CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

If a load is static or changes relatively slowly with time and is applied uniformly over a cross section
or surface of a member, the mechanical behavior may be ascertained by a simple stress–strain test; these
are most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. There are three principal ways in which
a load may
be applied: namely, tension, compression, and shear (Figures 6.1a, b, c). In engineering practice many
loads are torsional rather than pure shear; this type of loading is illustrated in Figure 6.1d.
Tension Tests1
One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed in tension. As will be seen, the
tension test can be used to ascertain several mechanical properties of materials that are important in
design. A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load that is
applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen. A standard tensile specimen normally has a cross
section that is circular, but rectangular specimens are also used. The “dogbone” specimen configuration
was chosen so that, during testing, deformation is confined to the narrow center region (which has a
uniform cross section along its length), and, also, to reduce the likelihood of fracture at the ends of the
specimen. The standard diameter is approximately 12.8 mm, whereas the reduced section length should
be at least four times this diameter; 60 mm is common. Gauge length is used in ductility computations,
the standard value is 50 mm (2.0 in.). The specimen is mounted by its ends into the holding grips of the
testing apparatus. The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate,
and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load (with a load cell) and
the resulting elongations (using an extensometer).A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to
perform and is destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured.
These same mechanics principles allow the transformation of stress components from one coordinate
system to another coordinate system that has a different orientation. Such treatments are beyond the
scope of the present discussion.
of several elastic constants, their number depending on characteristics of the crystal structure. Even for
isotropic materials, for complete characterization of the elastic properties, at least two constants must
be given. Since the grain orientation is random in most polycrystalline materials, these may be
considered to be isotropic; inorganic ceramic glasses are also isotropic. The remaining discussion of
mechanical behavior assumes isotropy and polycrystallinity because such is the character of most
engineering materials.
From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds with original
atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with new neighbors as large numbers of atoms or molecules
move relative to one another; upon removal of the stress they do not return to their original positions.
The mechanism of this deformation is different for crystalline and amorphous materials. For crystalline
solids, deformation is accomplished by means of a process called slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility for several of the common metals. These properties are
sensitive to any prior deformation, the presence of impurities, and/or any heat treatment to which the
metal has been subjected. The modulus of elasticity is one mechanical parameter that is insensitive to
these treatments. As with modulus of elasticity, the magnitudes of both yield and tensile strengths
decline with increasing temperature; just the reverse holds for ductility—it usually increases with
temperature. Figure 6.14 shows how the stress–strain behavior of iron varies with temperature.
Resilience Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The associated property is the modulus of
resilience, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded
state up to the point of yielding. Computationally, the modulus of resilience for a specimen subjected
to a uniaxial tension test is just the area under the stress-strain curve taken to yielding figure 6.15.
Flexural Test
Flexural test can be conducted on a special type of fixture on the universal testing machine as a three-
point bending test, in which the sample of rectangular or circular cross section is mounted between three
knife points as shown. This geometry produces tensile stresses at the bottom of the sample and
compressive stresses at the top of the sample. Since most samples subjected to this test (like concrete)
are weaker in tension than in compression, the specimen fails—literally breaks into two— following
the formation of a nearly vertical crack, called the flexural crack, near the center. The load at failure, Ff
, can then be used to calculate the modulus of rupture, also known as the bend strength, fracture strength,
𝑀𝐶
or flexural strength, σfs: 𝜎𝑓𝑠 = 𝐼

where M is the maximum moment (𝐹𝑓 𝐿/4), 𝐼 is the moment of inertia, and 𝑐 is the distance from the
neutral axis to the extreme fiber in tension. The relationships for M, 𝐼 , and 𝑐 for both rectangular and
circular cross sections, along with the corresponding equations for 𝜎𝑓𝑠 , are given in Figure below. The
flexural strength will depend on sample size, since with increasing size there is an increase in the
probability of the existence of a crack-producing flaw, along with a corresponding decrease in the
flexural strength. This test, and others like it such as the four-point bend, are common for brittle
materials such as ceramics.
6.10 HARDNESS Another mechanical property that may be important to consider is hardness, which
is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch).
Early hardness tests were based on natural minerals with a scale constructed solely on the ability of one
material to scratch another that was softer. A qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness indexing
scheme was devised, termed the Mohs scale, which ranged from 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for
diamond. Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over the years in which a small
indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be tested, under controlled conditions of load and rate
of application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is related to a
hardness number; the softer the material, the larger and deeper is the indentation, and the lower the
hardness index number. Measured hardnesses are only relative (rather than absolute), and care should
be exercised when comparing values determined by different techniques. Hardness tests are performed
more frequently than any other mechanical test for several reasons: 1. They are simple and
inexpensive—ordinarily no special specimen need be prepared, and the testing apparatus is relatively
inexpensive. 2. The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively deformed;
a small indentation is the only deformation. 3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from
hardness data, such as tensile strength (see Figure 6.19). Rockwell Hardness Tests11 The Rockwell
tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness because they are so simple to
perform and require no special skills. Several different scales may be utilized from possible
combinations of various indenters and different loads, which permit the testing of virtually all metal
alloys (as well as some polymers). Indenters include spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters
1 1 1 1
of 16 , 8 , 4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑖𝑛. (1.588, 3.175, 6.350, and 12.70 mm), and a conical diamond (Brale) indenter,
which is used for the hardest materials. With this system, a hardness number is determined by the
difference in depth of penetration resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed by a
larger major load; utilization of a minor load enhances test accuracy. On the basis of the magnitude of
both major and minor loads, there are two types of tests: Rockwell and superficial Rockwell. For
Rockwell, the minor load is 10 kg, whereas major loads are 60, 100, and 150 kg. Each scale is
represented by a letter of the alphabet; several are listed with the corresponding indenter and load in
Tables 6.5 and 6.6a. For superficial tests, 3 kg is the minor load; 15, 30, and 45 kg are the possible
major load values. These scales are identified by a 15, 30, or 45 (according to load), followed by N, T,
W, X, or Y, depending on indenter. Superficial tests are frequently performed on thin specimens. Table
6.6b presents several superficial scales. When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardnesses, both
hardness number and scale symbol must be indicated. The scale is designated by the symbol HR
Brinell Hardness Tests13 In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is
forced into the surface of the metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide)
indenter is 10.00 mm (0.394 in.). Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments;
during a test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s). Harder materials
require greater applied loads. The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of both the magnitude of
the load and the diameter of the resulting indentation (see Table 6.5).14 This diameter is measured with
a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale that is etched on the eyepiece. The measured diameter
is then converted to the appropriate HB number using a chart; only one scale is employed with this
technique. Semiautomatic techniques for measuring Brinell hardness are available. These employ
optical scanning systems consisting of a digital camera mounted on a flexible probe, which allows
positioning of the camera over the indentation. Data from the camera are transferred to a computer that
analyzes the indentation, determines its size, and then calculates the Brinell hardness number. For this
technique, surface finish requirements are normally more stringent that for manual measurements.
Maximum specimen thickness as well as indentation position (relative to specimen edges) and
minimum indentation spacing requirements are the same as for Rockwell tests. In addition, a well-
defined indentation is required; this necessitates a smooth flat surface in which the indentation is made.
Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests15 Two other hardness-testing techniques are
Knoop and Vickers (sometimes also called diamond pyramid). For each test a very small diamond
indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface of the specimen. Applied loads are much
smaller than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g. The resulting impression is
observed under a microscope and measured; this measurement is then converted into a hardness number
(Table 6.5). Careful specimen surface preparation (grinding and polishing) may be necessary to ensure
a well-defined indentation that may be accurately measured. The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers
are designated by HK and HV, respectively,16 and hardness scales for both techniques are approximately
equivalent. Knoop and Vickers are referred to as microindentation-testing methods on the basis of
indenter size. Both are well suited for measuring the hardness of small, selected specimen regions;
furthermore, Knoop is used for testing brittle materials such as ceramics. The modern microindentation
hardness-testing equipment has been automated by coupling the indenter apparatus to an image analyzer
that incorporates a computer and software package. The software controls important system functions
to include indent location, indent spacing, computation of hardness values, and plotting of data.

The choice of an appropriate value of N is necessary. If N is too large, then component overdesign will
result; that is, either too much material or an alloy having a higher-than-necessary strength will be used.
Values normally range between 1.2 and 4.0. Selection of N will depend on a number of factors,
including economics, previous experience, the accuracy with which mechanical forces and material
properties may be determined, and, most important, the consequences of failure in terms of loss of life
and/or property damage.

8.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURE Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more
pieces in response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature of the material. The applied stress may be
tensile, compressive, shear, or torsional; the present discussion will be confined to fractures that result
from uniaxial tensile loads. For engineering materials, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and
brittle. Classification is based on the ability of a material to experience plastic deformation. Ductile
materials typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high energy absorption before fracture.
On the other hand, there is normally little or no plastic deformation with Learning Objectives After
studying this chapter you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe the mechanism of crack
propagation for both ductile and brittle modes of fracture. 2. Explain why the strengths of brittle
materials are much lower than predicted by theoretical calculations. 3. Define fracture toughness in
terms of (a) a brief statement, and (b) an equation; define all parameters in this equation. 4. Make a
distinction between fracture toughness and plane strain fracture toughness. 5. Name and describe the
two impact fracture testing techniques. 6. Define fatigue and specify the conditions under which it
occurs. 7. From a fatigue plot for some material, determine (a) the fatigue lifetime (at a specified stress
level), and (b) the fatigue strength (at a specified number of cycles). 8. Define creep and specify the
conditions under which it occurs. 9. Given a creep plot for some material, determine (a) the steady-state
creep rate, and (b) the rupture lifetime. ductile, brittle fracture 1496T_c08_207-251 12/21/05 7:51 Page
208 2nd REVISE PAGES low energy absorption accompanying a brittle fracture. The tensile stress–
strain behaviors of both fracture types may be reviewed in Figure 6.13. “Ductile”and “brittle” are
relative terms; whether a particular fracture is one mode or the other depends on the situation. Ductility
may be quantified in terms of percent elongation (Equation 6.11) and percent reduction in area
(Equation 6.12). Furthermore, ductility is a function of temperature of the material, the strain rate, and
the stress state. The disposition of normally ductile materials to fail in a brittle manner is discussed in
Section 8.6. Any fracture process involves two steps—crack formation and propagation—in response
to an imposed stress. The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack propagation.
Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack.
Furthermore, the process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is extended. Such a crack is
often said to be stable. That is, it resists any further extension unless there is an increase in the applied
stress. In addition, there will ordinarily be evidence of appreciable gross deformation at the fracture
surfaces (e.g., twisting and tearing). On the other hand, for brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely
rapidly, with very little accompanying plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and
crack propagation, once started, will continue spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the
applied stress. Ductile fracture is almost always preferred for two reasons. First, brittle fracture occurs
suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is a consequence of the spontaneous and rapid
crack propagation. On the other hand, for ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives
warning that fracture is imminent, allowing preventive measures to be taken. Second, more strain
energy is required to induce ductile fracture inasmuch as ductile materials are generally tougher. Under
the action of an applied tensile stress, most metal alloys are ductile, whereas ceramics are notably brittle,
and polymers may exhibit both types of fracture. 8.3 DUCTILE FRACTURE Ductile fracture surfaces
will have their own distinctive features on both macroscopic and microscopic levels. Figure 8.1 shows
schematic representations for two characteristic macroscopic fracture profiles. The configuration shown
in Figure 8.1a is found for extremely soft metals, such as pure gold and lead at room temperature, and
other metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at elevated temperatures. These highly ductile materials
neck down to a point fracture, showing virtually 100% reduction in area. The most common type of
tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is that represented in Figure 8.1b, where fracture is preceded
by only a moderate amount of necking. The fracture process normally occurs in several stages (Figure
8.2). First, after necking begins, small cavities, or microvoids, form in the interior of the cross section,
as indicated in Figure 8.2b. Next, as deformation continues, these microvoids enlarge, come together,
and coalesce to form an elliptical crack, which has its long axis perpendicular to the stress direction.
The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel to its major axis by this microvoid coalescence
process (Figure 8.2c). Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the outer
perimeter of the neck (Figure 8.2d), by shear deformation at an angle of about with the tensile axis—
this is the angle at which the shear stress is a maximum. Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic
surface contour is termed a cup-and-cone fracture because one of the mating surfaces is in the form of
a cup, the other like a cone. In this type of fractured specimen (Figure 8.3a), the central interior region
of the surface has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which is indicative of plastic deformation.
8.4 BRITTLE FRACTURE Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation, and by
rapid crack propagation. The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of
the applied tensile stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface, as indicated in Figure 8.1c. Fracture
surfaces of materials that failed in a brittle manner will have their own distinctive patterns; any signs of
gross plastic deformation will be absent. For example, in some steel pieces, a series of V-shaped
“chevron” markings may form near the center of the fracture cross section that point back toward the
crack initiation site (Figure 8.5a). Other brittle fracture surfaces contain lines or ridges that radiate from
the origin of the crack in a fanlike pattern (Figure 8.5b). Often, both of these marking patterns will be
sufficiently coarse to be discerned with the naked eye. For very hard and fine-grained metals, there will
be no discernible fracture pattern. Brittle fracture in amorphous materials, such as ceramic glasses,
yields a relatively shiny and smooth surface. For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation
corresponds to the successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic
planes (Figure 8.6a); such a process is termed cleavage. This type of fracture is said to be transgranular
(or transcrystalline), because the fracture cracks pass through the grains. Macroscopically, the fracture
surface may have a grainy or faceted texture (Figure 8.3b), as a result of changes in orientation of the
cleavage planes from grain to grain. This cleavage feature is shown at a higher magnification in the
scanning electron micrograph of Figure 8.6b. In some alloys, crack propagation is along grain
boundaries (Figure 8.7a); this fracture is termed intergranular. Figure 8.7b is a scanning electron
micrograph showing a typical intergranular fracture, in which the three-dimensional nature of the grains
may be seen. This type of fracture normally results subsequent to the occurrence of processes that
weaken or embrittle grain boundary regions.

Fig 8.6 (Transgranular) and 8.7 (Intergranular)

8.5 PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURE MECHANICS Brittle fracture of normally ductile materials, such
as that shown in the chapter opening photograph for this chapter, has demonstrated the need for a better
understanding of the mechanisms of fracture. Extensive research endeavors over the past several
decades have led to the evolution of the field of fracture mechanics. This subject allows quantification
of the relationships between material properties, stress level, the presence of crack-producing flaws,
and crack propagation mechanisms. Design engineers are now better equipped to anticipate, and thus
prevent, structural failures. The present discussion centers on some of the fundamental principles of the
mechanics of fracture. Stress Concentration The measured fracture strengths for most brittle materials
are significantly lower than those predicted by theoretical calculations based on atomic bonding
energies. This discrepancy is explained by the presence of very small, microscopic flaws or cracks that
always exist under normal conditions at the surface and within the interior of a body of material. These
flaws are a detriment to the fracture strength because an applied stress may be amplified or concentrated
at the tip, the magnitude of this amplification depending on crack orientation and geometry. This
phenomenon is demonstrated in Figure 8.8, a stress profile across a cross section containing an internal
crack. As indicated by this profile, the magnitude of this localized stress diminishes with distance away
from the crack tip. At positions far removed, the stress is just the nominal stress or the applied load
divided by the specimen cross-sectional area (perpendicular to this load). Due to their ability to amplify
an applied stress in their locale, these flaws are sometimes called stress raisers. If it is assumed that a
crack is similar to an elliptical hole through a plate, and is oriented perpendicular to the applied stress,
the maximum stress, occurs at the crack tip and may be approximated by

𝑎 1⁄
𝜎𝑚 = 2𝜎0 (𝑝 ) 2 8.1
𝑡

where 𝜎0 is the magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress, 𝑝𝑡 is the radius of curvature of the crack
tip (Figure 8.8a), and 𝑎 represents the length of a surface crack, or half of the length of an internal crack.
𝑎 1⁄
For a relatively long microcrack that has a small tip radius of curvature, the factor ( ) 2 may be very
𝑝𝑡
𝜎𝑚
large. This will yield a value of 𝜎𝑚 that is many times the value of 𝜎0 . Sometimes the ratio 𝜎0
is denoted
as the stress concentration factor 𝐾𝑡
𝜎𝑚 𝑎 1⁄
𝐾𝑡 = 𝜎0
= 2(𝑝 ) 2 (8.2)
𝑡

which is simply a measure of the degree to which an external stress is amplified at the tip of a crack.
By way of comment, it should be said that stress amplification is not restricted to these microscopic
defects; it may occur at macroscopic internal discontinuities (e.g., voids), at sharp corners, and at
notches in large structures. Furthermore, the effect of a stress raiser is more significant in brittle than in
ductile materials. For a ductile material, plastic deformation ensues when the maximum stress exceeds
the yield strength. This leads to a more uniform distribution of stress in the vicinity of the stress raiser
and to the development of a maximum stress concentration factor less than the theoretical value. Such
yielding and stress redistribution do not occur to any appreciable extent around flaws and discontinuities
in brittle materials; therefore, essentially the theoretical stress concentration will result. Using principles
of fracture mechanics, it is possible to show that the critical stress 𝜎𝑐 required for crack propagation in
a brittle material is described by the expression
2𝐸𝛾𝑠 1⁄
𝜎𝑐 = ( ) 2 8.3
𝜋𝑎

Where 𝐸 = modulus of elasticity; 𝛾𝑠 = specific surface energy

𝑎 = one half the length of an internal crack.
All brittle materials contain a population of small cracks and flaws that have a variety of sizes,
geometries, and orientations. When the magnitude of a tensile stress at the tip of one of these flaws
exceeds the value of this critical stress, a crack forms and then propagates, which results in fracture.
Very small and virtually defect-free metallic and ceramic whiskers have been grown with fracture
strengths that approach their theoretical values.
impact blow. The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height ℎ1 which is lower than h.
The energy absorption, computed from the difference between h and ℎ1 is a measure of the impact
energy. The primary difference between the Charpy and Izod techniques lies in the manner of specimen
support, as illustrated in Figure 8.12b. Furthermore, these are termed impact tests in light of the manner
of load application. Variables including specimen size and shape as well as notch configuration and
depth influence the test results. Both plane strain fracture toughness and these impact tests determine
the fracture properties of materials. The former is quantitative in nature, in that a specific property of
the material is determined (i.e.,𝐾𝐼𝐶 ). The results of the impact tests, on the other hand, are more
qualitative and are of little use for design purposes. Impact energies are of interest mainly in a relative
sense and for making comparisons— absolute values are of little significance. Attempts have been made
to correlate plane strain fracture toughness and CVN energies, with only limited success. Plane strain
fracture toughness tests are not as simple to perform as impact tests; furthermore, equipment and
specimens are more expensive.
FATIGUE
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses (e.g.,
bridges, aircraft, and machine components). Under these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur
at a stress level considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load. The term “fatigue”
is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain
cycling. Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to
comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are
also susceptible to this type of failure. Furthermore, fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very
suddenly and without warning. Fatigue failure is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile metals,
in that there is very little, if any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure. The process occurs
by the initiation and propagation of cracks, and ordinarily the fracture surface is perpendicular to the
direction of an applied tensile stress.
CYCLIC STRESS
Unfortunately, there always exists considerable scatter in fatigue data—that is, a variation in the
measured N value for a number of specimens tested at the same stress level. This variation may lead to
significant design uncertainties when fatigue life and/or fatigue limit (or strength) are being considered.
The scatter in results is a consequence of the fatigue sensitivity to a number of test and material
parameters that are impossible to control precisely. These parameters include specimen fabrication and
surface preparation, metallurgical variables, specimen alignment in the apparatus, mean stress, and test
frequency.
The fatigue behaviors represented in Figures 8.19a and 8.19b may be classified into two domains. One
is associated with relatively high loads that produce not only elastic strain but also some plastic strain
during each cycle. Consequently, fatigue lives are relatively short; this domain is termed low-cycle
fatigue and occurs at less.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE
The fatigue behavior of engineering materials is highly sensitive to a number of variables. Some of
these factors include mean stress level, geometrical design, surface effects, and metallurgical variables,
as well as the environment.
Design factors
The design of a component can have a significant influence on its fatigue characteristics. Any notch or
geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser and fatigue crack initiation site; these design features
include grooves, holes, keyways, threads, and so on. The sharper the discontinuity (i.e., the smaller the
radius of curvature), the more severe the stress concentration. The probability of fatigue failure may be
reduced by avoiding (when possible) these structural irregularities, or by making design modifications
whereby sudden contour changes leading to sharp corners are eliminated—for example, calling for
rounded fillets with large radii of curvature at the point where there is a change in diameter for a rotating
shaft.
Surface Treatments
During machining operations, small scratches and grooves are invariably introduced into the workpiece
surface by cutting tool action. These surface markings can limit the fatigue life. It has been observed
that improving the surface finish by polishing will enhance fatigue life significantly. One of the most
effective methods of increasing fatigue performance is by imposing residual compressive stresses
within a thin outer surface layer. Thus, a surface tensile stress of external origin will be partially nullified
and reduced in magnitude by the residual compressive stress. The net effect is that the likelihood of
crack formation and therefore of fatigue failure is reduced. Residual compressive stresses are commonly
introduced into ductile metals mechanically by localized plastic deformation within the outer surface
region. Commercially, this is often accomplished by a process termed shot peening. Small, hard
particles (shot) having diameters within the range of 0.1 to 1.0 mm are projected at high velocities onto
the surface to be treated. The resulting deformation induces compressive stresses to a depth of between
one-quarter and one-half of the shot diameter.
Case hardening is a technique by which both surface hardness and fatigue life are enhanced for steel
alloys. This is accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding process whereby a component is exposed to
a carbonaceous or nitrogenous atmosphere at an elevated temperature. A carbon- or nitrogen-rich outer
surface layer (or “case”) is introduced by atomic diffusion from the gaseous phase. The case is normally
on the order of 1 mm deep and is harder than the inner core of material. (The influence of carbon content
on hardness for Fe–C alloys is demonstrated in Figure 10.29a.) The improvement of fatigue properties
results from increased hardness within the case, as well as the desired residual compressive stresses the
formation of which attends the carburizing or nitriding process.
Environmental factors may also affect the fatigue behavior of materials. A few brief comments will
be given relative to two types of environment-assisted fatigue failure: thermal fatigue and corrosion
fatigue. Thermal fatigue is normally induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating thermal stresses;
mechanical stresses from an external source need not be present. The origin of these thermal stresses is
the restraint to the dimensional expansion and/or contraction that would normally occur in a structural
member with variations in temperature. The magnitude of a thermal stress developed by a temperature
change Δ𝑇 is dependent on the coefficient of thermal expansion and the modulus of elasticity E
according to 𝜎 = 𝛼𝑖 𝐸Δ𝑇 (8.18)
Of course, thermal stresses will not arise if this mechanical restraint is absent. Therefore, one obvious
way to prevent this type of fatigue is to eliminate, or at least reduce, the restraint source, thus allowing
unhindered dimensional changes with temperature variations, or to choose materials with appropriate
physical properties. Failure that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack
is termed corrosion fatigue. Corrosive environments have a deleterious influence and produce shorter
fatigue lives. Even the normal ambient atmosphere will affect the fatigue behavior of some materials.
Small pits may form as a result of chemical reactions between the environment and material, which
serve as points of stress concentration and therefore as crack nucleation sites. In addition, crack
propagation rate is enhanced as a result of the corrosive environment. The nature of the stress cycles
will influence the fatigue behavior; for example, lowering the load application frequency leads to longer
periods during which the opened crack is in contact with the environment and to a reduction in the
fatigue life. Several approaches to corrosion fatigue prevention exist. On one hand, we can take
measures to reduce the rate of corrosion, apply protective surface coatings, select a more corrosion-
resistant material, and reduce the corrosiveness of the environment. And/or it might be advisable to take
actions to minimize the probability of normal fatigue failure, as outlined above—for example, reduce
the applied tensile stress level and impose residual compressive stresses on the surface of the member.
CREEP
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical stresses
(e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses, and high-
pressure steam lines). Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep. Defined as the time-
dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a constant load or stress, creep is
normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting factor in the lifetime of a part. It is
observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes important only for temperatures greater than about
0.4𝑇𝑚 (𝑇𝑚 absolute melting temperature). Amorphous polymers, which include plastics and rubbers,
are especially sensitive to creep deformation.

GENERALIZED CREEP BEHAVIOR A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a

constant load or stress while maintaining the temperature constant; deformation or strain is measured
and plotted as a function of elapsed time. Most tests are the constant load type, which yield information
of an engineering nature; constant stress tests are employed to provide a better understanding of the
mechanisms of creep. Figure 8.28 is a schematic representation of the typical constant load creep
behavior of metals. Upon application of the load there is an instantaneous deformation, as indicated in
the figure, which is mostly elastic. The resulting creep curve consists of three regions, each of which
has its own distinctive strain–time feature. Primary or transient creep occurs first, typified by a
continuously decreasing creep rate; that is, the slope of the curve diminishes with time. This suggests
that the material is experiencing an increase in creep resistance or strain hardening (Section 7.10)—
deformation becomes more difficult as the material is strained. For secondary creep, sometimes termed
steady-state creep, the rate is constant; that is, the plot becomes linear. This is often the stage of creep
that is of the longest duration. The constancy of creep rate is explained on the basis of a balance between
the competing processes of strain hardening and recovery, recovery being the process whereby a
material becomes softer and retains its ability to experience deformation. Finally, for tertiary creep,
there is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate failure. This failure is frequently termed rupture and
results from microstructural and/or metallurgical changes; for example, grain boundary separation, and
the formation of internal cracks, cavities, and voids. Also, for tensile loads, a neck may form at some
point within the deformation region. These all lead to a decrease in the effective cross-sectional area
and an increase in strain rate.

For metallic materials most creep tests are conducted in uniaxial tension using a specimen having the
same geometry as for tensile tests (Figure 6.2). On the other hand, uniaxial compression tests are more
appropriate for brittle materials; these provide a better measure of the intrinsic creep properties
inasmuch as there is no stress amplification and crack propagation, as with tensile loads. Compressive
test specimens are usually right cylinders or parallelepipeds having length-to-diameter ratios ranging
from about 2 to 4. For most materials creep properties are virtually independent of loading direction.
Possibly the most important parameter from a creep test is the slope of the secondary portion of the
creep curve (Δϵ⁄Δt in Figure 8.28); this is often called the minimum or steady-state creep rate It is the
engineering design parameter that is considered for long-life applications, such as a nuclear power plant
component that is scheduled to operate for several decades, and when failure or too much strain are not
options. On the other hand, for many relatively short-life creep situations (e.g., turbine blades in military
aircraft and rocket motor nozzles), time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime, is the dominant design
consideration; it is also indicated in Figure 8.28. Of course, for its determination, creep tests must be
conducted to the point of failure; these are termed creep rupture tests. Thus, a knowledge of these creep
characteristics of a material allows the design engineer to ascertain its suitability for a specific
application.
STRESS AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep characteristics (Figure 8.29). At
a temperature substantially below 0.4𝑇𝑚 and after the initial deformation, the strain is virtually
independent of time. With either increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted: (1) the
instantaneous strain at the time of stress application increases, (2) the steady-state creep rate is
increased, and (3) the rupture lifetime is diminished.
cific stress level will vary with temperature such that this parameter remains constant. Or, the data may
be plotted as the logarithm of stress versus the Larson–Miller parameter, as shown in Figure 8.32.
Utilization of this technique is demonstrated in the following design example.