Unit 2: Molecular and Ionic Compound Structure and Properties-Apr.

18-20
Types of Chemical Bonds
● Chemical Bond: when 2 or more atoms/ions attached to each other strongly; 3 types
○ Ionic Bond: electrostatic forces existing between ions of opposite charge
■ Usually metals+nonmetals
○ Covalent Bond: sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
■ Usually nonmetals+nonmetals
○ Metallic Bonds: found in metals; each metal atom is bonded to several
neighboring atoms, resulting in a sea of free moving electrons through the metal
■ This is why metals conduct electricity very well, are ductile/malleable
■ Metal+metal usually
● Ionic Bonding
○ Transfer of an electron from one atom (usually metal) to another (usually
nonmetal)
■ Resulting difference in charges leads to a bond formation
○ Example of ionic bond reaction:

■
○ Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation
■ Ionic electron transfer reactions are extremely exothermic
■ When ions form, it is endothermic, but when the charges attract each other
and form a bond, it becomes exothermic
■ Lattice Energy: energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid
ionic compound into its gaseous ions
● This is why ions have such high melting/boiling points
● 2 factors influence lattice energy: charge # and atomic radius
○ Electron Configuration of the Representative Elements
■ Based on the number of valence electrons; will only have the maximum
-/+ charge as dictated by the removal/addition of electrons such that the
valence shell becomes complete
■ Ex: Group 1A will have only a charge of 1+
■ Maximum of +/- 3 charge (for the ions with the greatest charge)
○ Transition-Metal Ions
■ Tend not to form noble gas configurations; instead fill up the highest
subshell as possible
● But they can lose more until they reach the charge
■ First they lose electrons of higher n; then they lose electrons of the d
subshell as needed
 ● Ex: Fe: [Ar]3d64s2 ; Fe+: [Ar]3d64s1; Fe2+: [Ar]3d6; Fe3+: [Ar]3d5
○ Polyatomics
■ Act as an ion themselves when bonding/ creating salts; alone, they are
joined by covalent bonds and thus they do not separate
● Covalent Bonding
○ Sharing of electrons between atoms
○ Though nuclei repel each other and electrons repel each other, the attraction of the
nucleus to the electrons brings the atoms together
○ Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
■ Bond Polarity: describes the sharing of electrons between atoms
■ Nonpolar Covalent Bond: electrons are shared equally between two
atoms
■ Polar Covalent Bond: electrons are shared unequally because one atom
exerts greater attraction for the electrons than the other
■ Electronegativity: the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons
to itself
● Vs. Electron Affinity: how strongly an atom attracts addition
electrons to itself
■ Greater electronegativity→greater ionization energy and greater electron
affinity
● Harder to lose electrons, easier to gain electrons
■ Linus Pauling developed the first electroneg. scale
■ The greater the difference in electroneg. between atoms, the more polar
the bond
● 2 identical atoms share electrons equally
● Ions don’t share at all (result when electroneg. difference is very
high)
○ Dipole Moments
■ In polar molecules, polarity is indicated one of two ways:

■
● Indicate partial +/- charge
■ Dipole: established when charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign
are separated by a distance
■ Dipole Moment: quantitative measure of the magnitude of a dipole
■ Dipoles cancel when a molecule is symmetrical; therefore, DO NOT
include them; this is because thought the dipoles exist, they cancel each
other out
 ● When asymmetrical, the dipole is established as the dipole is not
cancelled and a net dipole is established
Intramolecular force and potential energy
● Refers to the 3 types of bonds
● Ionic forms between 2 atoms that have a dif. of electroneg. that is >1.9
● Polar covalent is between 0.5 and 1.9
● Nonpolar covalent is less than 0.5
● Relative Strengths of Intramolecular Forces
○
Intramolecular force Basis of formation Relative strength

Metallic bond Metal cations to 1, strongest

delocalized electrons

Ionic bond Cations to anions 2

Polar covalent bond Partially charged cation 3

to partially charged
anion

Nonpolar covalent bond Nuclei to shared 4, weakest

electrons
● See OneNote notes
Structure of ionic solids
● Made up of ions (based on Coulomb’s Law)
● Properties:
○ High melting point
■ Hard and strong bond leading to a very high melting point
○ Low vapor pressure
■ Due to high attraction between ions
○ Brittle
■ Very rigid structure, leading to easy breakage
○ Poor conductors (due to lack of free electrons)
■ Except as vapors/solutions
● Have a lattice structure of alternating ions held together by static charge
Structure of metals and alloys
● Electron sea model
○ Electrons move around freely
● Properties
○ Shiny
 ■ Due to free electrons on the surface reflecting light
○ Conductors
■ Many free electrons, mobile atoms
○ Ductile
■ Can be pulled out
○ Malleable
■ Can be bent/reshaped
● Alloys
○ Interstitial
■ Fill holes between the metallic bonds of a metal with very small atoms
(ex.: steel)
○ Substitutional
■ Substitute metal atoms for others of similar size (ex: brass)
● Based on metallic bonding
○ Metals bond to metal atoms surrounding them
Lewis diagrams
● Lewis Symbols
○ Lewis symbol: a symbol for an element showing the symbol surrounded by dots
corresponding to the number of valence electrons
● Octet Rule
○ Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to reach the closest noble gas configuration
(most stable)
■ They have 8 electrons; this is the octet rule: atoms gain, lose, or share
electrons to reach 8 valence electrons
Resonance and formal charge
● See OneNote notes (APBig Idea 2-Lewis Diagrams)
● IMPORTANT: if 2 structures have equivalent formal charge (the same number of +/-
charges) the more likely structure will be the one in which the more electronegative atom
is assigned a negative formal charge or the less electronegative atom is assigned the
positive formal charge.
VSEPR and bond hybridization-Apr. 18
● Molecular Shapes
○ Bond Angles: angles made by lines joining the nuclei of the atoms in molecules;
overall shape of molecule is determined using these
○ Most structures can be derived from most basic geometries (listed below)
● VSEPR Model
○ Electron Domain: a region in which electrons are most likely to be found; 2
types:
 ■ Bonding pair: the region in which shared electrons are most likely to be
found
■ Nonbonding pair: the electron domain princiapply attached to one atom;
aka lone pair
■ NOTE: in reference to Lewis structures, a lone pair, single bond, double
bond, and triple bond each count as ONE electron domain
○ Formula mainly used for this is AXnEN; A= central atom, B=surrounding atom(s),
n=# of B, E=bonding/nonbonding pairs, N=# of E
■ When no nonbonding pairs, most basic geometries:

Notation Geometry Angle

AX Linear --

AX2 Linear 180º

AX3 Trigonal Planar 120º

AX4 Tetrahedral 109.5º

AX5 Trigonal Bipyramidal 90º, 120º

AX6 Octahedral 90º

○ When nonbonding pairs occur→ derived structures (bonding pairs replaced

w/nonbonding

Basic Structure Derived Structure Geometry Angle

Notation Notation

AX2 AXE Linear diatomic --

AX3 AX2E Bent 120º

AX4 AX3E Trigonal Pyramidal 109.5º

AX4 AX2E2 Bent 109.5º

AX5 AX4E Distorted 120º, 90º

Tetrahedron, folded
square, seesaw

AX5 AX3E2 T-shape 90º

 AX5 AX2E3 Linear 180º

AX6 AX5E Square Pyramidal 90º

AX6 AX4E2 Square Planar 90º

NOTE: lone pairs on AX5 always occupy equatorial position because they face the least
repulsion here.
○ To predict geometry from Lewis structure
■ 1. Draw Lewis structure and count electron domains. Take note of
nonbonding pairs.
■ 2. Determine the basic geometry based on the number of these.
■ 3. From here, choose the derived geometry based on the number of
nonbonding pairs.
○ Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles
■ Same molecular geometry can be slightly affected by nonbonding pairs
● Bonding pair is attracted by 2 nuclei; nonbonding pair is only
attracted by 1→ therefore nonbonding electrons are more spread
out and exert greater repulsive forces on adjacent bond angles,
making them smaller
● Thus, the more lone pairs in a molecule, the smaller the bond
angles will be
■ Multiple bonds
● Contain more electronic-charge density→ thus have similar effect
to nonbonding pairs
○ Shapes of Larger Molecules
■ In order to determine these, “break” the molecule apart by its central
atoms and then assess each based on electron-domain geometry, and then
predict its angles
○ Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity
● Covalent and Orbital Overlap
○ Valence-bond theory: combination of electron-pair bonds and atomic orbital
theory in reference to bonding
■ Overlap of orbitals leads to bonding
● Hybrid Orbitals
○ Hybrid orbital: the mixing of atomic orbitals in an atom to form new orbitals
■ Done when an electron is promoted to the next highest subshell in order to
form more bonds
■ Mix a certain number of subshells for more bonding
○ Hybrid orbitals by geometry:
 Notation Geometry Angle Hybridization

AX Linear -- --

AX2 Linear 180º sp

AX3 Trigonal Planar 120º sp^2

AX4 Tetrahedral 109.5º sp^3

AX5 Trigonal Bipyramidal 90º, 120º sp^3d

AX6 Octahedral 90º sp^3d^2

NOTES:
● When breaking ionic lattices in dissolution processes, an exothermic process is
encountered when the ion-dipole attractions are stronger than the lattice energy
○ Endothermic reactions therefore occur when the ion-dipole forces are weaker than
the lattice energy
● CHECK UR NOTES!!!! FOR GEOMETRIES (if you have time) DON’T JUST
ASSUME
● Nonpolar molecules have dipole moments closest to 0; based on symmetry