move the block againstthe work.
 Combination Set
The combination set (Figure 3.30) is an important tool in the workshop, because you can use it as a center
square, a try square, a protractor for marking out, measuring and testing. There are three heads (protractor,
square and center), which slide onto a rule, which can be fixed at any position using the nut provided.
The main parts of the combination set are used as follows.

19
 1. The try square has angles of 45° and 90°, which you can use to mark out, or to check that a surface is
vertical. You can also use it as a square (Figure 3.31(a)).
2. You can use the center square to find the center of circular pieces (Figure 3.31 (b)).
3. You use the protractor with the rule to mark out or measure angular surfaces (Figure 3.31 (c)).
Measuring and inspection tools
You can obtain detailed dimensions of work pieces using measuring tools such as the rule, or the combination
set. You can also test existing features (such as holes) for accuracy using inspection tools such as plugs and
gauges.

Figure 3.30. Combination set.

Figure 3.31. Using the combination set: (a) try square; (b) Center square; (c) protractor

4. Applying safety regulations

4.1 Metal work shop Safety
4.1.1. Definition of Safety
General safety
Safety means the right way of doing things.
The safety in Workshops has been written not only to provide appropriate safety procedures but also to assist
trained workshop personnel with the provision of a reference document outlining the general principles of safe
working practices relevant to the mechanical engineering aspects. It relates to specific areas where definite
safety measures are required for workshop operations.
General safety rules are established for three good reasons:-
 To protect you and your colleagues from badly harm.
 To minimize damage to facilities, machinery and tools with which you work.

20
  To enable you experience a positive safety attitude not only in the work shop but also in your entire
professional career.
Safety is not only the responsibility of a single fellow. It is the responsibility of every one.
4.1.2. Classification of Safety
1 . Personal safety:
 Wear approved safety glasses or goggles at all times.
 Wear approved foot wears at all times.
 Remove all rings, Watches, or bracelets.
 Long hair must be protected by a hair net or an approved protective shop cap.
 Avoid horse play at all times, since an accidental slip or fall can cause a serious cut or body injury.
 Never handle sharp tools or cutters by hand.
 Use proper lifting techniques whenever lifting tools or machines.
 Do not carry sharp tools on pockets.
 Remove all rings, Watches, or bracelets.
 Don’t wear loose clothes.
 Do not use a file without handle.
2. Bench work and fitting shop safety:
 Keep hands and tools wiped clean and free of dirt, oil and grease.
 Always keep the work shop clean.
 Do no keep working tools at the edge of the table.
 Keep the floor free of oil and grease
 While sawing, keep the blade straight; otherwise it will break
 Clean the vice after use.
 Keep the floor around a machine or bench free of tools or stock.
 Sweep up the metal chips on the floor frequently.
3. Machine and tool safety
 Do no keep working tools at the edge of the table.
 Never place tools or materials on machine tools.
 Always keep the machine clean.
 Always stop a machine before attempting to clean it.
 Do not use vice as an anvil.
Cause of accidents
1. improper dressing

21
 2. poor house keeping
3. insensible behavior
4. incorrect procedure
Preventing accidents
1. proper dressing
2. good house keeping
3. sensible behavior
4. correct procedur
5. Conversion to metric system
Performing mathematical calculation
English to Metric Conversions
There are two different conversions to relate the foot and the meter. In 1893, the United States officially
defined a meter as 39.37 inches. Under this standard, the foot was equal to 12/39.37 m (approximately 0.3048
m). In 1959, a new standard was adopted that defined an inch equal to 2.54 cm. Under this standard, the foot
was equal to exactly 0.3048 m. The older standard is now referred to as the U.S. survey foot, while the new
standard is referred to as the international foot.

 Trigonometric functions
The sine, cosine and tangent of an angle are all defined in terms of trigonometry.
Definition of Trigonometric functions

22
Exact values for Trigonometric functions of most commonly used angles.

Conversion to metric system.

*Metric system: - is a system of measurements which is established based up on meters .
*Inch system: - is a system of measurements which is established based up on inches.
E.g.1 inch = 2.54 cm
Metric thread:-is identified by the letter ‘M’ the nominal diameter& the pitch of thread. Eg. The metric
thread is outside diameter of 5mm & the pitch of thread 0.8mm, which identified as M5*O.8mm.

Nom. Diameter Pitch of thread Nom. Diameter Pitch of thread

M3 O.50mm M10 1.50mm
M4 0.70mm M12 1.75mm
M5 0.80mm M16 2.00mm
M6 1.00mm M20 2.50mm
M8 1.25mm M24 3.00mm

LO 2: Cut chip and file rectangular or round blocks

1. Reading and interpreting working plan and drawing
1.1 Definition of Planning

What is planning?

Planning:-is the process of deciding in detail how to do something before you actually start to do it. It is the
process of setting goals, developing strategies, and outlining tasks and schedules to accomplish the goals.
23
Planning :- is the systematic process of establishing a need and then working out the best way to meet the
need, within a strategic framework that enables you to identify priorities and determines your operational
principles. Planning means thinking about the future so that you can do something about it now. This doesn’t
necessarily mean that everything will go according to plan. It probably won’t. But if you have planned
properly, your ability to adjust, without compromising your overall purpose, will be that much greater.
1.2. Why do Plan?
Four reasons for planning:-
 Provides direction
 Reduces uncertainty
 Minimizes waste and redundancy
 Sets the standards for controlling
1.3. Engineering:-
 Engineering is a professional art of applying science and technology to optimize the conversion of
natural resources to the benefit of mankind. (Natural resources available in the universe are Iron ore,
Air, Sun, Water, Space, Human etc.)
 Human resource is a supreme strength to develop Engineering to contribute the welfare and progress
of the society or to this nation.
1.4. Engineer:-
 Engineer is a person having creative thoughts and ideas to develop technology for the noble cause of
the society or to nation.
 All objects begins an idea, Conceived and visualized by the Engineer. He makes an internal
representation of the object in his mind and communicates it to others through media of expression.
1.4.1. Professional activities of an engineer:
1. Planning: (Proposal of doing something)
 It means a set of preparation is to do in order to achieve something or any kind of task/work.
(Preparation means programmes, drawings, Materials requirement and their sources, time schedule,
cost estimate, scheme and design and method of preparation etc.)
 It is a management function of defining goal of an individual / organizations.
 It determines the task/work and resources necessary to achieve set goals.
 It helps to save materials, labor, time, money efforts and process etc. so that any kind of work/task
can be performed successfully without having any difficulty with full confidence.
2. Visualization (related to vision / creating picture in mind)
 It is a behavioral technique of improving performance of his individual.

24
  It encourage for creating metal picture for successful execution of any work.
3. Hard work and practice (doing something repeatedly)
 There is no substitute for hard work. A spiritual person says that “Work is Worship”, “Practice
makes the man perfect”. Practice makes a person to acquire skill to use their knowledge for
gaining self-assurance and confidence to handle any kind of work without any difficulty.
4. Punctuality (being in time):
 Punctuality is a moral goodness, which is to be practiced very well punctuality is nothing but
courtesy to others. By being punctual you respect the value of time of others. This is more than
anything else. It helps you to plan your activities and schedule with precision and efficiency.
5. Work place Environment:
 Workplace environment is to be maintained neat and clean, and spread happiness, cheerful, love &
affection around your work place, at home and also to the community.
6. Efficiency: It is the ability to do whatever we expected of us as promptly accurately and economically as
possible.
 These activities are to be performed by an engineer to maintain quality and integrity for successful
execution of any task & to face the challenge of globalization.
6.1. Workshop:-
 It is a place of work for preparing variety of jobs/products by using different kinds of Instruments,
hand tools and Machines.
 In order to prepare the products in W/s, the w/s is divided in to many branches according to nature
of work.
Ex: 1.Fitting shop
2. Welding shop
3. Sheet metal shop
4. Machine shop
5. Foundry & Forging shop etc.
Required information to prepare the product
It is a common experience that when we want to prepare any product, the following
information’s are required:-
1. Actual Shape
2. Accurate Size
3. Manufacturing Method

25
  Before taking up the construction of a product, the person who prepares it must have a clear
picture of the shape and size of the object in his mind and to know the method of manufacturing
process for successful execution of the work.
2. Cutting, reaming and threading work pieces
Introduction
Threads may be cut internally using a tap externally using a die. The proper selection and use of these
threading tools is an important phase of machine shop work.
Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool, which contains a set of three to a dozen andmore
bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced about the periphery of the honing tool. Theyare held
against the work surface with controlled light pressure, usually exercised by small springs. Thehoning tool is
given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to produce across hatched lay pattern
of very low surface roughness:

Schematics of honing process showing the honing tool, how the abrasive sticks are pressed against the work
surface by springs, and the resulting surface pattern.
In addition to the surface finish of about 0.1 µm, honing produces a characteristic crosshatched surface that
tends to retain lubrication during operation of the component, thus contributing to its function and service life.
A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to help remove the chips. A common
application of honing is to finish the holes. Typical examples include bores of internal combustion engines,
bearings, hydraulic cylinders, and gun barrels.
Cut threads using tap and stock and die
Dies
Hand Die
Threading dies are used to cut external threads on round work. The most common threading dies are the
solid die nut, and the adjustable and removable round split die.
.
Taps and dies

26
Screwing is a temporary method of fastening parts together. Methods for cutting screw threads include the use
of the centre lathe. For bench work, however, taps and dies are used.
Taps
These are the tools used for cutting internal (female) threads. They are made of high-carbon steel or high-
speed steel. The tap has a shank with a square end to take the tap wrench or holder. The shank is smaller than

Tap Drill Size

Before a tap is used, the hole must be drilled to the correct tap drill size. This is the drill size that would leave
the proper amount of material in the hole for a tap to cut a thread. When a chart is not available, the tap drill
size for the ISO (International Standards Organization) thread can be found easily by applying this simple
formula:
TDS = tap drill size
TDS = M - P M = metric diameter of the tap
P = pitch of the thread in millimeters
Hand Tap
A tap is a cutting tool used to cut internal threads. Normally it’s made of high-speed steel (HSS). Hand taps
are usually made in sets of three, because it is better to distribute all the cutting work during the
thread−process to three taps.
No. 1 (taper) tap: 1 ring on shank
No. 2 (plug) tap: 2 rings on shank
No. 3 (bottoming) tap: without ring
The most common taps have two or three flutes in order to form the cutting edges, transport the chips out of
the hole and give way for the lubricant. The end of the tap is square so that a tap wrench can be used to turn it
into a hole.

27
Tapping a Hole
Before a tap is used, a hole must be drilled in the work piece to the correct tap drill size. The tap drill size
(T.D.S.) is the size of the drill that should be used to leave the proper amount of material in the hole for a tap
to cut threads. Then countersink both sides of the hole.

Threading Dies
A threading die is used to cut external threads on round work pieces. The most common threading dies are the
adjustable and solid types. The round adjustable die is split on one side and can be adjusted to cut slightly
over or undersized threads. It is mounted in a die stock, which has two handles for turning the dies onto the
work.The solid die, cannot be adjusted and generally used for recutting damaged or oversized threads. Solid
dies are turned onto the thread with a special diestock, or adjustable wrench.

28
Cutting, chipping or filling rectangular or round blocks

HAND SAWING
Introduction
Sawing is a process of cutting metal stock that is impractical to use a file, a chisel or a machine with a multi-
point cutting tool called a hand hacksaw. A hand hacksaw can also be used for cutting off a jammed bolt,
pipes, tubing and rods for special or custom fittings on the job (on a field work).

The hacksaw is another form of crosscut saw used for fine cutting. These saws range in sizes from 8" to 16"
long. They can be obtained with teeth varying in size. They range from 12 to 16 points per inch.

Parts of a HacksawThe hacksaw is used by the metalworker. Its essential parts are the frame, the handle, and

the blade. The frame should be rigid enough to hold the blade firmly in line without being too heavy.
Hacksaw Frames
29
Some saws are made with adjustable frames. These frames, by simple adjustment, permit the use of several
blade lengths.
There are two types of hand hacksaw frames:-
 The “Fixed-length frame“ is designed for a 300mm hacksaw blade. This is the most available size.
 The “Adjustable frame“ is designed for a hacksaw blade length between 200mm and 300mm. This is
the available tool in our workshop.
The frame may be solid or adjustable. An adjustable frame, since its length can be changed, will take blades
of various lengths. A solid frame takes a blade of just one length.

Hacksaw Blades

Blades may be all-hard or flexible. In the flexible blades, only the teeth are hard. In bench work, using a light,
rigid saw frame, the all-hard blades give excellent service. When working in awkward positions and when the
work cannot be held rigidly, the flexible blade gives more satisfactory service. The number of teeth per inch is
very important in the selection of a blade for a given job. Standard blades are made with 14, 18, 24, and 32
teeth per inch.

The material of hacksaw blades are made from high-grade tool steel, tungsten high-speed steel, molybdenum
steel and high-speed steel.

The rigid blade indicates that the entire blade is hardened. Although the rigid blade retains a sharp cutting
edge longer, it is relatively brittle and may be broken easily. Flexible back means that only the teeth on the
blade are hardened. Therefore, in contrast to the rigid blade, the flexible-back blade can flex (bend slightly)
during the cutting process without breaking.

Blade manufactures recommend a cutting speed:

 Ranging from 40 strokes per minute for tough materials like stainless steels and tool steels to 55
strokes per minute for mild materials like aluminum and brass. At this speeds, the worker is able to
control the force on the teeth during the return stroke and saw without tiring.

30
A cutting rule that should be recalled while cutting any material is:
“A cutting tool must be harder than the material to be cut“.
Selecting Blades

In choosing the correct blade for the particular job, there are two main considerations:

I. Should it be all-hard or flexible, and

II. What should the number of teeth per inch (pitch) be?
The answers vary:

 For brass, tool steel, cast iron, rails, and other stock of heavy cross section, use the all-hard blade.
 Use a flexible blade for hollow shapes and metals of light cross section, such as channel iron, tin,
tubing, copper, habit, and aluminum.
 Use a coarse pitch, such as 14 teeth per inch, on machine, cold-rolled, or structural steel.
 Use an 18-tooth blade on solid stock, aluminum, tool steel, habit, high-speed steel, cast iron, and the
like. In fact, this pitch is for general use.
 For tubing, tin, copper, brass, channel iron, and sheet metal of over 18 gage, use blades with 24 teeth
per inch.
 For thin-wall tubing, conduits, and sheet metal thinner than 18 gage, use blades with 32 teeth per inch.

Using the Hacksaw

 Select the proper blade, as explained in the previous section.

 Mount it tightly in the frame.
 Mark the stock where it is to be cut, with a scriber, pencil, or soapstone. If high accuracy is required,
mark the place with a file cut. This can be used to start the saw.
 Grip the work tightly in the vise so that the place of cutting will be very near the jaws of the vise.
 To prevent marring the work by the clamping of the vise jaws, wood or a softer metal should be placed
between the work and the jaws. To hold oval or circular work in a square-jaw vise, filler pieces of
wood, leather, or copper should be used to grip the work and prevent scarring. Be sure that metal
fillers are bent down over the jaws of the vise out of the way of your fingers.
 Expose as much surface as possible of any odd-shaped work, so that a corner can be cut gradually, not
sharply. In this way, a maximum number of teeth can engage the work at one time.
 Start hacksaw cuts by having the blade almost parallel to the surface along which the cutting is to be
done — never at a broad angle to it.
 The teeth of the blade should always point toward the work and away from the worker. Mounting the
blade in the frame in this manner makes the cutting take place on the pushing motion, away from the
body.
 At the end of the pushing motion, relieve the pressure on the saw, lift it slightly, and then draw the
blade straight back. Never saw faster than 60 strokes per minute.
 After starting the cut with a number of short strokes, make all other strokes as long as possible without
banging the saw frame against the work.
 Always keep the blade at the same angle. Changing the angle will bind the blade in the cut and prevent
its being moved.
 In cutting very thin metal, place the work between two pieces of wood or soft metal or against one
piece of thick wood alone. Cutting through this assembly prevents chattering, produces a smoother cut,
and avoids damage to the material.
 To make a cut deeper than the frame, turn the blade sideways.
31
  When the work is nearly cut through, raise the saw slightly to prevent the teeth from catching.

Safety and Care of Hacksaw:

 Do not bear too hard on the cutting stroke. The strain may break the blade, and when the pressure is
suddenly removed the blade or material may jab into your hand.
 Keeps the blade cutting in the same direction all the time. Twisting the blade may break it and result in
an accident.
 Do not use a blade with broken teeth, for they prevent smooth sawing strokes. When the jagged part of
the broken teeth hits the work, the saw may jump out of the cutting groove and throw you off your
balance.
 If the work is not held tightly in place, it may slip and break the saw blade.
 Slow up the last few cuts. Towards the end, the saw may cut through suddenly and let your hands hit
on the sharp edges of the metal.
 When using filler pieces of metal in a vise to prevent scarring the work, be sure that they are bent
down over the vise jaws. Jagged edges sticking up in the air may cut your fingers.
 The cutting action is carried on the foreword action only. So the blade must be mounted with its teeth
pointing foreword.
 Suitable tension should be applied on the blade to avoid breakage or loosen.
 Change the blade if some teeth are broken.
 Avoid rapid and erratic strokes of cut.
 Avoid too much pressure.
 Work piece must be hold firmly.

Saw teeth for different materials

No of teeth /inch Functions
14 For solid sections of soft materials
18 Suitable for general use. Solid sections of soft materials and large sections of hard
materials (e.g. alloy steel)
24 Small solid sections, between 3 and 6 mm(e.g. heavy tubing and sheets)
32 For sections less than 3 mm thick

3.2. Chipping
Removing the metal with a chisel is called chipping and is normally used where machining is not possible.
While chipping, safety goggles must be put on to protect eyes from the flying chips. To ensure safety of
others, a chip guard is placed in position. Care should be taken to see that the chisel is free from mushroom
head.

32
 Fig.3.8. Proper body position when chipping
 Chisels
 Types of chisels:
These are sometimes referred to as cold chisels because they are used to cut cold metals. They are made of
cast steel or alloy steel, with a hardened and tempered cutting edge.
The common types of chisel (Figure 3.8) include:
1. The flat chisel: used for general-purpose chiseling;
2. The cross-cut chisel: used for cutting grooves such as keyways, and for chipping;
3. The half-round-nosed chisel: used for cutting grooves (which are either curved or half-round);
4. The diamond-pointed chisel: used for working into corners and cutting small grooves.

Fig.3.8. Common types of chisel

3.3. Filing
Filing is a method of removing metal, and the file (Figure 3.9), which is the most widely used hand tool in the
school workshop, is used for this cutting operation. It is made of carbon tool steel containing about 1.3 per
cent carbon.

 The Main Parts

33
A file is a hand cutting tool made of high-carbon steel, having a series of teeth cut on the body by parallel
chisel cuts. The parts of a file are shown in figure. 3.9. Files are used to remove surplus metal and to produce
finished surfaces.

Fig.3.9. Parts of file

 Methods of filing:
There are several methods of filing, each with a specific purpose. With reference to the figure, the following
may be noted:
1. Holding the file: For heavy work and to remove more metal, a high pressure is used.
For light and fine work, a light pressure is applied.
2. Filing internal curves: A part of half round file only makes contact as shown during
filing operation. Movement of the file is indicated by arrows.
3. Cross filing: It is the most common method of filing. Cross filing is carried out across two diagonals,
to produce medium surface finish. It is used when large an amount of metal is to be removed. By cross
filing ‘rounding’ the surface is reduced.
4. Straight filing: When a short length of work piece is required to have a flat surface,
straight filing is used. File marks made during cross filing may be removed, to produce a relatively
smooth surface.
5. Draw filing: It is done to get a finely finished surface. It produces a smoother surface
finish than straight filing. A smooth or dead smooth flat file is used for this.
Use the single cut on softer materials (such as brass and aluminum) and the double cut for general filing,
especially on iron and steel.

34
 Fig.3.10. Methods of filing

 Types of file based on their shapes:

Fig.3.11. Types of based on shapes

3.4. Scraping
Scraping is the process of removing high spots on the surface of a piece of work. It is a difficult operation, and
is not often performed in the school workshop.

35
  Types of scrappers:
These sharp edged tools are used to remove uneven spots on the surfaces. They are of different shapes.
3.4.1. Flat scraper
It is used for removing metal from flat surfaces. The blade must have a slight curvature at the cutting edge.
The corners are rounded to help the user, scrape at the exact spots.
3.4.2. Half round bearing scraper
This is used for scraping curved and cylindrical surface split bearings, big bush bearings etc.
3.4.2. Triangular scraper
This is used for scraping curved surfaces, holes and bores. Specification is by length. Example: 200 mm, 300
mm etc.
Fig.3.12. Common types of scraper

Fig.3.13. Using half round scraper

36
LO 3: Drill, ream and lap holes
Techniques in drilling, reaming, spot- facing and lapping hole

Introduction to drilling

Drilling, Reaming, Boring, Tapping These four methods all produce holes of different types. Drilling
produces round holes of different types; reaming is used to improve the dimensional tolerance on a drilled
hole; boring uses a special machine operating like a lathe, to cut high precision holes; and tapping creates
screw-threads in drilled holes.
ypes of drill tools:-the common types of drills are: flat drill, straight fluted, twist drill etc.
Twist drill:- is the most common used in metal work. It is made of two or three cutting lips, the two lips drill
is used to drill holes in solid metals while the three lip drill are used to enlarge holes already
drilled. The flute is used for remove chips from the hole.
Factors of sharpening a drill bit:- lip clearance, length of lips, angle of lips ,location of dead center.
Reaming:- is the operation to make after drill a hole to produce perfectly round shape or accurate in diameter.
It can be made by hand reamer or machine reamer.
 Hand reamer:- it is a reaming tool has a straight shank &square end that can be
griped with tap wrench
 Machine reamer:- the tool it can be mount on the center lath.
Counter sinking:- is the operation of producing a tapered /cone shaped to the
end of a hole
Spot facing:- is the operation of soothing or squaring the surface around a hole to
Accommodate the head of a bolt or nut.
Lapping:- is the work piece free from any material to contact with the side of a
hole that can be lapped by the use of lapping tool.
Drill: - the tool used for moving round holes is called drill. It is made up of high speed steel.
Drilling:is a process of producing round holes in a solid material or enlarging existing holes with the use of
multi tooth cutting tools called drills or drill bits. In other words it is the process of making holes of
cylindrical shape on metals and other materials using drill bits and drilling machines.
Drilling machine: are driven either manual or by electrical power.

1.1. Classification of drilling machines

Drilling machines: are classified into hand and breast drill, portable electrical drill, bench drill, pillar dills
and others.
37
1. The hand and breast drill: are driven by hand and are commonly used where electricity is unavailable
and are used for light work
2. Portable electrical drill: are most suitable to work which cannot be done with bench drill.
3. Bench drill: is one of the most common used machines in the work shop. This machine has the
following parts. The base, the column, the head, the spindle, the pulleys, the motor, the belt, the safety
swatch, the feed handle, the depth gauge, the head locking handle, the gear lever, the collar, the chuck
and the main switch.
4. Pillar dills: is similar in design to the bench drill. But it is floor mounted and usually much large.
Various cutting tools are available for drilling, but the most common is the twist drill.
 Standard Operations
Drilling machines may be used for performing a variety of operations besides drilling a round hole. A few
of the more standard operations, cutting tools and work set-ups will be briefly discussed.
A. Drilling – may be defined as the operation of producing a hole by removing a metal from a solid
mass using a cutting tool called a twist drill.

Fig1.1. Variety of operations of drilling machine.

B. Countersinking – is the operation of producing a tapered or cone shaped enlargement to the end
of the hole.
C. Reaming – is the operation of sizing and producing a smooth round hole from a previously drilled
or bored hole with the use of a cutting tool having several cutting edges.
D. Boring – is the operation of enlarging and truing a hole by means of a single-point cutting tool
which is usually held in a boring bar.
E. Spot-facing – is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole to provide a
seat for the head of a cap screw or a nut. For the spot facing operation, the work being machined
should be securely clamped and the machine set approximately ¼ of the drilling speed.
Spot facing is a process of machining a flat surface around the mouth of a hole in order to provide
a flat seat for the head of a bolt or a nut.

38
 F. Tapping – is the operation of cutting internal threads in a hole with a cutting tool called a tap.
Special machine or gun taps are used with a tapping attachment when this operation is performed
by power in a machine.
G. Counter boring – is the operation of enlarging the top of a previously drilled hole to a given
depth to provide a square shoulder for the head of a bolt or a cap screw. Counter boringis used to
form a flat, recessed seating for a cheese head bolt or cap screw.

Sensitive Drill Presses

Fig1.2. Parts of drill Presses.

1.2. Drill Bits
1.2.1 Parts of Twist drills
Shank
Most twist drills used in machine shop work today are made of high-speed steel. High-speed drills have
replaced carbon-steel drills since they can be operated at double the cutting speed and the cutting edge lasts
longer. A drill may be divided into three main parts: the shank, the body and the point.
Generally drills up to 13mm in diameter have straight drill shanks, while those over this diameter usually
have tapered shanks. Straight-shank drills (fig. 08/02) are held in a drill chuck; tapered-shank drills (fig.
08/01) fit into the internal taper of the drill press spindle.

 A tang (fig. 08/01) is provided on the end of tapered-shank drills to prevent the drill from slipping while it
is cutting and to allow the drill to be removed from the spindle or socket without the shank being damaged
by using a drill drift.

Fig1.3. Twist drills bit.

39
 Body
The body(fig. 08/02) is the portion of the drill between the shank (8.2.1.) and the point (8.4.). It consists of a

number of parts important to the efficiency of the cutting action.

The flutes(fig. 08/01 and fig. 08/03) are two or more helical grooves cut around the body the body of the

drill. They form the cutting edges, admit cutting fluid, and allow the chips to escape from the hole.

Fig1.4. Body of Twist drills.

The margin(fig. 08/01 and fig. 08/03) is the narrow, raised section on the body of the drill. It is

immediately next to the flutes and extends along the entire length of the flutes. Its purpose is to provide a

full size to the drill body and cutting edges.

The lip clearance(fig. 08/04) is the undercut portion of the body between the margins and the flutes. It is

made smaller to reduce friction between the drill and the hole during the drilling operation.

40
 The web(fig. 08/04) is the thin partition in the center of the drill which extends the full length of the flutes.

This part forms the chisel edge (8.4.1.) at the cutting end of the drill. The web gradually increases in

thickness toward the shank to give the drill strength.

Point

The point(fig. 08/04) of a twist drill consists of the chisel edge, the lips, the lip clearance angle and the heel.

The chisel edge (web)(fig. 08/04) is the chisel-shaped portion of the drill point.

The lip (cutting edge) (fig. 08/02 and fig. 08/03) a formed by the intersection of the flutes. The lips must

be equal length and have the same angle so that the drill will run true and will not cut a hole larger than

the size of the drill.

The lip clearance angle(fig. 08/03) is the relief which is ground on the point of the drill extending from

the cutting lops back to the heel(fig. 08/03). The average lip clearance is from 8 to 12, depending upon

the hardness or softness of the material to be drilled

1.2.2 Speed
A wide range of drills and drill sizes is used to cut various metals; an equally wide range of speeds is required
for the drill to cut efficiently. For every job, there is the problem of choosing the drill speed which will result
in the best production rates and the least amount of downtime for regrinding the drill. The recommended
cutting speeds for drilling various types of materials may be found in the table shown below. The most
economical drilling speed depends upon many variables such as:
 the type and hardness of the material
 the diameter and material of the drill
 the type and condition of the drill press
 the efficiency of the cutting fluid employed
To determine the correct number of r/min (revolution per minute) of a drill press spindle for a given size drill,
the following should be known:
 the type of material to be drilled
 the recommended cutting speed of the material
 the type of material from which the drill is made

41
 Table 1.1.Drill size and types of materials.
Drill size stainless steel tool steel cast iron machine steel aluminum
2 1910 2865 3820 4775 9550
3 1275 1910 2545 3185 6365
4 955 1430 1910 2385 4775
5 765 1145 1530 1910 3820
6 635 955 1275 1590 3180
7 545 820 1090 1365 2730
8 475 715 955 1195 2390
9 425 635 850 1060 2120
10 350 520 695 870 1735
15 255 380 510 635 1275
20 190 285 380 475 955
25 150 230 305 380 765
 CS = 12 CS = 18 CS = 24 CS = 30 CS = 60
 CS in m/min CS x 1000 CS x 320
 Formula r/min = ---------  -------  -------------
  x D in mm 3.14 x D
 D For metric calculations, the formula is used:
CS (m)
rpm=
ΠD (mm)
It is necessary to convert the meters in numerator to millimeters so that both parts of the equation are in the
same unit. To accomplish this, multiply the CS in meters per minute by 1000 to bring it to millimeters per
minute.
CS×1000 CS×320
rpm= rpm=
ΠD This can be simplified to D
This is done for the reason that not all machines have variable speed drives and therefore cannot be set to
the exact calculated speed. Dividing 1000 by π (3.14) we arrive at the formula above. This formula is
accurate enough for most drilling operations.
Example:
Calculate the rpm required to drill a 15mm hole in tool steel using a high speed steel drill.
Solution:
CS×320 18×320 5760
rpm= = = =384
D 15 15
1.1.1. Feed
Feed is the distance that a drill advances into the work for each revolution.

42
In other words the feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the job at each revolution of the spindle.
It is expressed in millimeter. The feed may also be expressed as feed per minute. The feed per minute may be
defined as the axial distance moved by the drill into the work per minute. The feed per minute may be
calculated as:

F = Fr × N
The rate of feed is generally governed by:
 the diameter of the drill
 the material of the work piece
 the condition of the machine
Table1.2. Drill size and feed per revolution.
Drill size feed per
revolution

1 to 3 0.02 to 0.05
3 to 6 0.05 to 0.10
6 to 13 0.10 o
0.18
13 to 25 0.18 o
0.38
2. Boring holes
2.1 Introduction to Boring
In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast) by means of a
single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), such as in boring a gun barrel or
an engine cylinder
The enlargement of holes is achieved via boring operations. The hole diameter is either enlarged with a single
insert attached to a long boring bar, or with a boring head which has a diameter equal to the diameter of the
hole to be enlarged. Long boring bars statically and dynamically deform under the cutting forces during
boring operations. Excessive static defections may violate the dimensional tolerance of the hole, and
vibrations may lead to poor surface, short tool life and chipping of the tool. Predictions of the force, torque
and power are required in order to identify suitable machine tool and fixture set up for a boring operation. A
comprehensive engineering model, which allows prediction of cutting forces, torque, power, dimensional
surface finish and vibration free cutting conditions, is required in order to plan boring operations in the
production floor.Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole.

43
Fig 2.1.Boring operation.
Types of Boring Tools
 Metal boring tools are used in metalwork and in the art. Metal-working applications
include drilling holes during car manufacture, precision cutting and roof installation. Some artists,
searching for more ways to express themselves, make excellent sculptures and other works using different
metals. They produce high-quality using metal-boring machines, including hand drills, drill presses and
lathes. Almost all of these tools require external power sources.
3. Reaming holes
3.1 Introduction
Reaming: is similar to drilling operation. It is basically used for finishing of holes and enlarging of small
holes. Reaming is carried out by the reamer, which has large number of flutes. Each component in a product
must be made to exact standards in order for that product to function properly. Since it is impossible to
produce holes which are round, smooth and accurate to size by drilling, the reaming operation is very
important. Reamers are used to enlarge, and finish a hole previously formed by drilling or boring. Speed,
feed, and reaming allowances are the three main factors which will affect the accuracy and finish of the hole
and the life of the reamer.
1.2 Reamers
A reamer is a rotary cutting tool with several straight or helical cutting edges along its body. It is used to
accurately size and smooth a hole which has been previously drilled or bored. Some reamers are operated by
hand (hand reamers), while others may be used under power in any type of machine tool (machine reamers).
3.3 Parts of the Reamer
Reamers generally consist of three main parts: shank, body and angle of chamfer.
The shank, which may be straight or tapered, is used to drive the reamer. The shank of machine reamers may
be straight or tapered, while hand reamers have a square end on the end to accommodate a tap wrench.
The body of a reamer contains several straight or helical grooves or flutes, and lands (the portion between the
flutes). A margin (the top of each tooth) runs from the angle of chamfer to the end of the flute. The body
clearance angle is the relief or clearance behind the margin which reduces the friction while the reamer is
cutting. The rake angle is the angle formed by the face of the tooth when a line is drawn from a point on the
front marginal edge through the center of the reamer. If there is no angle on the face of the tooth, the reamer is
said to have radial land.
The angle of chamfer is the part of the reamer which actually does the cutting. It is ground on the end
of each tooth and there is clearance behind each chamfered cutting edge. On rose reamers, the angle of
chamfer is ground ion the end only and the cutting action occurs at this point. On fluted reamers, each tooth is
relieved and most of the cutting is done by the reamer teeth.
44
 Flute length (body) Taper shank

Angle of chamfer

blade
Parts of the reamer Cutting lips

Fig1.5.Reamer and its parts.

3.4 Types of Reamers

Reamers are available in a variety of design and sizes; however, they fall into two general classifications:
machine and hand reamers.
 Hand Reamers
Hand reamers are finishing tools used when a hole must be finished to a high degree of accuracy and finish.
Holes to be hand reamed should be bored to within 0.07 to 0.12mm of the finish size. Never attempt to ream
more than 0.12mm with a hand reamer.
A square on the shank end allows a wrench to be used for turning the reamer into the hole. The teeth on the
end of the reamer are tapered slightly for a distance equal to the reamer diameter so that it can enter the hole
to be reamed.
A hand reamer should never be used under mechanical power and should never be turned backwards. When
using a hand reamer, keep it true and straight with the hole. The dead center in a lathe or a stub center in a
drill press will help keep the reamer aligned during the hand reamer operation.

Straight and helical fluted hand reamers

Fig1.6. Hand reamers
Reaming cannot correct a badly positioned hole; it can only smooth it.
Points to remember in hand reaming include the following:-
1. Drill the hole to be reamed with care.
2. Hold the work securely in the vice.
3. Use a good supply of cutting lubricant to help remove chips and reduce friction to obtain a smooth
finish.
4. Honing holes

45
  Purpose of Honing
Honing is the abrading process done mostly for finishing round holed Produced by drilling, reaming or
boringly means of bonded abrasive stones Called ‘hones’. Honing is a machining process and is used to
remove metal up to 0.25 mm. The surface roughness value can be maintained between 0.025and 0.4 microns.
So honing is used to correct some out of roundness, tapers, tool marks and axial distortion.
Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool, which contains a set of three to a dozen andmore
bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced about the periphery of the honing tool. Theyare held
against the work surface with controlled light pressure, usually exercised by small springs. Thehoning tool is
given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to produce acrosshatched lay pattern
of very low surface roughness:

Fig1.6. Honing operation

Schematics of honing process showing the honing tool, how the abrasive sticks are pressed against the work
surface by springs, and the resulting surface pattern.
In addition to the surface finish of about 0.1 µm, honing produces a characteristic crosshatched surfacethat
tends to retain lubrication during operation of the component, thus contributing to its functionand service life.
A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to help remove the chips.A common
application of honing is to finish the holes. Typical examples include bores of internalcombustion engines,
bearings, hydraulic cylinders, and gun barrels.
5. Lapping
In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based fluid suspension of very small free abrasive
grains (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with typical grit sizes between 300 and 600) called a lapping
compound is applied between the work piece and the lapping tool.
The lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials like copper, lead or wood. The lap has the
reverse of the desired shape of the work part. To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed against the work
and moved back and forth over the surface in a figure-eight or other motion pattern, subjecting all portions

46
 of the surface to the same action. Lapping is sometimes performed by hand, but lapping machines
accomplish the process with greater consistency and efficiency.
The cutting mechanism in lapping is that the abrasives become embedded in the lap surface, and the cutting
action is very similar to grinding, but a concurrent cutting action of the free abrasive particles in the fluid
cannot be excluded. Lapping is used lo produce optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gages, and other
parts requiring very good finishes and extreme accuracy.

Fig 1.7. Schematics of lapping process showing the lap and the cutting action of
suspended abrasive particles.
Using personal protective devices

47
LO 4: Cut threads using top and stock and die
Cutting thread in accordance with the recommended tapping sequence
A die is a precision tool used in cutting external or outside threads. Dies cut external threads
such as on a bolt.
 Die and die stock:- it is used for cutting external threads die are made from steel have internal threads, by
holding the die and die stock, the handle is rotated by hand .
TOOLS REQUIRED TO CUT AN EXTERNAL THREAD
1. A die of the correct size and thread form
2. A die stock to hole the die
3. Lubricating or cutting oil
HOW TO USE A DIE
After selecting the proper die, position and hold in the die stock, with the starting side next to the
guide, by means of a set screw which tightens against the edge of the die. Next place the adjustable
guide side of the die stock on the rod or bolt to be threaded.
With the rod or bolt in position, adjust the guides by turning the chuck plate counter clockwise
until guides touch the rod of bolt. Clamp plate is then held in place by tightening the two knurled
screws. The adjustable guides properly set assure cutting straight threads.
CUTTING EXTERNAL THREADS
Rigidly secure the correct size rod or bolt, preferably 0.005 to 0.010 undersize and beveled for
ease in starting and turn the die clockwise. As the die starts to cut, chips will flow and should be
broken by reversing every ¼ to ½ turn. Periodic application of cutting oil will help in cutting
smooth threads and in prolonged die life. Continue the forward and reversing action until the
desired length of thread has been cut.
Parts of thread
 Major diameter:- is the larger or outside diameter of a thread.
 Minor diameter:- is the smaller diameter of a thread.
 Crest:- is the top surface where the two sides of a thread join.
 Root:-is the bottom surface where the side of two adjacent thread join.
 Pitch:- is the distance from any given point on the crest of a thread to
Corresponding point on the crest of the next thread.

RENEWING THREADS
Damaged threads are readily repaired by proceeding as for cutting new threads. Care should be
taken to start the die in the previously formed thread.

48
WHEN USING DIES
 DO select the right size die
 DO keep die at right angle to work piece
 DO use correct lubrication
 DO chamfer or bevel end of work before threading
 DO clean and store dies in proper spaces after use.
 Die and die stock:- it is used for cutting external threads die are made from steel have internal threads, by
holding the die and die stock, the handle is rotated by hand .
Safety boots

Helmet
Ear protection

LO 1: Off-hand grind cutting tools

Cutting edges are hone and free of burrs
Concepts of Cutting edges are hone and free of burrs

Cutting edges are hone and free of burrs is the term used in engineering to describe the process where the
work is held by hand material is removed using an abrasive wheel.
This type of grinding is carried out in the workshop for such work as:
a. Removing excess materials
b. Smoothening surfaces
c. Preparing plates for welding
d. Sharpening cutting tools (drills, chisels, punches, shaper and lathe tools)
Off – hand grinding must be performed with great regard of safety. The principle of operation requires an
exposed portion of the abrasive wheel to be in close proximity to the operator.
Hazard may be created by having relatively heavy abrasive wheels rotating a high speed. The wheels on all
types of machines must be heavily guarded.
The guard exposes enough of the wheel surface to enable the operator to perform the work required.

49
 Bench grinder Pedestal grinder
Fig.1.1.Girding machines.
:
 Parts and Functions (features of machines)
a. Work Rests
b. Wheel Guards
c. Wheel Speed
d. Wheel Rotation

Honing cut edges

Importance of honing:
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a metal
work piece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path. Honing is
primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also improve the
surface texture.
Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion engines, bearing spindles and
gears. There are many types of hones, but all consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held under
pressure against the surface they are working on.
In terms of sharpening knives, a honing steel does not actually hone knives, but simply realigns the metal
along the edge.
Other similar processes are lapping and super finishing.
Honing uses a special tool, called a honing stone or a hone, to achieve a precision surface. The hone is
composed of abrasive grains that are bound together with an adhesive. Generally, honing grains are irregularly
shaped and about 10 to 50 micrometers in diameter (300 to 1,500 mesh grit). Smaller grain sizes produce a
smoother surface on the work piece.

50
A honing stone is similar to a grinding wheel in many ways, but honing stones are usually more friable so that
they conform to the shape of the work piece as they wear in. To counteract their friability, honing stones may
be treated with wax or sulfur to improve life; wax is usually preferred for environmental reasons.

Any abrasive material may be used to create a honing stone, but the most commonly used are corundum,
silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride, or diamond. The choice of abrasive material is usually driven by the
characteristics of the work piece material. In most cases, corundum or silicon carbide are acceptable, but
extremely hard work piece materials must be honed using super abrasives.

The hone is usually turned in the bore while being moved in and out. Special cutting fluids are used to give a
smooth cutting action and to remove the material that has been abraded. Modern advances in abrasives have
made it possible to remove much larger amount of material than was previously possible. This has displaced
grinding in many applications where "through machining" is possible. External hones perform the same
function on shafts.
Performing apply knowledge on cutting tool grind
Documenting is an official paper or book that gives information about something, or that can be used as
evidence or proof of something. In this case, documenting the referral means, recording in an official paper or
book about
 Orders of the referral including date, location, persons/expert etc.
 The need of clients to link for referral services
 The efforts taken by referral sender and receiver
 Results of the referral receiver
 Post referral or recommendation actions
Therefore, documenting of referral and recommended actions is process of writing and retaining record of
every step of referral events and its recommended action. These records are made up of community service
workers/practitioners and legally mandated elements, documents required by referral service providers,
documents suggested by best human resources practices, and formal and informal record keeping about
employment events.

4.1. Documenting the recommended follow-up action

Documenting the recommended follow up actions also refers to the process of writing as well as keeping
information in document about the responses of the referral service providers regarding what the clients
delivered services in relation to improve his/her lives. During this step, major points are documented like
 date, time, and location of referral service provider
 major findings/support of the referral
 proposed actions which improve clients needs
 Final results of the client/output the referral
 Post referral or recommendation actions

51
Procedure for Grinding

1. Examine the grinder to see that the tool rest is set at the required height, is within 1/8
of an inch to the face of the wheel.
2. Adjust safety glass shields on the grinder to permit clear vision of the part to be
ground and still protect the operator from flying particles.
3. Start the grinder.
4. Hold the work in one hand, and steady it with the other. Place the work on the tool
rest; then guide it against the face of the revolving wheel and apply enough pressure
to grind.
5. Cool work in a water pot as it becomes heated from grinding, especially the small
hardened tools that would lose their temper if overheated.
6. Check work with a gauge or other measuring tool.
7. Stop grinder.

52
53