Microprocessor

4/5/24, 10:34 AM Microprocessor Tutorial
Microprocessor Tutorial
A microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip
capable of performing Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) operations and communicating
with the other devices connected to it. In this tutorial, we will discuss the
architecture, pin diagram and other key concepts of microprocessors.
Audience
This tutorial is designed for all those readers pursing either Bachelor’s or Master’s
degree in Computer Science. It will help them understand the basic concepts related
to Microprocessors.
Prerequisites
In this tutorial, all the topics have been explained from elementary level. Therefore,
a beginner can understand this tutorial very easily. However if you have a prior
knowledge of computer architecture in general, then it will be quite easy to grasp the
concepts explained here.
Frequently Asked Questions about Microprocessor

There are some very Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ) about Microprocessor, this
section tries to answer them briefly.
What is microprocessor?
A microprocessor is like the brain of a computer. It is a small electronic chip that

performs the basic calculations and controls the flow of information within the
computer. Think of it as the engine that drives the computer's operations. The
microprocessor receives instructions from software programs, processes them, and
then executes tasks such as running applications, performing calculations, and
managing input and output devices like keyboards and monitors. It is the central
component that enables a computer to function and carry out tasks.
Who invented the microprocessor?
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Microprocessor was invented by a team of engineers led by Ted Hoff, Federico

Faggin, and Stan Mazor at Intel Corporation in the early 1970s. They developed the
first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004, which was introduced in
1971.
What are the features of microprocessor?
The features of a microprocessor include −
Processing Power − Microprocessors are capable of performing millions or

even billions of calculations per second, enabling them to execute complex
tasks quickly.
Versatility − Microprocessors can execute a wide range of instructions and
tasks, making them suitable for various applications, from simple household
appliances to advanced computers.
Integration − Microprocessors integrate multiple components, such as

arithmetic logic units (ALUs), control units, and memory, onto a single chip,
reducing size and complexity while increasing efficiency.
Scalability − Microprocessors come in different configurations and speeds,

allowing them to be modified to the specific needs of different devices and
applications.
Power Efficiency − Modern microprocessors are designed to operate
efficiently while consuming minimal power, making them suitable for battery-
powered devices like smartphones and laptops.
Interconnectivity − Microprocessors can communicate with other
components and devices through input/output ports, enabling them to
interact with external sensors, displays, and storage devices.
Which is the world's first microprocessor?
The world's first microprocessor is the Intel 4004. It was invented by a team of
engineers at Intel Corporation, led by Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stanley Mazor,
and introduced in 1971. The Intel 4004 was a groundbreaking invention because it
combined the functions of multiple transistors onto a single chip, making it the first
complete central processing unit (CPU) on a microchip. This innovation paved the
way for the development of modern computers and electronic devices, as it allowed
for smaller, faster, and more efficient computing capabilities.
How Does a Microprocessor Work?
A microprocessor works like the brain of a computer. It receives instructions from

software programs, processes them, and executes tasks to perform various
functions. Following is the basic overview of how it works −
Fetch − The microprocessor fetches instructions from the computer's

memory, which are stored as binary code (0s and 1s).
Decode − It decodes these instructions to understand what action needs to

be performed.
Execute − The microprocessor carries out the instructions by performing
calculations, moving data around, or interacting with other components.
Writeback − After executing the instruction, the microprocessor may write
the result back to memory or output it to an external device.
This process repeats continuously, allowing the microprocessor to handle complex

tasks and run software programs, ultimately enabling the computer to perform
various functions and operations.
Why Registers Are Used Inside of Microprocessors?
Registers are used inside microprocessors to store and manage data temporarily
while the microprocessor performs calculations and executes instructions. Think of
registers as small storage spaces within the microprocessor where data can be
quickly accessed and manipulated. They are much faster to access than the
computer's main memory, allowing the microprocessor to work more efficiently.
Registers are used to hold operands for arithmetic and logical operations, store
memory addresses for accessing data, and keep track of the current state of the
microprocessor during program execution.
What is flag in microprocessor?
A flag in a microprocessor is a small piece of information or a signal that indicates a

specific condition or state of the microprocessor during the execution of a program.
Flags are used to keep track of various conditions or events that occur during the
processing of instructions.
For example, flags may indicate whether a certain arithmetic operation resulted in a
carry or overflow, whether a comparison between two values was true or false, or
whether a certain condition has been met. These flags are stored in special registers
within the microprocessor and are used by the microprocessor to make decisions and
control the flow of the program.
What are the different types of microprocessor?
There are primarily two types of microprocessors −
General-Purpose Microprocessors − These are versatile microprocessors

designed to handle a wide range of tasks and applications. They are
commonly found in personal computers, laptops, and servers. General-
purpose microprocessors are capable of executing various types of software
programs, from word processing and web browsing to gaming and multimedia
applications. Examples include Intel's Core series, AMD's Ryzen series, and
ARM-based processors used in smartphones and tablets.
Special-Purpose Microprocessors − These are microprocessors designed

for specific applications or tasks. They are optimized for particular functions or
industries and may have features tailored to meet the requirements of those
applications. Examples include microcontrollers used in embedded systems,
digital signal processors (DSPs) used in audio processing and
telecommunications, and graphics processing units (GPUs) used in rendering
images and videos.
What are the basic parts of a microprocessor?
The basic parts of a microprocessor include −
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) − This is the part of the microprocessor that
performs arithmetic operations (like addition and subtraction) and logical
operations (like AND, OR, and NOT) on data.
Control Unit − This part of the microprocessor coordinates the operations of
the other parts of the microprocessor. It fetches instructions from memory,
decodes them, and controls the flow of data between the different parts of the
microprocessor.
Registers − These are small storage locations inside the microprocessor that
temporarily hold data, instructions, or addresses. Registers are used for
storing intermediate results, operands for arithmetic operations, memory
addresses, and other temporary data during processing.
Clock − This is a timing device that synchronizes the operations of the
microprocessor. It generates electrical pulses at regular intervals, called clock
cycles, which control the speed at which instructions are executed and data is
processed.
Cache Memory − Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located

inside the microprocessor that stores frequently accessed data and
instructions. It helps speed up data access and execution by providing fast
access to commonly used data and instructions.
What is the fastest microprocessor?
In simple terms, the fastest microprocessor is the one that can perform calculations
and execute instructions at the highest speed. Some of the fastest microprocessors
are found in high-performance computing systems, supercomputers, and server
processors designed for demanding tasks like scientific simulations, data analysis,
and artificial intelligence. These microprocessors often have multiple cores, high
clock speeds, and advanced architectures optimized for parallel processing.
Examples include Intel's Xeon Scalable processors, AMD's EPYC processors, and
specialized processors like NVIDIA's GPUs used for parallel computing tasks. The
speed of a microprocessor is measured in terms of clock speed (measured in GHz)
and the number of instructions it can execute per second, known as instructions per
second (IPS).
4/5/24, 10:32 AM Microprocessor - Overview
Microprocessor - Overview
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip
capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating
with the other devices connected to it.
Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit. ALU performs
arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the memory or an input
device. Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L
and accumulator. The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within
the computer.
Block Diagram of a Basic Microcomputer
How does a Microprocessor Work?

The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory, then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is reached. Later, it sends the result
in binary to the output port. Between these processes, the register stores the
temporarily data and ALU performs the computing functions.
List of Terms Used in a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor −
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4/5/24, 10:32 AM Microprocessor - Overview
Instruction Set − It is the set of instructions that the microprocessor can

understand.
Bandwidth − It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock Speed − It determines the number of operations per second the

processor can perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
(GHz).It is also known as Clock Rate.
Word Length − It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers,
ALU, etc. An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word
length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the
microcomputer.
Data Types − The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like binary,
BCD, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.
Features of a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of any microprocessor −
Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices and

results its low cost.
Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.

Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by using
metaloxide semiconductor technology, which has low power consumption.
Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same chip
in a number of applications by configuring the software program.
Reliability − The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low, hence it
is reliable.
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4/5/24, 10:33 AM Microprocessor - Classification
Microprocessor - Classification
A microprocessor can be classified into three categories −
RISC Processor
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to reduce the
execution time by simplifying the instruction set of the computer. Using RISC
processors, each instruction requires only one clock cycle to execute results in
uniform execution time. This reduces the efficiency as there are more lines of code,
hence more RAM is needed to store the instructions. The compiler also has to work
more to convert high-level language instructions into machine code.
Some of the RISC processors are −
Power PC: 601, 604, 615, 620

DEC Alpha: 210642, 211066, 21068, 21164
MIPS: TS (R10000) RISC Processor
PA-RISC: HP 7100LC
Architecture of RISC
RISC microprocessor architecture uses highly-optimized set of instructions. It is used

in portable devices like Apple iPod due to its power efficiency.
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Characteristics of RISC
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows −
It consists of simple instructions.

It supports various data-type formats.
It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for

pipelining.
It supports register to use in any context.
One cycle execution time.

“LOAD” and “STORE” instructions are used to access the memory location.
It consists of larger number of registers.

It consists of less number of transistors.
CISC Processor
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to minimize
the number of instructions per program, ignoring the number of cycles per
instruction. The emphasis is on building complex instructions directly into the
hardware.
The compiler has to do very little work to translate a high-level language into
assembly level language/machine code because the length of the code is relatively
short, so very little RAM is required to store the instructions.
Some of the CISC Processors are −
IBM 370/168
VAX 11/780
Intel 80486
Architecture of CISC
Its architecture is designed to decrease the memory cost because more storage is
needed in larger programs resulting in higher memory cost. To resolve this, the
number of instructions per program can be reduced by embedding the number of
operations in a single instruction.
Characteristics of CISC
Variety of addressing modes.
Larger number of instructions.

Variable length of instruction formats.
Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.
Instruction-decoding logic is complex.
One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.
Special Processors
These are the processors which are designed for some special purposes. Few of the
special processors are briefly discussed −
Coprocessor
A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle its particular

function many times faster than the ordinary microprocessor.
For example − Math Coprocessor.
Some Intel math-coprocessors are −
8087-used with 8086
80287-used with 80286
80387-used with 80386
Input/Output Processor
It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its own, which is

used to control I/O devices with minimum CPU involvement.
For example −
DMA (direct Memory Access) controller
Keyboard/mouse controller
Graphic display controller

SCSI port controller
Transputer (Transistor Computer)
A transputer is a specially designed microprocessor with its own local memory and
having links to connect one transputer to another transputer for inter-processor
communications. It was first designed in 1980 by Inmos and is targeted to the
utilization of VLSI technology.
A transputer can be used as a single processor system or can be connected to

external links, which reduces the construction cost and increases the performance.
For example − 16-bit T212, 32-bit T425, the floating point (T800, T805 & T9000)
processors.
DSP (Digital Signal Processor)
This processor is specially designed to process the analog signals into a digital form.
This is done by sampling the voltage level at regular time intervals and converting
the voltage at that instant into a digital form. This process is performed by a circuit
called an analogue to digital converter, A to D converter or ADC.
A DSP contains the following components −
Program Memory − It stores the programs that DSP will use to process
data.
Data Memory − It stores the information to be processed.

Compute Engine − It performs the mathematical processing, accessing the
program from the program memory and the data from the data memory.
Input/Output − It connects to the outside world.
Its applications are −
Sound and music synthesis
Audio and video compression
Video signal processing
2D and 3d graphics acceleration.
For example − Texas Instrument’s TMS 320 series, e.g., TMS 320C40, TMS320C50.
4/5/24, 10:36 AM Microprocessor - 8085 Architecture
Microprocessor - 8085 Architecture

8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration −
8-bit data bus

16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
A 16-bit program counter
A 16-bit stack pointer
Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.
8085 Microprocessor – Functional Units

8085 consists of the following functional units −
Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE

operations. It is connected to internal data bus & ALU.
Arithmetic and logic unit
As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition,
Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.
General purpose register
There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each
register can hold 8-bit data.
These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing combination is
like B-C, D-E & H-L.
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Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next
instruction to be executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an
instruction is being executed, so that the program counter points to the memory
address of the next instruction that is going to be executed.
Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always

incremented/decremented by 2 during push & pop operations.
Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical
operations.
Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending
upon the result stored in the accumulator.
These are the set of 5 flip-flops −
Sign (S)
Zero (Z)
Auxiliary Carry (AC)

Parity (P)
Carry (C)
Its bit position is shown in the following table −
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
Instruction register and decoder
It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored

in the Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the information present in
the Instruction register.
Timing and control unit
It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform operations.

Following are the timing and control signals, which control external and internal
circuits −
Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE

Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’
DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA

RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT
Interrupt control
As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a

microprocessor is executing a main program and whenever an interrupt occurs, the
microprocessor shifts the control from the main program to process the incoming
request. After the request is completed, the control goes back to the main program.
There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST
5.5, TRAP.
Serial Input/output control
It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions: SID
(Serial input data) and SOD (Serial output data).
Address buffer and address-data buffer
The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the
address buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory
and I/O chips are connected to these buses; the CPU can exchange the desired data
with the memory and I/O chips.
Address bus and data bus
Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus
carries the location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to
transfer the data & Address I/O devices.
8085 Architecture
We have tried to depict the architecture of 8085 with this following image −
4/5/24, 10:37 AM Microprocessor - 8085 Pin Configuration
Microprocessor - 8085 Pin Configuration

The following image depicts the pin diagram of 8085 Microprocessor −
The pins of a 8085 microprocessor can be classified into seven groups −
Address bus
A15-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of memory/IO address.
Data bus
AD7-AD0, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and data bus.
Control and status signals

These signals are used to identify the nature of operation. There are 3 control signal
and 3 status signals.
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Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.
RD − This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be

read and is ready for accepting data available on the data bus.
WR − This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into
a selected memory or IO location.
ALE − It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is started
by the microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates address. When
the pulse goes down it indicates data.
Three status signals are IO/M, S0 & S1.
IO/M
This signal is used to differentiate between IO and Memory operations, i.e. when it is
high indicates IO operation and when it is low then it indicates memory operation.
S1 & S0
These signals are used to identify the type of current operation.
Power supply
There are 2 power supply signals − VCC & VSS. VCC indicates +5v power supply and
VSS indicates ground signal.
Clock signals
There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.
X1, X2 − A crystal (RC, LC N/W) is connected at these two pins and is used
to set frequency of the internal clock generator. This frequency is internally
divided by 2.
CLK OUT − This signal is used as the system clock for devices connected with
the microprocessor.
Interrupts & externally initiated signals
Interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to request the

microprocessor to perform a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5,
RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR. We will discuss interrupts in detail in interrupts section.
INTA − It is an interrupt acknowledgment signal.
RESET IN − This signal is used to reset the microprocessor by setting the

program counter to zero.
RESET OUT − This signal is used to reset all the connected devices when the
microprocessor is reset.
READY − This signal indicates that the device is ready to send or receive
data. If READY is low, then the CPU has to wait for READY to go high.
HOLD − This signal indicates that another master is requesting the use of the
address and data buses.
HLDA (HOLD Acknowledge) − It indicates that the CPU has received the
HOLD request and it will relinquish the bus in the next clock cycle. HLDA is set
to low after the HOLD signal is removed.
Serial I/O signals

There are 2 serial signals, i.e. SID and SOD and these signals are used for serial
communication.
SOD (Serial output data line) − The output SOD is set/reset as specified by
the SIM instruction.
SID (Serial input data line) − The data on this line is loaded into accumulator
whenever a RIM instruction is executed.
4/5/24, 10:38 AM 8085 Addressing Modes & Interrupts
8085 Addressing Modes & Interrupts

Now let us discuss the addressing modes in 8085 Microprocessor.
Addressing Modes in 8085

These are the instructions used to transfer the data from one register to another
register, from the memory to the register, and from the register to the memory
without any alteration in the content. Addressing modes in 8085 is classified into 5
groups −
Immediate addressing mode
In this mode, the 8/16-bit data is specified in the instruction itself as one of its
operand. For example: MVI K, 20F: means 20F is copied into register K.
Register addressing mode
In this mode, the data is copied from one register to another. For example: MOV K,
B: means data in register B is copied to register K.
Direct addressing mode
In this mode, the data is directly copied from the given address to the register. For
example: LDB 5000K: means the data at address 5000K is copied to register B.
Indirect addressing mode
In this mode, the data is transferred from one register to another by using the
address pointed by the register. For example: MOV K, B: means data is transferred
from the memory address pointed by the register to the register K.
Implied addressing mode
This mode doesn’t require any operand; the data is specified by the opcode itself.
For example: CMP.
Interrupts in 8085
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Interrupts are the signals generated by the external devices to request the
microprocessor to perform a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5,
RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR.
Interrupt are classified into following groups based on their parameter −
Vector interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is known

to the processor. For example: RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, TRAP.
Non-Vector interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is not
known to the processor so, the interrupt address needs to be sent externally
by the device to perform interrupts. For example: INTR.
Maskable interrupt − In this type of interrupt, we can disable the interrupt
by writing some instructions into the program. For example: RST7.5,
RST6.5, RST5.5.
Non-Maskable interrupt − In this type of interrupt, we cannot disable the

interrupt by writing some instructions into the program. For example: TRAP.
Software interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the programmer has to add
the instructions into the program to execute the interrupt. There are 8
software interrupts in 8085, i.e. RST0, RST1, RST2, RST3, RST4, RST5, RST6,
and RST7.
Hardware interrupt − There are 5 interrupt pins in 8085 used as hardware
interrupts, i.e. TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTA.
Note − NTA is not an interrupt, it is used by the microprocessor for sending

acknowledgement. TRAP has the highest priority, then RST7.5 and so on.
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
A small program or a routine that when executed, services the corresponding

interrupting source is called an ISR.
TRAP
It is a non-maskable interrupt, having the highest priority among all interrupts.

Bydefault, it is enabled until it gets acknowledged. In case of failure, it executes as
ISR and sends the data to backup memory. This interrupt transfers the control to the
location 0024H.
RST7.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the second highest priority among all interrupts.
When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC register
into the stack and branches to 003CH address.
RST 6.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the third highest priority among all interrupts.
When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC register
into the stack and branches to 0034H address.
RST 5.5
It is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the
content of the PC register into the stack and branches to 002CH address.
INTR
It is a maskable interrupt, having the lowest priority among all interrupts. It can be
disabled by resetting the microprocessor.
When INTR signal goes high, the following events can occur −
The microprocessor checks the status of INTR signal during the execution of
each instruction.
When the INTR signal is high, then the microprocessor completes its current
instruction and sends active low interrupt acknowledge signal.
When instructions are received, then the microprocessor saves the address of
the next instruction on stack and executes the received instruction.
4/5/24, 10:38 AM Microprocessor - 8085 Instruction Sets
Microprocessor - 8085 Instruction Sets

Let us take a look at the programming of 8085 Microprocessor.
Instruction sets are instruction codes to perform some task. It is classified into five
categories.
S.No. Instruction & Description
Control Instructions
1 Following is the table showing the list of Control instructions with their
meanings.
Logical Instructions
2 Following is the table showing the list of Logical instructions with their
meanings.
Branching Instructions
3 Following is the table showing the list of Branching instructions with their
meanings.
Arithmetic Instructions
4 Following is the table showing the list of Arithmetic instructions with their
meanings.
Data Transfer Instructions

5 Following is the table showing the list of Data-transfer instructions with
their meanings.
8085 – Demo Programs

Now, let us take a look at some program demonstrations using the above
instructions −
Adding Two 8-bit Numbers
Write a program to add data at 3005H & 3006H memory location and store the result
at 3007H memory location.
Problem demo −
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(3005H) = 14H
(3006H) = 89H
Result −
14H + 89H = 9DH
The program code can be written like this −
LXI H 3005H : "HL points 3005H"

MOV A, M : "Getting first operand"
INX H : "HL points 3006H"
ADD M : "Add second operand"
INX H : "HL points 3007H"
MOV M, A : "Store result at 3007H"
HLT : "Exit program"
Exchanging the Memory Locations
Write a program to exchange the data at 5000M& 6000M memory location.
LDA 5000M : "Getting the contents at5000M location into accumulator"

MOV B, A : "Save the contents into B register"
LDA 6000M : "Getting the contents at 6000M location into accumulator"
STA 5000M : "Store the contents of accumulator at address 5000M"
MOV A, B : "Get the saved contents back into A register"
STA 6000M : "Store the contents of accumulator at address 6000M"
Arrange Numbers in an Ascending Order
Write a program to arrange first 10 numbers from memory address 3000H in an

ascending order.
MVI B, 09 :"Initialize counter"

START :"LXI H, 3000H: Initialize memory pointer"
MVI C, 09H :"Initialize counter 2"
BACK: MOV A, M :"Get the number"
INX H :"Increment memory pointer"
CMP M :"Compare number with next number"
JC SKIP :"If less, don’t interchange"
JZ SKIP :"If equal, don’t interchange"

MOV D, M
MOV M, A
DCX H
MOV M, D
INX H :"Interchange two numbers"
SKIP:DCR C :"Decrement counter 2"
JNZ BACK :"If not zero, repeat"
DCR B :"Decrement counter 1"
JNZ START
HLT :"Terminate program execution"
4/5/24, 10:38 AM Microprocessor - 8086 Overview
Microprocessor - 8086 Overview

8086 Microprocessor is an enhanced version of 8085Microprocessor that was
designed by Intel in 1976. It is a 16-bit Microprocessor having 20 address lines
and16 data lines that provides up to 1MB storage. It consists of powerful instruction
set, which provides operations like multiplication and division easily.
It supports two modes of operation, i.e. Maximum mode and Minimum mode.
Maximum mode is suitable for system having multiple processors and Minimum
mode is suitable for system having a single processor.
Features of 8086
The most prominent features of a 8086 microprocessor are as follows −
It has an instruction queue, which is capable of storing six instruction bytes

from the memory resulting in faster processing.
It was the first 16-bit processor having 16-bit ALU, 16-bit registers, internal
data bus, and 16-bit external data bus resulting in faster processing.
It is available in 3 versions based on the frequency of operation −
8086 → 5MHz
8086-2 → 8MHz
(c)8086-1 → 10 MHz
It uses two stages of pipelining, i.e. Fetch Stage and Execute Stage, which
improves performance.
Fetch stage can prefetch up to 6 bytes of instructions and stores them in the
queue.
Execute stage executes these instructions.
It has 256 vectored interrupts.
It consists of 29,000 transistors.
Comparison between 8085 & 8086 Microprocessor
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4/5/24, 10:38 AM Microprocessor - 8086 Overview
Size − 8085 is 8-bit microprocessor, whereas 8086 is 16-bit microprocessor.

Address Bus − 8085 has 16-bit address bus while 8086 has 20-bit address
bus.
Memory − 8085 can access up to 64Kb, whereas 8086 can access up to 1 Mb

of memory.
Instruction − 8085 doesn’t have an instruction queue, whereas 8086 has an
instruction queue.
Pipelining − 8085 doesn’t support a pipelined architecture while 8086
supports a pipelined architecture.
I/O − 8085 can address 2^8 = 256 I/O's, whereas 8086 can access 2^16 =
65,536 I/O's.
Cost − The cost of 8085 is low whereas that of 8086 is high.
Architecture of 8086
The following diagram depicts the architecture of a 8086 Microprocessor −
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4/5/24, 10:39 AM Microprocessor - 8086 Functional Units
Microprocessor - 8086 Functional Units

8086 Microprocessor is divided into two functional units, i.e., EU (Execution Unit)
and BIU (Bus Interface Unit).
EU (Execution Unit)
Execution unit gives instructions to BIU stating from where to fetch the data and
then decode and execute those instructions. Its function is to control operations on
data using the instruction decoder & ALU. EU has no direct connection with system
buses as shown in the above figure, it performs operations over data through BIU.
Let us now discuss the functional parts of 8086 microprocessors.
ALU
It handles all arithmetic and logical operations, like +, −, ×, /, OR, AND, NOT
operations.
Flag Register
It is a 16-bit register that behaves like a flip-flop, i.e. it changes its status according
to the result stored in the accumulator. It has 9 flags and they are divided into 2
groups − Conditional Flags and Control Flags.
Conditional Flags
It represents the result of the last arithmetic or logical instruction executed.

Following is the list of conditional flags −
Carry flag − This flag indicates an overflow condition for arithmetic

operations.
Auxiliary flag − When an operation is performed at ALU, it results in a
carry/barrow from lower nibble (i.e. D0 – D3) to upper nibble (i.e. D4 – D7),
then this flag is set, i.e. carry given by D3 bit to D4 is AF flag. The processor
uses this flag to perform binary to BCD conversion.
Parity flag − This flag is used to indicate the parity of the result, i.e. when
the lower order 8-bits of the result contains even number of 1’s, then the
Parity Flag is set. For odd number of 1’s, the Parity Flag is reset.
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Zero flag − This flag is set to 1 when the result of arithmetic or logical
operation is zero else it is set to 0.
Sign flag − This flag holds the sign of the result, i.e. when the result of the
operation is negative, then the sign flag is set to 1 else set to 0.
Overflow flag − This flag represents the result when the system capacity is
exceeded.
Control Flags
Control flags controls the operations of the execution unit. Following is the list of
control flags −
Trap flag − It is used for single step control and allows the user to execute
one instruction at a time for debugging. If it is set, then the program can be
run in a single step mode.
Interrupt flag − It is an interrupt enable/disable flag, i.e. used to

allow/prohibit the interruption of a program. It is set to 1 for interrupt
enabled condition and set to 0 for interrupt disabled condition.
Direction flag − It is used in string operation. As the name suggests when it

is set then string bytes are accessed from the higher memory address to the
lower memory address and vice-a-versa.
General purpose register
There are 8 general purpose registers, i.e., AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL.
These registers can be used individually to store 8-bit data and can be used in pairs
to store 16bit data. The valid register pairs are AH and AL, BH and BL, CH and CL,
and DH and DL. It is referred to the AX, BX, CX, and DX respectively.
AX register − It is also known as accumulator register. It is used to store

operands for arithmetic operations.
BX register − It is used as a base register. It is used to store the starting

base address of the memory area within the data segment.
CX register − It is referred to as counter. It is used in loop instruction to
store the loop counter.
DX register − This register is used to hold I/O port address for I/O
instruction.
Stack pointer register
It is a 16-bit register, which holds the address from the start of the segment to the
memory location, where a word was most recently stored on the stack.
BIU (Bus Interface Unit)

BIU takes care of all data and addresses transfers on the buses for the EU like
sending addresses, fetching instructions from the memory, reading data from the
ports and the memory as well as writing data to the ports and the memory. EU has
no direction connection with System Buses so this is possible with the BIU. EU and
BIU are connected with the Internal Bus.
It has the following functional parts −
Instruction queue − BIU contains the instruction queue. BIU gets upto 6
bytes of next instructions and stores them in the instruction queue. When EU
executes instructions and is ready for its next instruction, then it simply reads
the instruction from this instruction queue resulting in increased execution
speed.
Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction executes is called
pipelining.
Segment register − BIU has 4 segment buses, i.e. CS, DS, SS& ES. It holds
the addresses of instructions and data in memory, which are used by the
processor to access memory locations. It also contains 1 pointer register IP,
which holds the address of the next instruction to executed by the EU.
CS − It stands for Code Segment. It is used for addressing a memory

location in the code segment of the memory, where the executable
program is stored.
DS − It stands for Data Segment. It consists of data used by the

program andis accessed in the data segment by an offset address or
the content of other register that holds the offset address.
SS − It stands for Stack Segment. It handles memory to store data

and addresses during execution.
ES − It stands for Extra Segment. ES is additional data segment,

which is used by the string to hold the extra destination data.
Instruction pointer − It is a 16-bit register used to hold the address of the

next instruction to be executed.
Microprocessor - 8086 Pin Configuration

8086 was the first 16-bit microprocessor available in 40-pin DIP (Dual Inline
Package) chip. Let us now discuss in detail the pin configuration of a 8086
Microprocessor.
8086 Pin Diagram

Here is the pin diagram of 8086 microprocessor −
Let us now discuss the signals in detail −
Power supply and frequency signals
It uses 5V DC supply at VCC pin 40, and uses ground at VSS pin 1 and 20 for its
operation.
Clock signal
Clock signal is provided through Pin-19. It provides timing to the processor for
operations. Its frequency is different for different versions, i.e. 5MHz, 8MHz and
10MHz.
Address/data bus
AD0-AD15. These are 16 address/data bus. AD0-AD7 carries low order byte data and
AD8AD15 carries higher order byte data. During the first clock cycle, it carries 16-bit
address and after that it carries 16-bit data.
Address/status bus
A16-A19/S3-S6. These are the 4 address/status buses. During the first clock cycle, it
carries 4-bit address and later it carries status signals.
S7/BHE
BHE stands for Bus High Enable. It is available at pin 34 and used to indicate the
transfer of data using data bus D8-D15. This signal is low during the first clock cycle,
thereafter it is active.
Read($\overline{RD}$)
It is available at pin 32 and is used to read signal for Read operation.
Ready
It is available at pin 22. It is an acknowledgement signal from I/O devices that data
is transferred. It is an active high signal. When it is high, it indicates that the device
is ready to transfer data. When it is low, it indicates wait state.
RESET
It is available at pin 21 and is used to restart the execution. It causes the processor
to immediately terminate its present activity. This signal is active high for the first 4
clock cycles to RESET the microprocessor.
INTR
It is available at pin 18. It is an interrupt request signal, which is sampled during the
last clock cycle of each instruction to determine if the processor considered this as
an interrupt or not.
NMI
It stands for non-maskable interrupt and is available at pin 17. It is an edge

triggered input, which causes an interrupt request to the microprocessor.
$\overline{TEST}$
This signal is like wait state and is available at pin 23. When this signal is high, then
the processor has to wait for IDLE state, else the execution continues.
MN/$\overline{MX}$
It stands for Minimum/Maximum and is available at pin 33. It indicates what mode
the processor is to operate in; when it is high, it works in the minimum mode and
vice-aversa.
INTA
It is an interrupt acknowledgement signal and id available at pin 24. When the

microprocessor receives this signal, it acknowledges the interrupt.
ALE
It stands for address enable latch and is available at pin 25. A positive pulse is
generated each time the processor begins any operation. This signal indicates the
availability of a valid address on the address/data lines.
DEN
It stands for Data Enable and is available at pin 26. It is used to enable Transreceiver
8286. The transreceiver is a device used to separate data from the address/data
bus.
DT/R
It stands for Data Transmit/Receive signal and is available at pin 27. It decides the
direction of data flow through the transreceiver. When it is high, data is transmitted
out and vice-a-versa.
M/IO
This signal is used to distinguish between memory and I/O operations. When it is
high, it indicates I/O operation and when it is low indicates the memory operation. It
is available at pin 28.
WR
It stands for write signal and is available at pin 29. It is used to write the data into
the memory or the output device depending on the status of M/IO signal.
HLDA
It stands for Hold Acknowledgement signal and is available at pin 30. This signal
acknowledges the HOLD signal.
HOLD
This signal indicates to the processor that external devices are requesting to access
the address/data buses. It is available at pin 31.
QS1 and QS0
These are queue status signals and are available at pin 24 and 25. These signals
provide the status of instruction queue. Their conditions are shown in the following
table −
QS0 QS1 Status
0 0 No operation
0 1 First byte of opcode from the queue
1 0 Empty the queue
1 1 Subsequent byte from the queue
S0, S1, S2
These are the status signals that provide the status of operation, which is used by
the Bus Controller 8288 to generate memory & I/O control signals. These are
available at pin 26, 27, and 28. Following is the table showing their status −
S2 S1 S0 Status
0 0 0 Interrupt acknowledgement
0 0 1 I/O Read
0 1 0 I/O Write
0 1 1 Halt
1 0 0 Opcode fetch
1 0 1 Memory read
1 1 0 Memory write
1 1 1 Passive
LOCK
When this signal is active, it indicates to the other processors not to ask the CPU to
leave the system bus. It is activated using the LOCK prefix on any instruction and is
available at pin 29.
RQ/GT1 and RQ/GT0
These are the Request/Grant signals used by the other processors requesting the
CPU to release the system bus. When the signal is received by CPU, then it sends
acknowledgment. RQ/GT0 has a higher priority than RQ/GT1.
Microprocessor - 8086 Instruction Sets

The 8086 microprocessor supports 8 types of instructions −

Bit Manipulation Instructions
String Instructions
Program Execution Transfer Instructions (Branch & Loop Instructions)
Processor Control Instructions
Iteration Control Instructions
Interrupt Instructions
Let us now discuss these instruction sets in detail.

These instructions are used to transfer the data from the source operand to the
destination operand. Following are the list of instructions under this group −
Instruction to transfer a word
MOV − Used to copy the byte or word from the provided source to the
provided destination.
PPUSH − Used to put a word at the top of the stack.
POP − Used to get a word from the top of the stack to the provided location.
PUSHA − Used to put all the registers into the stack.
POPA − Used to get words from the stack to all registers.
XCHG − Used to exchange the data from two locations.
XLAT − Used to translate a byte in AL using a table in the memory.
Instructions for input and output port transfer
IN − Used to read a byte or word from the provided port to the accumulator.
OUT − Used to send out a byte or word from the accumulator to the provided
port.
Instructions to transfer the address
LEA − Used to load the address of operand into the provided register.
LDS − Used to load DS register and other provided register from the memory
LES − Used to load ES register and other provided register from the memory.
Instructions to transfer flag registers
LAHF − Used to load AH with the low byte of the flag register.
SAHF − Used to store AH register to low byte of the flag register.

PUSHF − Used to copy the flag register at the top of the stack.
POPF − Used to copy a word at the top of the stack to the flag register.
These instructions are used to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
Following is the list of instructions under this group −
Instructions to perform addition
ADD − Used to add the provided byte to byte/word to word.

ADC − Used to add with carry.
INC − Used to increment the provided byte/word by 1.

AAA − Used to adjust ASCII after addition.
DAA − Used to adjust the decimal after the addition/subtraction operation.
Instructions to perform subtraction
SUB − Used to subtract the byte from byte/word from word.
SBB − Used to perform subtraction with borrow.

DEC − Used to decrement the provided byte/word by 1.
NPG − Used to negate each bit of the provided byte/word and add 1/2’s
complement.
CMP − Used to compare 2 provided byte/word.

AAS − Used to adjust ASCII codes after subtraction.
DAS − Used to adjust decimal after subtraction.
Instruction to perform multiplication
MUL − Used to multiply unsigned byte by byte/word by word.

IMUL − Used to multiply signed byte by byte/word by word.
AAM − Used to adjust ASCII codes after multiplication.
Instructions to perform division
DIV − Used to divide the unsigned word by byte or unsigned double word by
word.
IDIV − Used to divide the signed word by byte or signed double word by
word.
AAD − Used to adjust ASCII codes after division.

CBW − Used to fill the upper byte of the word with the copies of sign bit of
the lower byte.
CWD − Used to fill the upper word of the double word with the sign bit of the
lower word.
Bit Manipulation Instructions

These instructions are used to perform operations where data bits are involved, i.e.
operations like logical, shift, etc.
Instructions to perform logical operation
NOT − Used to invert each bit of a byte or word.
AND − Used for adding each bit in a byte/word with the corresponding bit in
another byte/word.
OR − Used to multiply each bit in a byte/word with the corresponding bit in
another byte/word.
XOR − Used to perform Exclusive-OR operation over each bit in a byte/word

with the corresponding bit in another byte/word.
TEST − Used to add operands to update flags, without affecting operands.
Instructions to perform shift operations
SHL/SAL − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards left and put zero(S) in
LSBs.
SHR − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards the right and put zero(S) in
MSBs.
SAR − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards the right and copy the old
MSB into the new MSB.
Instructions to perform rotate operations
ROL − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the left, i.e. MSB to LSB and
to Carry Flag [CF].
ROR − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the right, i.e. LSB to MSB
and to Carry Flag [CF].
RCR − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the right, i.e. LSB to CF and
CF to MSB.
RCL − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the left, i.e. MSB to CF and
CF to LSB.
String Instructions
String is a group of bytes/words and their memory is always allocated in a sequential
order.
REP − Used to repeat the given instruction till CX ≠ 0.

REPE/REPZ − Used to repeat the given instruction until CX = 0 or zero flag
ZF = 1.
REPNE/REPNZ − Used to repeat the given instruction until CX = 0 or zero

flag ZF = 1.
MOVS/MOVSB/MOVSW − Used to move the byte/word from one string to

another.
COMS/COMPSB/COMPSW − Used to compare two string bytes/words.
INS/INSB/INSW − Used as an input string/byte/word from the I/O port to

the provided memory location.
OUTS/OUTSB/OUTSW − Used as an output string/byte/word from the
provided memory location to the I/O port.
SCAS/SCASB/SCASW − Used to scan a string and compare its byte with a

byte in AL or string word with a word in AX.
LODS/LODSB/LODSW − Used to store the string byte into AL or string

word into AX.
Program Execution Transfer Instructions (Branch and Loop

Instructions)
These instructions are used to transfer/branch the instructions during an execution.
It includes the following instructions −
Instructions to transfer the instruction during an execution without any condition −
CALL − Used to call a procedure and save their return address to the stack.
RET − Used to return from the procedure to the main program.
JMP − Used to jump to the provided address to proceed to the next

instruction.
Instructions to transfer the instruction during an execution with some conditions −
JA/JNBE − Used to jump if above/not below/equal instruction satisfies.
JAE/JNB − Used to jump if above/not below instruction satisfies.

JBE/JNA − Used to jump if below/equal/ not above instruction satisfies.
JC − Used to jump if carry flag CF = 1
JE/JZ − Used to jump if equal/zero flag ZF = 1
JG/JNLE − Used to jump if greater/not less than/equal instruction satisfies.

JGE/JNL − Used to jump if greater than/equal/not less than instruction
satisfies.
JL/JNGE − Used to jump if less than/not greater than/equal instruction

satisfies.
JLE/JNG − Used to jump if less than/equal/if not greater than instruction

satisfies.
JNC − Used to jump if no carry flag (CF = 0)
JNE/JNZ − Used to jump if not equal/zero flag ZF = 0
JNO − Used to jump if no overflow flag OF = 0
JNP/JPO − Used to jump if not parity/parity odd PF = 0

JNS − Used to jump if not sign SF = 0
JO − Used to jump if overflow flag OF = 1

JP/JPE − Used to jump if parity/parity even PF = 1
JS − Used to jump if sign flag SF = 1
Processor Control Instructions

These instructions are used to control the processor action by setting/resetting the
flag values.
Following are the instructions under this group −
STC − Used to set carry flag CF to 1

CLC − Used to clear/reset carry flag CF to 0
CMC − Used to put complement at the state of carry flag CF.
STD − Used to set the direction flag DF to 1

CLD − Used to clear/reset the direction flag DF to 0
STI − Used to set the interrupt enable flag to 1, i.e., enable INTR input.
CLI − Used to clear the interrupt enable flag to 0, i.e., disable INTR input.
Iteration Control Instructions
These instructions are used to execute the given instructions for number of times.
LOOP − Used to loop a group of instructions until the condition satisfies, i.e.,
CX = 0
LOOPE/LOOPZ − Used to loop a group of instructions till it satisfies ZF = 1 &
CX = 0
LOOPNE/LOOPNZ − Used to loop a group of instructions till it satisfies ZF =

0 & CX = 0
JCXZ − Used to jump to the provided address if CX = 0
Interrupt Instructions
These instructions are used to call the interrupt during program execution.
INT − Used to interrupt the program during execution and calling service
specified.
INTO − Used to interrupt the program during execution if OF = 1
IRET − Used to return from interrupt service to the main program

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4/5/24, 10:34 AM Microprocessor Tutorial

Frequently Asked Questions about Microprocessor

A microprocessor is like the brain of a computer. It is a small electronic chip that

Who invented the microprocessor?

Microprocessor was invented by a team of engineers led by Ted Hoff, Federico

What are the features of microprocessor?

The features of a microprocessor include −

Processing Power − Microprocessors are capable of performing millions or

Integration − Microprocessors integrate multiple components, such as

Scalability − Microprocessors come in different configurations and speeds,

Which is the world's first microprocessor?

How Does a Microprocessor Work?

A microprocessor works like the brain of a computer. It receives instructions from

Fetch − The microprocessor fetches instructions from the computer's

Decode − It decodes these instructions to understand what action needs to

This process repeats continuously, allowing the microprocessor to handle complex

Why Registers Are Used Inside of Microprocessors?

What is flag in microprocessor?

A flag in a microprocessor is a small piece of information or a signal that indicates a

What are the different types of microprocessor?

There are primarily two types of microprocessors −

General-Purpose Microprocessors − These are versatile microprocessors

Special-Purpose Microprocessors − These are microprocessors designed

What are the basic parts of a microprocessor?

The basic parts of a microprocessor include −

Cache Memory − Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located

What is the fastest microprocessor?

Block Diagram of a Basic Microcomputer

How does a Microprocessor Work?

List of Terms Used in a Microprocessor

Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor −

Instruction Set − It is the set of instructions that the microprocessor can

Clock Speed − It determines the number of operations per second the

Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices and

Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.

Some of the RISC processors are −

Power PC: 601, 604, 615, 620

RISC microprocessor architecture uses highly-optimized set of instructions. It is used

The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows −

It consists of simple instructions.

It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for

One cycle execution time.

It consists of larger number of registers.

Some of the CISC Processors are −

Variety of addressing modes.

Larger number of instructions.

Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.

Instruction-decoding logic is complex.

One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.

A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle its particular

For example − Math Coprocessor.

Some Intel math-coprocessors are −

8087-used with 8086

80287-used with 80286

80387-used with 80386

It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its own, which is

DMA (direct Memory Access) controller

Graphic display controller