A CASE STUDY OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT

BUILDINGS IN NEPAL

A Project Report-II submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Pokhara

University for the degree of the Bachelor of Engineering

Advisor/Supervisor:

Dr. Hemchandra Chaulagain

Submitted By:
Anusha Giri (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0434)
Anusha Timilsina (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0435)
Bipana Marasini (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0446)
Ishwor Prasad Kafle (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0455)
Kushal Nepali (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0466)
Madan Bahadur Pandit ( Regd No 2019-1-04-0469)

Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Science and Technology

Pokhara University

Pokhara-30, Kaski

Date: 2079/10/17

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 COVER LETTER

To,

The Supervisor,
School of Engineering
Faculty of Science & Technology, Pokhara University
Pokhara-30, Kaski

Subject: - Submission of project proposal

Dear Sir,

We the student of Civil engineering 3rd year (5th semester), intend to develop a project
proposal named “CASE STUDY OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS IN
NEPAL” in the fulfilment of project-I, which is under the syllabus of Pokhara University in
the 3rd semester.

Nepal is a mountainous country and is at high risk of different Natural calamities including
earthquakes. Being a student of civil engineering the need to study earthquake-resistant
buildings became a Priority after the 2015 earthquake which led to even more curiosity and
exploration thus, this project gives the best opportunity to study Earthquake Resistant
Buildings in Nepal.

Sincerely Yours,

Anusha Giri (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0434)

Anusha Timilsina (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0435)
Bipana Marasini (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0446)
Ishwor Prasad Kafle (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0455)
Kushal Nepali (Regd No: 2019-1-04-0466)
Madan Bahadur Pandit ( Regd No 2019-1-04-0469)

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE/APPROVAL SHEET

It is certified that this project II titled “CASE STUDY OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT

BUILDINGS IN NEPAL” is the bonafide work of Ms. Anusha Giri, Ms. Anusha
Timilsina, Ms. Bipana Marasini, Mr. Ishwor Prasad Kafle, Mr. Kushal Nepali, Mr.
Madan Bahadur Pandit and who carried out the project work under my supervision. It is
further certified that to the best of my knowledge, the work reported herein doesn’t form part
of any other project on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.

Er. Sanjay Baral Dr . Hemchandra Chaulagain

Project coordinator Supervisor Assistant Professor Program Coordinator

School of Engineering School of Engineering

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 Abstract

Nepal has a long history of earthquakes because of its location in one of the most seismically
active regions of the world. The response of structure to an earthquake is a function of the
nature of foundation soil, material, form, size and mode of construction and duration, and
characteristics of ground. For the first time, Nepal Building code was concerned after
earthquake of 1988 A.D. The various structural elements like foundation, beams, pillars,
columns, walls, and stairs and so on play vital role for collapsing of building during the
earthquakes. This paper describes about the standard building codes of Nepal and the study
regarding how these codes are implemented in real fields. From the field visits, we found
many codes not even being executed and some elements are constructed doing certain
modifications of the actual code which develops the risk of structure failure.

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 Table of Contents

Table of Contents 5

1. Introduction 6
1.1 Background 6
1.2 Building Codes and Their History in Nepal 7

2. Structural elements 8
2.1.Foundation 8
2.2. Beams 13
I.Tie beam: 13
II.Plinth Beam: 13
2.3.Pillars / Column 14
2 4. Walls 14
2.5. Lintel and Sill 16
2.6. Concrete Slab 16
2.7. Staircase 17
I. Straight stairs 17
II.Turning stairs 18
2.8. Parapet 18
2.9. Concrete 19

3.Observation 20
3.1. FOUNDATION DEPTH: 20
3.2.PILLAR CONSTRUCTION: 22

4. Methodology 28

5.Objectives 30

6.Significance 30

7.Scope 30

8.Result 31

9.Conclusion 32

10.References 33

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 1. Introduction

Being a mountainous country Nepal is considered to be at high risk in case of different

natural calamities including earthquakes, which are one of the most destructive catastrophes.
Nepal has a long history of earthquakes, because of its location in one of the most seismically
active regions of the world. The first documented earthquake event in the country dates back
to 7 June 1255 and since 1255 to till date Nepal has experienced numerous strong
earthquakes and caused serious damage to the civil structure causing casualties and injuries to
thousands of lives.

The response of a structure to an earthquake is a function of the nature of foundation soil,

material, form, size and mode of construction and duration, and characteristics of ground
motion. The violent ground motion pushes the building rapidly from one direction to another
making it difficult for the superstructure to constantly balance its load due to inertial effects.
While columns can bend, the swaying motion, when intensified, swaps the building causing it
to collapse. A superstructure can be damaged, not only on account of shaking which results
from quakes but also due to the chain effects of earthquakes.

1.1 Background

The Nepal earthquake of 2015, also called the Gorkha earthquake, struck near the city of
Kathmandu in central Nepal on April 25, 2015, where about 9,000 people were killed, and
many thousands more were injured. There were some 500,000 houses destroyed and 300,000
partially damaged which had displaced more than 100,000 people and left countless dreams
shattered. The Gorkha earthquake and its aftershocks caused a huge loss of life and property
in Nepal. It left many houses completely or partially damaged. Out of all the buildings that
collapsed, a larger proportion of them were the traditional masonry structures that are found
all over the country.

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1.2 Building Codes and Their History in Nepal

● After the Earthquake of 1988 AD (2045 BS), the need for Nepal Building Code was
concerned.
● The Government of Nepal with financial support from UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat)
started the work of preparation of the Nepal Building Code in 1993 and the building
code was prepared through International Consultant in 1994 AD.
● The first edition of the building code had 20 different codes and later in 2003 AD,
three of new codes (Architectural, Electrical, and Sanitary Codes) were added.
● Building codes were approved by the cabinet of ministers in July 2003.
● Building codes were implemented in (58 municipalities, 28 district headquarters
which were VDC, and 7 emerging towns which were VDCs)
● In 2015 AD four codes NBC202, NBC 203, NBC 204, and NBC 20ff were revised
while one of the very important codes i.e. NBC 105: SEISMIC LOAD was
completely revised and published in 2020 AD.

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2. Structural elements

1. Foundation
2. Beams
3. Pillars / Columns
4. Walls
5. Lintel/Sill
6. Concrete slab
7. Stairs
8. Parapet/ railing
9. Concrete

2.1. Foundation

The foundation is the lowest load-bearing part of a building. The foundation is usually
concrete, and it is the first component built. The foundation distributes the weight from the
structure on top evenly onto the soil underneath it.
A well-made foundation can prevent common problems in a building that can develop
over time, like a cracking foundation or uneven load bearing.

Types of foundation:
● Shallow foundation
● Deep foundation

Shallow foundation:
A shallow foundation is a type of building that transfers the structural load to the earth
very near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths, as does a deep
foundation. Customarily, a shallow foundation is considered as such when the width of the entire
foundation is greater than its depth. In comparison to deep foundations, shallow foundations are
less technical, thus making them more economical and the most widely used for relatively light
structures.

A shallow foundation is used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the
imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as
poorly- compacted fill, peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.

❖ Spread footing:

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 This footing is also known as a pad foundation. In this type of foundation, the
base is made wider than the top to distribute the load from the superstructure over a
large area. Spread footing may be of the following types:
● Isolated footing
● Stepped footing
● Sloped Footing

❖ Combined Footing:
When two or more than two columns come in a row then this type of footing is constructed.
In this, there are two types of footing they are:

1. Rectangular-shaped combined footing.

The combined footing for columns will be rectangular in shape if they carry equal
loads.

2. Trapezoidal shaped combined footing.

The trapezoidal footing is provided when the load of one column is higher than other column
loads.

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Wall footing:
It is also called strip footing, this footing is a continuous strip that supports structural and non-
structural load-bearing walls. The base course of these footings can be concrete or of entirely one
material. Found directly under the wall, its width is commonly 2-3 times wider than the wall
above it.

Strap footing:

A strap footing is a component of a building's foundation. It is a type of combined footing,

consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete beam. This type of beam is
called a strap beam. It is used to help distribute the weight of either heavily or eccentrically
loaded column footings to adjacent footings.

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Raft or Mat foundation:

This is also known as combined type footing or foundation. It covers the whole structure. It
provides stability and strength to the structural members like RCC wall and columns. Above
the soil surface, a base is created of any thickness, it is just done to create a base for Raft
Foundation. On that base, this raft foundation is constructed. When bearing capacity of a soil
is less than, raft or mat footing is used.

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Deep foundation:

A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth
farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range
of depths. If the depth of footing is greater or equal to the Width of footing, it is known as the
deep foundation. Deep Foundation is used where the bearing capacity of the soil is very low.
The load coming from the superstructure is further transmitted vertically to the soil.

Types of deep foundation:

● Pile foundation:

Pile foundations are deep foundations that transfer loads from a structure to a deeper, more
competent stratum. Timber, concrete, or steel are typical materials for piles. There are several
methods of installing piles, including driven, drilled, and jetted. Piles are typically used when
shallow, compacted soils are not strong enough to support loads of a structure. Pile
foundations can be used in both onshore and offshore applications.

● Pier foundation
During construction, pier foundations are commonly used to support structures that are built
on water. The pier foundation is constructed by driving piles into the bed of the body of water
and then constructing a platform on top of the piles. The pier foundation is commonly used
for docks, piers, and bridges.

● Caisson Foundation
A caisson foundation is used to support structures that are located in deep water or soft soil
conditions. Caisson foundations are typically made up of a series of large, interlocking
precast concrete or steel cylinders that are sunk into the ground and filled with concrete or
grout. Caisson foundations are very strong and can support a large amount of weight.

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2.2. Beams

A beam is a structural element or member that largely transfers loads placed along its axis to
its supports, such as walls, columns, foundations, and so on, with bending being the primary
way of deflection. The types of beams used in building is are:
● Tie beam
● Plinth beam

I. Tie beam:

A tie beam is a beam used to strengthen the connection between columns, rafters, or other
structural members in a building’s upper stories. When a vertical part (the columns) on the
foundation is uneven, the tie beams take on the role of a strap beam, bearing all the loads.
The roof truss, floor level, and plinth are the primary locations where tie beams are installed.
They are unable to support any kind of vertical weight, such as walls or other structures. In
addition to their primary function, tie beams can also be used as a tie element to prevent the
differential settlement that might occur between footings based on the strata.

II. Plinth Beam:

Plinth beam is a beam member constructed at the plinth level, which separates the
superstructure and substructure of the building and is also known as a Tie Beam as it holds
the columns in place. The length and slenderness ratio of a column is reduced by using plinth
beams. Plinth beams are primarily used to connect all the columns when the depths of the
foundation are quite high. They also act as supplementary supports in avoiding differential
settlement, maintaining the plinth plan properly and preventing difficulties in constructing
walls. The main function of the plinth beam is to hold all the columns and walls together to
transfer loads uniformly to the foundation.

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2.3. Pillars / Column
Columns are defined as vertical load-bearing members supporting axial compressive loads
chiefly. This structural member is used to transmit the load of the structure to the foundation.
In reinforced concrete buildings beams, floors, and columns are cast monolithically. The
bending action in the column may produce tensile forces over a part of the cross-section.
Still, columns are called compression members because compressive forces dominate their
behavior.

2 4. Walls
Walls are vertical elements which support the roof. It can be made from bricks, concrete
blocks, etc. Walls provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine, rain etc. Openings
are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to the building.
In the context of Nepal, Brick, masonry and concrete walls are used. For brick Wall, The
standard size of brick is 230mm*110mm*55mm. Bricks are commonly used all over Nepal.
Solid concrete blocks, which are highly heavyweight and formed by aggregate, are primarily
utilized in construction projects. They’re sturdy and give structures a lot of solidities. These
solid blocks are ideal for large-scale projects such as force-bearing walls. They’re compared
to bricks that come in big sizes. As a result, constructing concrete masonry takes less time
than brick masonry.

Solid concrete block

A hollow concrete block is a block made of concrete that has hollow spaces between its
walls. It is used to build different types of walls for different purposes like retaining walls,
decorative walls, classic walls, etc. hollow blocks are made of the same ingredients used in
poured concrete walls. Gravel, sand, Portland cement, and water are used as ingredients.

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Hollow concrete block

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2.5. Lintel and Sill
Lintel:
A lintel is a prevalent part of the building. It is a horizontal member which rests on the door
or window opening to support the portion of the structure above it. Whenever openings are
made in the wall there is a concentrated force above the opening thus, the function of the
lintel is the same as a beam, it transfers the structure load to its supports.

Sill band:

The level which is exactly below the window frame is a horizontal shelf at the bottom of the
window frame. It protects the junction of the window and provides additional support and
stability for the window.

2.6. Concrete Slab

A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings, consisting of a flat,

horizontal surface made of cast concrete. Steel reinforced slabs are most often used to
construct floors and ceilings. The ground floor of many residential and commercial buildings
is constructed from a large concrete slab that is either supported by foundations or rests
directly on the subsoil. These slabs are often categorized as suspended or ground-bearing. If a
slab rests directly on the foundation, it is considered ground-bearing; otherwise, it is
suspended. The reinforcement for concrete slab is done according to the Code of building
section of Nepal.

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2.7. Staircase
A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure. The space
occupied by a stair is called the stairway. Stairs may be made from timber, stone, bricks,
RCC, metal etc.

Most commonly used staircase in residential buildings is dog legged stairs which is shown in
figure:

Types of Stairs - Classification of stairs:

Stairs can be broadly classified into three types:

1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
3. Continuous stairs

I. Straight stairs
Generally for small houses, available width is very retractable. So, this type of straight stairs
are used in such conditions which runs straight between two floors. This stair may consist of
either one single flight or more than one flight with a landing.

II. Turning stairs

Turning stairs are sub classified as:

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 1. Quarter turn stairs
2. Half turn stairs ( dog legged stairs)
3. Three – quarter turn stairs
4. Bifurcated stairs

This type of stairs neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post. They are
geometric in shape. These may be of following types.

● Circular stairs
● Spiral stairs
● Helical stairs

Circular stairs or spiral stairs are usually made either of R.C.C or metal, and are placed at a
location where there are space limitations. Sometimes these are also used as emergency
stairs, and are provided at the back side of a building. These are not comfortable because all
the steps are winded and provide discomfort. A helical stair looks very fine but its structural
design and construction is very complicated. It is made of R.C.C in which a large portion of
steel is required to resist bending, shear and torsion.

2.8. Parapet
Parapets are short walls extended above the roof slab. Parapets are installed for flat roofs. It
acts as a safety wall for people using the roof. Parapet walls can be constructed using
different materials like bricks, reinforced cement concrete, steel, aluminium, glass etc.

Fig1: Parapet walls

2.9. Concrete

Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together
with a fluid cement that hardens over time. It is a mixture of Portland or other cements, water
and aggregates: sand, gravel, or crushed stone. Best concrete mix ratio is 1:2:4 i.e. 1 part
cement, 2 part sand and 4 part crushed stone(coarse aggregate) to get best strength.

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For pillar, slab and beam construction, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) along with sand and
gravel is used in the ratio 1:3:3 whereas Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) with ratio 1:3
(1 part cement 3 part gravel) is used for construction of walls.

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3. Observation

3.1. FOUNDATION DEPTH:

STANDARD CODES:

● Foundation depth should be at

least 5 feet
● Foundation should not be made
on dug out soil.
● The foundation depth should be
up to the depth where there is
original soil of land
● The side thickness of the
foundation should be at least 8
inches.
● In case the pillars are very close
as shown in picture 1(d), a joint
foundation should be
constructed for two pillars
● Vibrators must be used after
concreting.

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Cases observed:

Site 1:
● Foundation Depth: 5 feet
● No any very close pillars
so no joint foundation
● Side thickness of
foundation: 8 inches

Site 4:
● Foundation depth: 6 feet.
● Side thickness of
foundation: 8 inches
● No joint foundation
since the pillars are not
too close.

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3.2. PILLAR CONSTRUCTION:

Standard codes:

● Since the building’s load is

transmitted through pillars to the
foundation depth and also since
seismic load is taken by pillars so,
pillars constructed should be strong
enough.
● For up to three storey buildings,
pillar size should be at least
12"×12".
● The rings that are used on pillars
should be of at least 8mm.
● The rings of the pillar should be
made by two individual rods joined
together so as to form the desired
coded design.
● Rings formed should be of
dimension 9"×9".
● The bent portion inside the ring
should be at least 3”.
● The rings on the pillar should be
4"-4" apart.

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Cases observed:

Site 1:
● Single 8mm rod used to make a ring.
● The bent portion inside the ring is 3".
● Dimension of ring: 8"×8".
● Distance between two rings is 5”.

Site 2:
● Single 8mm rod used to make a ring.
● Bent portion inside the ring is 5".
● Dimension of ring: 8"×8".
● Distance between two rings is 5”.

Site 4:
● Two rods 8mm each have been
joined together to form a single ring.
● Dimension of ring: 9.5"×9.5".
● Bent portion inside the ring: 4".
● Distance between two rings: 4".

2. BEAM CONSTRUCTION:

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 STANDARD CODES:

● There should be at least 2/2 rods

16mm each in the upper and lower
part of the beam.
● Rings on the beam should be 5”
apart.
● Overlapping of the rods in the beam
should be more than 1m.
● The overlapping of rods in a strap
beam should be on alternate sides.

Cases observed:

Site 1:
● Five rods 16mm each, three on
the upper side and two on the
lower side have been used.
● Rings on the beam are 5 inches
apart.
● Overlapping of rods is more than
1m.
● Overlapping of the rods in the
strap beam have been done on
alternate sides.
● Rods used to make the ring are
8mm each

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 Site 6:
● Eight rods 16mm each, three on
the upper and lower part and two
on the sides have been used.
● Rings on the beam are 4 inches
apart.
● Rods used to make the ring are
8mm each.

3. SILL AND LINTEL BAND CONSTRUCTION:

STANDARD CODES:

● The width of these bands should be equal to that of the wall and thickness should be
at least 3".
● In the sill band, there should be two rods of 12mm and 8mm rings should be kept at
a distance of 6" each.
● In a lintel band of thickness 6", there should be four rods of 12mm and 8mm rings
should be kept at a distance of 6" each.

Cases Observed:

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 Site 2:

● Two rods of 8mm each have

been put in both lintel and sill
band.
● No use of rings.
● Distance between two rods in
both bands is 6 inches.
● Thickness of the lintel and sill
band is 3.5 inches.

4. STAIRCASE CONSTRUCTION:

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 STANDARD CASE:

● The thickness of the slab (in the staircase) should be at least 5".
● The upper rod should be 1/3rd of length from the bent portion.

Cases Observed:

Site 5:

● Rods of 12mm each at the gap of

5" have been placed.
● The thickness of the slab is 5".

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4. Methodology
The project was carried out in the following ways.
i. Flow chart:

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ii. Algorithm:
● First of all, a title was selected in a meeting with our supervisor.

● We selected “Case study of Earthquake Resistant Buildings” as our project

topic.
● With proper guidance of our supervisor, a proposal was made and submitted.

● We selected various construction sites as the field of our study.

● After the field visit and direct surveying primary data of all the construction
sites were taken.
● Secondary data i.e. the building codes was abstracted out from governmental
website as well as with the help officials of the government themselves
● After analysing the obtained information and tallying it with the standard
codes report was prepared with the help of our supervisor.

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5. Objectives
● To study the condition of failure and failure patterns in buildings.
● To compare buildings with the standard codes as per The Government of Nepal.

6. Significance
The main aim of the project is to compare the standard codes of earthquake resistant
buildings with those observed in the site.
Some of the significance are as listed below:

● To know standard codes of beam construction, foundation depth, sill and lintel band
construction and so on.
● To study actual depth of foundation, construction of beam practically in site field
visit.
● To observe whether the construction of a house or building is under the provision of
standard codes provided by the Government of Nepal.
● To gain knowledge regarding construction of houses under standard code of conduct.

7. Scope
The main scope of this research is to study the Structural parts of buildings like:
● Foundation
● Beams
● Pillars/ Columns
● Walls
● Lintel/ Sill
● Concrete slab
● Parapet/ railing
● Concrete

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 8. Result

Sites Foundation Depth Beam Construction Staircase

Depth of Side Presence of joint No of Presence of Slab Thickness

foundatio Thickness Foundation/ Rods overlapping
n Footing

Site 1 5 feet 8 inches No 5 Yes -

Site 2 - - - - - -

Site 3 - - - - - -

Site 4 6 feet 8 inches No - - -

Site 5 - - - - - 5 inches

Site 6 - - - 8 Yes -

Sites Pillar Construction Sill and lintel Band

No. of rods Distance Bent Portion Dimension of rod Presence of rings

in ring between rings

Site 1 1 5 inches 3 inches - -

Site 2 1 5 inches 5 inches 2 rods of 8mm No

Site 3 - - - - -

Site 4 2 4 inches 4 inches

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9. Conclusion
From our study, we drew the conclusion that houses in Nepal aren’t constructed by strictly
following all the protocols and codes made by the government but are modified to ensure the
lower cost and simplification of the construction rather than the safety of the structure.

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10. References
● http://www.dudbc.gov.np/home?fbclid=IwAR3Mlb3jsO2D-
V1tttNpsFEIO3gZK__mJlDauqAmtd2lFZYb7F4jCvsbfVA
● https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nepal-earthquake-of-2015
● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_foundation
● https://www.engineeringcivil.com/
● https://theconstructor.org/

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