Yarmouk University

Hijjawi Faculty of Engineering Technology

Mechanical Engineering Department
Strength of Material Lab( )
Experiment No. Tensile test

Objectives:
1. To determine the Characteristic mechanical properties of metals, by performing uniaxial
tensile tests using the given specimens.
2.To understand the principles of tensile test.
3. To understand the Stress-Strain curve and learn how to use it in determining various
mechanical properties of different materials
Introduction: .
The tensile test is most applied type of test, of all mechanical tests. In this test, the ends of the
test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If
the applied load is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An
elastically deformed solid will return to its original form as soon as the load is removed.
However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of
the tension curve which is recoverable immediately after unloading is referred to as elastic
deformation. As elastic and the rest of the curve which represents the manner in which solid
undergoes plastic deformation this is referred to as plastic deformation. The stress below which
the deformations essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of material. In some
materials, the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in the load indicating
both an upper and lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point.
During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the
decrease in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then begins to decrease.
This stage is represented by the “ultimate strength”’ which is defined as the ratio of the load on
the specimen to the original cross-sectional area, that reaches a maximum value. Further loading
will eventually cause ‘neck’ deformation and rupture.
Mechanical properties are of interest to engineers utilizing materials in any application where
forces are applied. Three fundamental mechanical properties of materials are the modulus of
elasticity (E), the yield point (σy), and the ultimate strength (σult).

Elastic Properties:
When a solid material is subjected to small stresses, the bonds between the atoms are stretched.
When the stress is removed, the bonds relax, and the material returns to its original shape. This
reversible deformation is called elastic deformation. In the elastic region, stress and strain are
related to each other linearly and characterized by the Young’s modulus, 𝐸 and the Poisson’s
ratio 𝑣.

Elastic Modulus-a measure of the stiffness of the material, but it only applies in the linear
region of the stress– strain curve =Pa (N/m2)

𝜎𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙: engineering stress along the loading axis.

𝜀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙: engineering strain.

Where:
𝐹 is the tensile force N.
𝐴0 is the initial cross-sectional area of the gauge section m2.
𝐿0 is the initial gauge length m .
∆𝐿 is the change in gauge length (𝐿 − 𝐿0).
In the elastic range, Poisson’s ratio, 𝑣, is the magnitude of the lateral contraction strain to the
axial strain:
Plastic Properties:
The plastic behavior of metals, which is dominated by the motion of linear defects such as
dislocations and vacancies, plays a central role on assessing the safety conditions of a
mechanical system.
The tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength is the maximum load divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen.
The tensile strength is the value most frequently quoted from the results of a tension test.
Actually, however, it is a value of little fundamental significance with regard to the strength of a
metal. For ductile metals, the tensile strength should be regarded as a measure of the maximum
load that a metal can withstand under the very restrictive conditions of uniaxial loading.
Yield strength is the stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin and it
depends on the sensitivity of the strain measurements. With most materials, there is a gradual
transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the point at which plastic deformation begins is
difficult to define with precision. In tests of materials under uniaxial loading, three criteria for
the initiation of yielding have been used: the elastic limit, the proportional limit, and the yield
strength.
Ductility is the degree of plastic deformation that a material can withstand before fracture. A
material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is referred to as
brittle material. In general, measurements of ductility are of interest in three respects:
 To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in metalworking
operations, such as rolling and extrusion.
 To indicate to the designer the ability of the metal to flow plastically before fracture.
 To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions. Ductility
measurements may be specified to assess material quality even though no direct relationship
exists between the ductility measurement and the performance in service.
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return to
it when unloaded.
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range.
Engineering Stress - Strain Curve:
In the conventional engineering tensile test, an engineering stress-strain curve is constructed
from the load-elongation measurements made on the test specimen (Fig. 1). The engineering
stress used in this stress-strain curve is the average longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen.
The strain used for the engineering stress strain curve is the average linear strain, which is
obtained by dividing the elongation of the gauge length of the specimen by its original length.

Fig. 1. Engineering stress-strain curve.

True Stress - True Strain Curve: The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true
indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on the original
dimensions of the specimen, and these dimensions change continuously during the test.
Generally, the metal continues to strain-harden all the way up to fracture, so that the stress
required to produce further deformation should also increase. If the true stress, based on the
actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is used, it is found that the stress-strain curve
increases continuously up to fracture. If the strain measurement is also based on instantaneous
measurements, the curve, which is obtained, is known as a true-stress-true-strain curve.
Mathematical Expressions for the Flow Curve: The flow curve of many metals in the region
of uniform plastic deformation can be expressed by the simple power curve relation:

where 𝑛 is the strain-hardening exponent, and 𝐾 is the strength coefficient. 𝑛, and 𝐾 is the true
stress at 𝜀 = 1.0. For most metals, 𝑛 has values between 0.10 and 0.50.
Stress (σ)- load at any moment during the test divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
test specimen (σ =P/A)= Pa.
 Strain- It is the ratio of change in length to the original length.

Ultimate Tensile Stress (σu)-the maximum load the specimen sustains during the test (Pa).

Hooke’s Law Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic
deformation, a plot of stress versus strain results in a linear relationship. Stress and strain are
proportional to each other through the relationship.
  E
This is known as Hook’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (psi or MPa) is the modulus
of elasticity, or Young's modulus. Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are
characteristically higher than metals; and polymers. These differences are a direct consequence
of the different types of atomic bonding in the material types. Furthermore, with increasing
temperature, the modulus of elasticity diminishes. There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron
and concrete) for which this initial elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is not linear; hence, it
is not possible to determine a modulus of elasticity as described above. For this nonlinear
behavior, either tangent or secant modulus is normally used.

Tensile Specimens and Testing Machine:

A tensile specimen is a standardized sample cross-section. The cross section of the specimen is
usually round, square or rectangular. It has two shoulders and a gauge (section) in between. The
shoulders are large so they can be readily gripped, whereas the gauge section has a smaller cross-
section so that the deformation and failure can occur in this area (Fig. 3).
 Fig. 3. Typical tensile specimen, showing a reduced gage section and enlarged shoulders.

The distances between the ends of the gauge section and the shoulders should be great enough so
that the larger ends do not constrain deformation within the gauge section, and the gauge length
should be great relative to its diameter. Otherwise, the stress state will be more complex than
simple tension.
Gauge Length (L) - length of the test specimen on which elongation is measured at any moment
during the test (m)
Original Gauge Length (L0) - gauge length before application of load (m)
Final Gauge Length (Lu) - gauge length after rupture of the test specimen (m)
Elongation - increase in the original gauge length at the end of the test.
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∆L /L0 ∗ 100%
Test machine:
The testing machines are universal testers, which test materials in tension, compression, or
bending. Their primary function is to create the stress-strain curve. Testing machines are
electromechanical. Electromechanical machines are based on a variable-speed electric motor; a
gear reduction system; and one, two, or four screws that move the crosshead up or down. This
motion loads the specimen in tension or compression. Crosshead speeds can be changed by
changing the speed of the motor (Fig.4). The Tensile test machine can be connected to a data
acquisition tool (i.e., laptop) this allows for a clear demonstration for the creep curve.
 Fig. 4 Universal Testing Machine.

Fig.5.Necking of Steel Rod Under Tension Load

Fig. 6. Tensile Testing - Failure Modes.

Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline
metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals; (c) ductile cup-cone fracture in
polycrystalline metals; (d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100%
reduction of area (super plasticity).

Procedure:.
 Fix one end of the specimen (Aluminum, steel, copper or composite materials) with the
grip attached to the fixed crosshead and fix the other end of the specimen by adjusting the
movable cross-head.

 Go to the computer. At the top of the main window, right click on the mouse while
placing the mouse cursor on the “Force” button , and select “zero” option. Wait for the
machine to return the force to zero. This will be indicated by a beeping sound
 Similarly, place the mouse cursor on the“Stroke” button, which is next to the “Force”
 button and right click to select the “zero” option. Again, wait for a few seconds to let the
computer return its value to zero.
 Click on the “Start” icon located at the top of the main window. The “Start Testing”
window will appear

 Click on the “Begin Test” button, found on the Start Testing window. Both the upper
and bottom grips will start moving in opposite directions according to the specified
pulling rate. Observe the experiment at a safe distance , and take note of the failure mode
when the specimen fails.
The machine will stop automatically when the sample is broken. “Export” and type a file name
in the box.
 Turn the two handles to their “OPEN” direction one at a time to remove the sample.
 Press the “Return” button on the digital controller. Both the upper and lower grips
will be returned to their original positions automatically.
 Final gauge length and diameter is measured. Diameter should be measured from the
neck.
 print out each of the graphs obtained in the experiments as well.
as the file of the generated force and stroke table.

Table 1. Data which is entered into the system

Table 2. Results obtained from test data.

 (* it will be read during and after test)
Plot the engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain curve on the same graph. Make scales for
both x and y axis. Label the known values.

REFERENCES
1. William Callister, David G.Rethwisch, Material Science and Engineering an Introduction. 8 th
edition. John Wiley and Sons Inc.
2. Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th
edition. ,2008 © Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7.
3. Murthy, S. Trymbaka. Textbook of Elements of Mechanical Engineering. ISBN 978-
9380578576.
4. Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.