PROTECTION SCHEME FOR MULTI-TERMINAL HVDC SYSTEM WITH

SUPERCONDUCTING CABLES BASED ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

ALGORITHMS

This project presents the development of a novel data-driven fault detection and
classification scheme for DC faults in multi-terminal HVDC transmission system which
incorporates superconducting cables and modular multi-level converters. As the deployment of
superconducting cables for bulk power transmission from remote renewable generation is
progressively increasing in the future energy grids, many fault-related challenges have been
raised (i.e., fault detection, protection sensitivity/stability). In this context, the applications of
Artificial Intelligence techniques have started to be considered as a powerful tool for the
development of robust fault management solutions. The proposed artificial intelligence-based
method utilizes local current and voltage measurements to detect and classify all types of faults
on the DC cables and DC buses, without the requirement of measurements exchange among
different DC substations. The performance of the proposed scheme has been assessed through
detailed transient simulation analysis and the results confirmed its effectiveness against a wide
range of fault conditions (i.e., various fault types, fault locations and fault resistances).
Furthermore, the feasibility of the developed scheme for real-time implementation has been
validated using real-time software in the loop testing. The results revealed that the proposed
algorithm can correctly, and within a very short period of time (i.e. less than 2 ms) detect and
classify the faults within the protected zone and concurrently remain stable during external
faults. Additionally, the generalization capability of the algorithm has been verified against
influencing factors such as the addition of noise, highlighting the robustness of the presented
 CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Accurate classification of fault types for high-voltage transmission lines is a prerequisite for fault
location and fault recovery. It is of great significance to ensure the safe and reliable operation of
the entire power grid. When the transmission line occurs fault, the transient component contains
a wealth of fault information, and the fault classification method based on fault transient
component has the characteristics of high accuracy and reliability.

Transmission and distribution lines are exposed to faults that are caused by different reasons
such as short circuits, birds, and storms. Most of these faults result in mechanical damage of
power lines which must be repaired before returning the line to service. Power line faults must be
located accurately to allow maintenance crews to arrive at the scene and repair the faulted
section as soon as possible. Rugged terrain and geographical layout cause some sections of
power transmission lines to be difficult to reach. Therefore, robustness of the accurate fault
location determination under a variety of power system operating constraints and fault conditions
is an important requirement. Generally, fast and accurate fault location will expedite supply
restoration and enhance the supply quality and reliability. In addition, this will minimize the
customer inconvenience. Therefore, fault location can be considered as one of the first functions
to be integrated into modern substation control system

The transmission line is the component of an Electric Power System (EPS) that is most
vulnerable to faults, especially when considering that from one end to another, the line is subject
to various diverse types of natural phenomena such as atmospheric discharge, forest fires,
windstorms, and more. Such situations can cause disturbances (faults) in the transmission line,
which can then cause an interruption in the transmission of electric energy. Among the faults that
can occur in a transmission line, short circuit type faults are the ones that have the greatest
impacts on consumers. Studies have shown that these faults account for about 70% of electrical
system disturbances and blackouts. Thus, the need for EPSs to adopt mechanisms for diagnosing
and identifying such faults is evident, as is the necessity for analyzing the electrical signal
behavior through short circuit fault classification as a way to assist in the maintenance and
restoration of the power supply.
1.1 BACKGROUND
Power transmission lines are the means of electricity distribution, and it is of extreme importance
to ensure the continuous supply of electricity and the high performance of these lines. Constant
surveillance and inspection of power lines can play a vital role to avoid power shortage:
detection of defects in power equipment at an early stage can prevent severe and costly damage,
and even used to expect future anomalies. Generally, the electrical equipment undergoes a
maintenance and repair process, based on their condition, which is termed as preventive
maintenance. The primary damages in transmission lines could be broken cables, damage to
insulators, conductor corrosion and vibration damage; some of these defects

Increasing grid connectivity is accompanied with various factors viz. wide variation in
generation as well as loads on daily/seasonal basis, spread of the grid geographically, multi
direction flow of power, open access, unscheduled interchange (UI) and the need for economic
dispatch. Thus it is necessitates reliable and secure grid with continuous quality power supply.
Extra and ultra high voltage transmission lines have been developed worldwide and are
successfully being operated in developed nations. Recent trends in Indian transmission scenario
are progressing towards establishing 765 KV lines to strengthen its transmission infrastructure.
Massive expansion of inter-state transmission system is under way to cater to the transmission
requirement of new generation projects. With rising global electricity consumption – population
growth Grid strive to maximize supplies, minimize energy losses and keep costs down through
energy efficiency and continuous R&D programs. Grid meets these energy needs with a full
range of solutions and services for long-distance transmission at voltages up to 1200Kv.
Transmitting electricity at high voltage & extra high voltages reduces the fraction of energy lost
to resistance, which varies depending on the specific conductors, the current flowing, and the
length of the transmission line.

The growing demand for electric power and the increase in consumption of electro-electronic
equipment vulnerable to electrical disturbances entails a greater need for good, quality energy.
This reality requires that EPSs possess more acceptable configurations of the physical,
operational, and control infrastructures that can help avoid and reduce electrical disturbances,
hereafter referred to as short circuit faults in transmission lines
A typical EPS, as illustrated is generally divided into three functional zones before the energy
reaches the final consumer. These three functional zones are: generation, transmission and
distribution. Such functional zones are subject to the occurrence of natural or manmade
disturbances. As a consequence, the voltage or current waveforms undergo certain changes and
deviate from their nominal values, resulting in the so-called quality of energy events. Thus, the
need for EPSs to adopt increasingly efficient fault classification mechanisms is evident, so as to
assist the decision making process at the operational level responsible for restoring the EPSs

Fig 1 Representation of the Electric Power System

Considering the progressive development of new green power generation plants in Europe, the
need for a higher and more reliable electrical transport capacity is growing, however, the
installation of new electric power lines is usually not accepted by the population. This leads to a
constant operation at the maximum capacity of the power lines, without having redundancies or
reserves to compensate breakdowns. In order to avoid possible economic losses and blackouts
for the consumers, the electrical power companies need to adopt a preventive and predictive
maintenance philosophy by means of, for example, a periodic visual and thermal inspection.
Power line inspection takes into account not only their elements but also the surrounding objects,
especially vegetation. When the minimum clearance between the vegetation and the conductors
or assets is violated, tree falls or conductor’s oscillation during bad weather conditions can lead
to the short-circuiting of the line, causing widespread outages or even bush-fires, especially in
drier environments. These threats result in a general acceptance on considering vegetation as one
of the most hazardous factors for the overhead power lines’ integrity
 CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

[1] Transmission Line Faults Detection, Classification and Location using Artificial Neural
Network, Eisa Bashier M. Tayeb Orner AI Aziz AlRhirn-2023

Transmission lines, among the other electrical power system components, suffer from
unexpected failures due to various random causes. These failures interrupt the reliability of the
operation of the power system. When unpredicted faults occur protective systems are required to
prevent the propagation of these faults and safeguard the system against the abnormal operation
resulting from them. The functions of these protective systems are to detect and classify faults as
well as to determine the location of the faulty line as in the voltage and/or current line
magnitudes. Then after the protective relay sends a trip signal to a circuit breaker(s) in order to
disconnect (isolate) the faulty line. The features of neural networks, such as their ability to learn,
generalize and parallel processing, among others, have made their applications for many systems
ideal. The use of neural networks as pattern classifiers is among their most common and
powerful applications. This paper presents the use of back-propagation (BP) neural network
architecture as an alternative method for fault detection, classification and isolation in a
transmission line system. The main goal is the implementation of complete scheme for distance
protection of a transmission line system. In order to perform this, the distance protection task is
subdivided into different neural networks for fault detection, fault identification (classification)
as well as fault location in different zones.

TECHNIQUE

 Back-propagation (BP) neural network architecture

ADVANTAGES

 Improve reliability
 High performance approach

DISADVANTAGES

 It suffer from unexpected failures

  Complex interconnections of the neuronal cells

[2] Development of Digital Distance Relaying Algorithm in Combined Transmission Lines

with Underground Power Cables, J. B. Lee, C. W. Ha, C. H. Jung-2021

The digital distance relaying algorithm in combined transmission lines with underground power
cables. When underground power cables are used as part of a transmission line, the design and
setting of the protective relay will have to consider the different impedance characteristics
because of the configuration characteristics of the cables. Power cable system consists of the a
conductor, a sheath, several kinds of Jomts, grounding types of such joints, cable covering
protection units (CCPUS),and grounding wires with resistance. Simulation for an actual
complicated transmission line with 154kVXLPE cables was earned out to develop a correct
distance relaying algorithm using modelling which was, in detail, established in the EMTP and
ATP Draw. This paper describes the accurate calculation algorithm of line impedance with the
compensation factor at the relay point as well as the method to discriminate the fault section
between both sections when the single line-to-ground fault has occurred. Simulation results
reveal that accuracy of line impedance obtained by the proposed algorithm has outstandingly
been increased compared with impedance obtained using general distance relaying algorithm.
These results in a large difference between the apparent impedance calculated at the relay point
and the actual impedance up to the fault point. Therefore, to cover such a difference of
impedance between both, a compensation method is required in combined transmission lines in
order for them to be tripped accurately.

TECHNIQUE

 Digital distance relaying algorithm

ADVANTAGES

 High accuracy
 High performance

DISADVANTAGES

 Large impedance error occur

  Less Improve impedance process

[3] Fault location scheme for combined overhead line with underground power cable, El
Sayed Tag El Din, Mohamed Mamdouh Abdel Aziz, Doaa khalil Ibrahim-2022

A fault location scheme for transmission systems consisting of an overhead line combined with
an underground power cable. The algorithm requires phasor measurements data from one end of
the transmission line and the synchronized measurements at the most far end of the power cable.
Fault location is derived using distributed line model, modal transformation theory and Discrete
Fourier Transform. The technique can be used on-line or off-line using the data stored in the
digital fault recording apparatuses. The proposed scheme has the ability to locate the fault
whether it is in the overhead line or in the underground power cable. In addition to, the proposed
scheme gives an accurate estimation of the fault resistance at fault location. Extensive simulation
studies carried out using MATLAB show that the proposed scheme provides a high accuracy in
fault location under various fault conditions. Overhead line faults may be triggered by lightning
strokes, falling trees, fog and salt spray on polluted insulators. Ice and snow loading may also
cause insulator strings to fail mechanically. Underground cable faults may be series faults in
which the cable being cut, without breaking the electrical insulation or shunt faults in which a
break in the electrical insulation occurs without the conductor itself been cut. Determination of
the fault location in electric power lines is vital for economic operation of power systems.
Accurate fault location will facilitate quicker repair, improve system availability and
performance, reduce operating costs, and save time and expense of crew searching in bad
weather and tough terrain

TECHNIQUE

 Discrete Fourier Transform

ADVANTAGES

 Reduce operating costs

 Improve system availability

DISADVANTAGES
  It takes large time
 Not reliable process

[4] Traveling Wave Fault Locator for Mixed, Overhead, and Underground Teed
Transmission Feeders, Junyu Han, Peter A. Crossley-2020

Society is increasingly concerned about the environmental impact of energy systems, and prefers
to locate power lines underground. This is especially true in regions of outstanding natural
beauty or if they affect environmental/political/planning constrained areas. However, the use of
underground sections within a predominantly overhead feeder introduces significant problems
for the auto-reclosure of circuit breakers. Auto-reclosure is important on an overhead feeder,
since most faults are transient and, once the feeder has been de-energized, the insulation strength
of the air at the fault recovers and the line can be restored to service. Faults on an underground
cable are different because, once the insulation is damaged, the fault is normally permanent. In
addition, if the breaker is allowed to reclose onto a cable fault, the area of damage increases and
health and safety concerns exist for humans in the vicinity of the faulted cable section. The main
purpose of the traveling-wave-based measurement scheme described in this paper is to locate a
fault on a teed transmission feeder with mixed overhead and underground sections. Simulation
results demonstrate that the fault locator can accurately locate all realistic faults, including ones
that are high resistance or occur at nonideal points on wave

TECHNIQUE

 ML Algorithm

ADVANTAGES

 Accurately locate all realistic faults

 High resistance

DISADVANTAGES

 Complex teed circuit

 Difficult and impossible process
[5] Fault Location on Mixed Overhead Line and Cable Transmission Networks, Junyu
Han, Peter A Crossley-2015

In future, underground cables will be an essential part of transmission systems and many feeders
will consist of multiple overhead line and cable sections, especially in environmentally
constrained countries where planning constraints may restrict the construction of new overhead
lines. Most of the faults that occur on overhead lines are transient, but those on cables are
generally permanent. Therefore, a combined overhead and underground transmission feeder
brings a significant challenge to an auto-reclosure system which normally recloses a circuit
breaker immediately after it was tripped by a protection relay responding to a fault. This paper
presents a new hybrid fault locator making full use of the robustness of a distance relay and the
accuracy of a travelling wave fault locator. The proposed scheme can precisely distinguish if the
fault is on an overhead line or underground cable, and then send the correct tripping and
reclosure sequence to a circuit breaker. However, faults on an UGC are always permanent and
breaker reclosure onto a permanent fault can produce a high value of current which causes severe
damage to the insulation of the UGC and increases the health and safety risk to the general
public. For these reasons, it is important to determine where the fault is located on a CTL, and
ensure reclosure is only activated if the original fault is on an OHL section.

TECHNIQUE

 Auto-reclosure system

ADVANTAGES

 Correct tripping and reclosure sequence

 Improves the reliability of the transmission system

DISADVANTAGES

 Damage to the insulation of the UGC

 Increase location errors
[6] Fault Location on a Mixed Overhead and Underground Transmission Feeder Using a
Multiple-Zone Quadrilateral Impedance Relay and a Double-ended Travelling Wave Fault
Locator, Junyu Han, Peter A Crossley-2012

A hybrid relay scheme, which combines the advantages of a quadrilateral impedance relay and a
travelling wave fault locator for fault location on a mixed overhead and underground
transmission feeder, is described in this paper. A redesigned quadrilateral impedance relay has
the ability to determine the fault section and displays good performance to resist the influence of
fault resistance on fault location. However, when a fault occurs close to a junction point where
an overhead line connects with an underground cable, the impedance relay finds it difficult to
determine the fault section. The travelling wave fault locator now takes responsibility for
discriminating the fault section, and then the algorithms for the corresponding fault sections will
be employed to calculate the accurate fault location. The evaluation of this hybrid relay scheme,
based on tests for different fault locations on combined transmission lines, is simulated using the
PSCAD/EMTDC simulator. Replacing parts of overhead feeders with underground sections in
socially/environmentally sensitive areas helps to avoid planning restrictions and prevent public
opposition due to visual intrusion; however, it introduces problems for autoreclosure systems
designed to restore a line after a transient fault. For these reasons, it is important to determine
whether the fault is located on the overhead line section or underground cable feeder, and ensure
reclosure is only activated if the fault is on an overhead section.

TECHNIQUE

 Hybrid relay scheme

ADVANTAGES

 Good performance
 Robust process

Disadvantages

 Difficult to determine the fault section

 Increase overhead process
[7] A new and accurate fault location algorithm for combined transmission lines using
Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System, Javad Sadeh, Hamid Afradi-2009

A new and accurate algorithm for locating faults in a combined overhead transmission line with
underground power cable using Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). The
proposed method uses 10 ANFIS networks and consists of 3 stages, including fault type
classification, faulty section detection and exact fault location. In the first part, an ANFIS is used
to determine the fault type, applying four inputs, i.e., fundamental component of three phase
currents and zero sequence current. Another ANFIS network is used to detect the faulty section,
whether the fault is on the overhead line or on the underground cable. Other eight ANFIS
networks are utilized to pinpoint the faults (two for each fault type). Four inputs, i.e., the dc
component of the current, fundamental frequency of the voltage and current and the angle
between them, are used to train the neuro-fuzzy inference systems in order to accurately locate
the faults on each part of the combined line. The proposed method is evaluated under different
fault conditions such as different fault locations, different fault inception angles and different
fault resistances. Simulation results confirm that the proposed method can be used as an efficient
means for accurate fault location on the combined transmission lines.

TECHNIQUE

 Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS)

ADVANTAGES

 Accurate fault location

 Reduces customer complaints

DISADVANTAGES

 Increase losses
 Increase demand process
[8] A Machine Learning and Wavelet-Based Fault Location Method for Hybrid
Transmission Lines, Hanif Livani, and C. Yaman Evrenosoglu-2014

A single-ended traveling wave-based fault location method for a hybrid transmission line: an
overhead line combined with an underground cable. Discrete wavelet transformation (DWT) is
used to extract transient information from the measured voltages. Support vector machine (SVM)
classifiers are utilized to identify the faulty-section and faulty-half. Bewley diagrams are
observed for the traveling wave patterns and the wavelet coefficients of the aerial mode voltage
are used to locate the fault. The transient simulation for different fault types and locations are
obtained by ATP using frequency-dependent line and cable models. MATLAB is used to process
the simulated transients and apply the proposed method. The performance of the method is tested
for different fault inception angles (FIA), different fault resistances, non-linear high impedance
faults (NLHIF), and non-ideal faults with satisfactory results. The impact of cable aging on the
proposed method accuracy is also investigated. This paper uses support vector machine (SVM)
and discrete wavelet transformation (DWT) to address these challenges and proposes a new
traveling wave-based fault location method. Following is an overview of the use of DWT and
SVM in power system fault location followed by the review of fault location methods for cable.

TECHNIQUE

 Single-ended traveling wave-based fault location method

ADVANTAGES

 Easy to identify the faulty-section

 Improve accuracy

DISADVANTAGES

 Fault location problem

 Increase complexity
[9] A new single ended fault location algorithm for combined transmission line considering
fault clearing transients without using line parameters, Ismail Niazy, Javad Sadeh-2013

A new single ended fault location method is proposed for underground cable combined with
overhead lines. In this algorithm fault clearing high frequency transients are used instead of
fault-generated transients and the line parameters are not needed. In the proposed algorithm,
samples just from voltage transients generated by fault clearing action of circuit breaker are
taken from the sending end of the cable line. Applying wavelet transform, the first three
inceptions of traveling waves to the fault locator are detected. Using these, the proposed
algorithm at first identifies fault section, overhead or cable, and then wave speed is calculated
and at last location of fault is determined accurately. Because of using only voltage samples
taken from one terminal, it is simple and economic and does not need to GPS and data
communication and synchronization. Extensive simulations carried out using SimPower System
toolbox of MATLAB, confirm the capabilities and high accuracy of the proposed method under
different system and fault conditions. In a traveling wave based method, which uses samples
from high frequency fault generated voltage transients in two terminals, is introduced. This
method is based on the wavelet analysis and is independent of the wave speed. In an algorithm
for fault location in combined transmission lines is proposed that uses adaptive network-based
fuzzy inference system and samples of voltage and current.

TECHNIQUE

 Single ended fault location method

ADVANTAGES

 High accuracy
 High frequency transients

DISADVANTAGES

 Less performance
 Large overhead process
[10] A communication-assisted protection scheme for direct-current distribution networks,
Mehdi Monadi, M. Amin Zamani, Cosmin Koch-Ciobotaru, Jose Ignacio Candela, Pedro
Rodriguez-2016

One of the major issues associated with the implementation of direct-current distribution systems
is the design of a proper protection scheme. The fault current characteristics in direct-current
distribution systems are quite different than those in conventional alternating-current grids. Thus,
the performance of conventional protection schemes can adversely be affected, and it is
necessary to modify the conventional protection schemes or design new protection methods for
direct-current networks. This paper proposes a multi-zone differential protection scheme for
direct-current distribution systems embedding distributed generators. The proposed method
provides a selective and fast protection through the use of a communication link between two
sides of a protected feeder. Moreover, the method provides a differential-based backup for the
adjacent relays, which can enhance the protection system reliability. In addition, the method
proposed in this paper also utilizes directional over-current elements to provide backup
protection if the communication network fails. The effectiveness of the proposed protection
scheme is evaluated through comprehensive hardware-in-the-loop simulation studies to obtain
more realistic results and to investigate the impact of the communication delay. The results show
that the proposed method can provide a selective and fast protection and effectively protect
components of direct-current distribution systems against different types of faults.

TECHNIQUE

 Multi-zone differential protection scheme

ADVANTAGES

 Selective and fast protection

 Effectively protect components

DISADVANTAGES

 Unnecessary cost
 Challenges to the operational principle of power systems
 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

EXISTING SYSTEM

A fault in one or several of its power cells leads to malfunctioning of the CHMC. In other
words, assuming that the faulty power cells are bypassed, if the modulation strategy is not
designed to handle the faulty cell conditions, the CHMC cannot equally distribute the output
power among its three phases. Accordingly, it is crucial to investigate and propose a modulation
strategy, which enables fault-tolerant operation of the CHMC.

Several efficient fault-tolerant carrier-based modulation strategies are introduced. In modulation

strategies proposed in disposition carrier and phase shift carrier waveforms for the CHMC with
faulty cells are reconfigured and the neutral point voltage is shifted, thereby adding to
computational complexity for digital implementation. Moreover, level overlap inevitably occurs
in the output line-to-line voltages, which degrades the converter output power quality

An active fault-tolerant space vector modulation (SVM) strategy is proposed for single-phase
faults in three-phase multilevel converters. This technique mainly focuses on the faulty switching
devices and offers a reasonable performance. However, it merely treats the faulty switches.
Several other SVM-based fault-tolerant strategies have been reviewed. However, majority of
them are complex and implemented offline.

DISADVANTAGES

 It degrade the converter power quality

 Increase computation complexity process
 Poor performance

PROPOSED SYSTEM

It proposes a simple and online SVM-based strategy for asymmetric CHMCs. The proposed
strategy uses the redundant switching states to achieve nearly balanced line-to line voltages with
minimum harmonic distortion. Its performance and effectiveness is verified by experimental
results
ADVANTAGES

 Enable fault tolerant operation

 Easily implemented process
 Improved harmonic performance

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE DETAILS

 Arduino Uno Controller

 Power Supply Unit
 Humidity sensor
 LCD Display
 Relay
 Alarm

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

 Windows 10
 Python IDE
 CHAPTER 4

BLOCK DIAGRAM

LCD Display
unit

Microcontroller unit
Power supply HVDC Terminal
unit Analysis

Line to Line voltage

Analysis

Output
3.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Input Source Transmission Line Voltage current monitoring

Inter loop control Overhead Line Monitoring

ML Algorithm

Output Fault analysis process

Fig 2 Block diagram

 CHAPTER 4

4. PROPOSED PROCESS EXPLANATION

4.1 Basics of Power System

Electric power systems are real-time energy delivery systems. Real-time meaning power is
generated, transported, and supplied the moment light switch is turned on. Electric power
systems are not storage systems like water systems and gas systems. Instead, generators produce
the energy as the demand calls for it. Figure 1 shows the basic building blocks of an electric
power system. Starting with generation, where electrical energy is produced in the power plant
and then transformed in the power station to high-voltage electrical energy that is more suitable
for efficient long-distance transportation. The power plants transform other sources of energy as
well in the process of producing electrical energy. For example, heat, mechanical, hydraulic,
chemical, solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear, and other energy sources are used in the production
of electrical energy. High-voltage (HV) power lines in the transmission portion of the electric
power system efficiently transport electrical energy long distances to the consumption locations.
Finally, the remote substations are responsible for transforming this HV electrical energy for
delivery on lower high voltage power lines called “Feeders” that are more suitable for the
distribution of electrical energy. This electrical energy is again transformed to even lower
voltage services for residential, commercial, and industrial consumption.

Fig 3 power system process

4.1.1 Power Generation and Distributions stages

1) Generation: Power generation plants produce the electrical energy that is ultimately delivered
to consumers through transmission lines, substations, and distribution lines. Electrical energy
must be generated at the same rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is
required to ensure that the power generation very closely matches the demand.

2) Transmission: Transmission lines are necessary to carry high-voltage electricity over long
distances and connect electricity generators with electricity consumers. Transmission-level
voltages are typically at or above 110,000 volts or 110 kV, with some transmission lines carrying
voltages as high as 765 kV. Power generators, however, produce electricity at low voltages and
the generation voltage is stepped-up to transmission voltages. To make high-voltage electricity
transport possible, the electricity must first be converted to higher voltages with a step-up
transformer.

3) Distribution: Distribution systems are responsible for delivering electrical energy from the
distribution substation. Most distribution systems in the United States operate at primary
voltages between 12.5 kV to 34.5 kV and some operate at lower distribution voltages such as
4kV. These low-voltage distribution systems are being phased out because of their relatively
excessive cost for losses (low voltage requires high currents, which means high losses). These
networks carry the power to consumer units like businesses or residential entities.

4) Load: This stage accounts for electrical energy used by various loads on the power system.
Electricity is consumed and measured several ways depending on whether the load is residential,
commercial, or industrial and whether the load is resistive, inductive, and capacitive.

4.1.2 Power Transmission Networks

First, high-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses in transit which is about
6% on average in the United States. This efficiency of high voltage transmission allows for the
transmission of a larger proportion of the generated power to the substations and in turn to the
loads, translating to operational cost savings. Second, raising the voltage to lower the current
allows one to use smaller conductor sizes, or have more conductor capacity available for growth.
Transmission line systems relay the power from production sites to the users. Failure of these
structures can lead to power cuts and therefore disrupt the day to day life of people as well as the
industries dependent on electricity.

Figure 4 Transmission Network

A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission lines, and substations. Energy is
usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase AC. Transmission lines are either overhead
power lines or underground power cables. Overhead cables are not insulated and are vulnerable
to the weather but can be less expensive to install than underground power cables. Overhead and
underground transmission lines are made of aluminium alloy and reinforced with steel;
underground lines are typically insulated. The two conductors per phase option is called
bundling. Multiple conductors are bundled together per phase to double, triple, or greater to
increase the power transport capability of a power line, lower losses and improve other operating
characteristics of the line such as electromagnetic fields and audible noise. Typically, there are
three types of line configurations used in the transmission network. These line configurations
include (a) radial (one-terminal), (b) two-terminal, and (c) multi-terminal of which three-terminal
is possibly the most prominent multi-terminal type. It should be noted that "terminals" in this
context, refers to source terminals and not-tapped transformer terminals or stations. The two-
terminal line configuration is the most dominant type followed by radial, and the three-terminal
lines are the exceptions.

Three-terminal systems are used in power transmission networks to connect three power sources,
A, B, and C. The power sources are either generators or Thevenin equivalent of a connected
network. As shown as in Figure 3, the three terminals are connected through a Tap-point T which
does not contain any measuring devices. Protection systems are like that of two-ended lines
except with more sophisticated techniques. In many cases, an existing two-terminal line is
converted to three-terminal line as part of program to reinforce the power system. At least one
(generally two) communications-based protection groups are normally used with three-terminal
line applications.

Figure 5: Three-terminal Transmission Lines

Two-terminal line systems are used for bulk power transfer and to supply loads from two power
sources- Terminals A, B and are very common. Figure 4 shows the two-terminal transmission
line. To obtain proper selectivity and coordination, directional distance relays for phase and
ground fault detection are used normally. Directional ground over current relaying is sometimes
applied in addition to, or in place of, directional ground distance relay functions. One or two
communications-based protection groups are normally used with two-terminal line applications
at the transmission voltages greater than 200KV.
 Figure 6: Two-terminal Transmission Line

4.2 Problem Statement

Transmission lines or transmission network is a crucial part of the electric grid as it carries high
voltage power from generating site to the substations where the voltage stepped-down for end-
use consumption transported via distribution lines. Though the frequency of faults is much
higher in distribution lines, faults on transmission lines have more widespread impact and faults
in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. Additionally, since the transmission
lines carry high voltages, faults on these lines might lead to unsafe conditions. Therefore,
safeguarding against exposed fault is the most critical task in the protection of power system.
The protection schemes or mechanisms for the transmission lines become challenging as
configurations of the transmission lines become increasingly complex.

Three-terminal and other multi-terminal line construction are generally a trade-off of planning
economics and protection complexities. Two-terminal lines with long tap(s) supplying remote
load from the main line may display many of the same protection and load ability issues as three-
terminal lines. The complexity of protecting these line configurations increases from the
relatively simple radial, to the more difficult two-terminal, and to the still more difficult three-
terminal. Relaying three-terminal lines has been and continues to be a challenge for protection
engineers
 Figure 7: In feed Effect at Three-terminal

Primary and biggest challenge with protecting three terminal circuits is “Infeed”. During a fault
on the transmission line, distance relay measures impedance which is equal to the positive
sequence (A balanced three-phase system with the same phase sequence as the original
sequence), if there are no sources of fault current on the transmission line between the line
terminal where the relay is located and the fault.

The actual line impedance from the relay terminal (Terminal A) to the fault is not always the
impedance measured by the relay. This is because the third line terminal (Terminal C) tapped
(Tee point) to a line is an additional source of current for a line fault. Current will be supplied to
a fault that occurs on the line section beyond the tap of Terminal C through both Terminal A and
Terminal C. The voltage drops resulting from the input of fault current from each of these
sources into the common section of the line will be measured by the distance relay at the
Terminal A. Since the current input from Terminal C is not applied to the relay at Terminal A,
the impedance measured by this relay is higher than the actual impedance from the Terminal A
to the fault. The relay will under reach; that is, for a given relay setting the relay does not cover
the same length of line it would if the additional current source were not present. Due to in feed,
most of the impedance based and travelling wave-based methods are not successful in
identifying faults and often give erroneous results

Figure 8: Out feed Effect at the three-terminal

4.3 TRANSMISSION LINE SYSTEM

Figure 9 Electrical Power System, Transmission Line

The transmission line system is used to transmit electricity from one end of the line to another
reliably and efficiently. The transmission line is usually characterized by the line parameters
including series resistance, series inductance, shunt capacitance, and shunt conductance. Shunt
conductance is usually very small and is thus neglected in this research. These parameters play
key roles in many power system applications, such as power system analysis and fault location.
The power system protection depends on these parameters to locate the line fault or to determine
the fault type

There are three types of transmission lines:

Overhead Lines: the overhead lines usually carry very high voltage, between100 kV up to 800
kV, and are utilized for the majority of long-distance transmission. These lines require very high
voltage to minimize power losses over long distances.

Underground Lines: this type of transmission line is usually used in populated areas,
underwater and anywhere that the overhead lines cannot be used. This type is less common than
overhead lines due to higher cost and heat-related losses.

Sub transmission Lines: this line carries a lower voltage range (26 to 69 kV) to distribution
stations, and can be either overhead or underground transmission lines.
The transmission power system contains many different devices that connect to power lines to
ensure that electricity is delivered in an efficient way

4.3.1 Transmission Line Representation

The transmission line is characterized by four line parameters. The general equations of the
voltage and current are related to these parameters. The line parameters can be lumped or
uniformly distributed along the line depending on the line length. Regarding the former, lumped
parameters provide high accuracy representation of short and medium line lengths. However, if
the overhead transmission line is classified as short, then the shunt susceptance can be omitted
with little loss of accuracy, and so, series resistance and series inductance along the line will be
the only parameters considered

A medium line length distributed PI circuit is represented by both series resistance and
inductance as lumped parameters as well as the shunt branch presented by half of the total
capacitance at each end of the line. Shunt conductance is usually neglected in overhead lines.

4.3.2 Operating Principle

The impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, so by determining the fault
impedance, from the measured short circuit voltage and current at the relay location, is possible
to identify the location of the fault. This capacity allows the relay to discriminate faults that
occur in different lines or line sections. The basic principle behind the impedance measuring is
the division of the voltage and current signals that come from the intensity transformers at the
relay location. The trip command is issued based on the comparison of the apparent impedance
measured by the relay with the known line impedance: if the measured impedance is smaller than
the settled line impedance a trip order is issued
 Figure 10: Distance protection principle

The impedance measured during normal operation has a magnitude inversely proportional to the
amount of transferred load and an angle equal to the ratio between the real and reactive power
transferred. When a fault occurs the measured impedance becomes the short-circuit impedance.
This value is usually smaller than the load impedance and matches the line impedance between
the relay location and the fault location. When the fault has a resistance component, resulting
form arc resistance or ground resistance, an additional resistive component is added to the line
impedance. The angle corresponds to the lag between the short-circuit voltage and current angles

4.3.3 Distance Zones

The impedance measurement has associated inaccuracies resulting from intensity transformers
and relay transformation errors, line impedance calculation, line impedance variations derived
from atmospheric conditions, source impedance variations and pre-fault operating condition, so
it is not possible to set the protection reach to 100% of the line. On the other hand the capacity of
detecting faults on lines protected by other equipments offers the possibility of back-up
protection. The combination of these factors is achieved by introducing a stepped distance
protection concept which is basically dimensioning different zones with an associated reach and
tripping time. The definition of different zones allows a discriminated tripping and enables the
correct coordination between distance relays on the power system.

Figure 11: Zones reach process

4.4 Short Transmission Line

A transmission line with a length of less than 80 km is considered a short transmission line. In
short lines, the shunt susceptance is omitted because of small current leakage; the other line
parameters are lumped parameters as shown in figure

Figure 12 Short Transmission Line Diagram

4.4.1 Medium Transmission Line

A medium transmission line is a transmission line which has a length between 80 and 250 km.
The line parameters such as resistance, inductance, and capacitance are uniformly distributed
along the line. In medium line length, charging current cannot be omitted, and due to the length
of the line, the shunt susceptance plays a significant role in the calculation of exact transmission
line parameters. The shunt capacitance, series resistance, and series inductance are considered as
a lumped parameter of the medium transmission line

Figure 13 Nominal PI of Medium Transmission Line

4.4.2 Long Transmission Line

A line length over 250 km is referred to a long transmission line. The long transmission line must
consider the fact that the line parameters are not lumped parameters but, are uniformly
distributed throughout the length of the line. A long transmission line must be considered as
divided into various sections, and each section consists of resistance, inductance, and capacitance
as shown below in figure

Figure 14 Long Transmission Line Showing Distributed Parameters

A long transmission line can also be represented by a circuit called equivalent nominal PI. This
equivalent PI circuit is different from nominal PI for medium transmission lines. The equivalent
circuit is only convenient for representing the actual long transmission line during the analysis.
For the load flow and transmission line studies, this equivalent PI circuit is highly helpful
without losing any accuracy in the calculations. The parameters in the equivalent circuit are
represented by hyperbolic functions

Figure 15 Equivalent PI Circuit for Long Transmission Line

4.5 Faults on the Transmission Line

In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any abnormal electric current. For example,
a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load and an open-circuit fault occur
if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. Transmission line carries 3-phase AC. Under ideal
state, all phase voltages have same maximum value but differ in phase from each other at angle
120 degrees. Shunt faults are caused by short circuit between lines. For example, a line to ground
fault occurs when one conductor drops to the ground or comes in contact with the neutral
conductor (ground). This causes a rapid decrease in respective phase voltage of the line involved
in the fault and increase in phase current.
 Figure 16: Phase to ground fault in time

Fig 17 Faults in transmission line

4.5.1 Series Faults

Series faults represent open conductor and take place when unbalanced series impedance
conditions of the lines are present. These faults disturb the symmetry in one or two phases and
are therefore unbalanced faults. Two examples of series fault are when the system holds one or
two broken lines, or impedance inserted in one or two lines. In the real world a series faults takes
place, for example, when circuit breakers control the lines and do not open all three phases, in
this case, one or two phases of the line may be open while the other/s is closed. Series faults are
characterized by increase of voltage and frequency and fall in current in the faulted phases.

4.5.2 Shunt Faults

There are two types of short circuit faults or shunt faults which can occur on transmission lines;
balanced faults and unbalanced faults also known as symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults
respectively as shown in Figure. In symmetrical faults, also called three phase short circuits, all
the three phases are short circuited to each other and often to earth also. Such faults are balanced
and symmetrical as the system remains balanced even after the occurrence of the fault. Though
the symmetrical faults are rare, they generally lead to the most severe fault current flow. Most
faults that occur in a power system are unsymmetrical faults involving only one or two phases.
The most common type of unsymmetrical fault is a short circuit between a phase and the earth.

Figure 18 Classification of Short Circuit faults

The shunt faults are the most common type of fault taking place in the field. They involve power
conductors or conductor-to-ground or short circuits between conductors. One of the most
important characteristics of shunt faults is the increment the current suffers and fall in voltage
and increase frequency. Shunt faults can be classified into four categories

Line-to-ground fault: This type of fault exists when one phase of any transmission lines
establishes a connection with the ground either by ice, wind, falling tree or any other incident.
About 70% of all transmission lines faults are classified under this category

Line-to-line fault: Because of high winds, one phase could touch anther phase & line-to-line
fault takes place. Approximately 15% of all transmission lines faults are considered line-to-line
faults

Double line-to-ground: Falling tree where two phases become in contact with the ground could
lead to this type of fault. Two phases will be involved instead of one 24 in the line-to-ground
faults scenarios. Ten percent of all transmission lines faults are under this type of faults
Three phase faults: In this case, falling tower, failure of equipment or even a line breaking and
touching the remaining phases can cause three phase faults. In reality, this type of fault not often
exists which can be seen from its share of 5% of all transmission lines faults. The first three of
these faults are known as asymmetrical faults.

4.6 Transmission line protection

Transmission line protection plays a vital role in the power system protection. Distance
protection schemes are universally used for protection of High Voltage AC transmission lines by
providing the primary protection (Main protection) and Back-up protection to lines against all
the 10 faults i.e. 3 phase faults (L-L-L), phase to phase faults (L-L), phase to ground faults (L-G)
and phase phase-ground faults (L-L-G). Out of these, single phase to ground fault (LG) is the
least severe but the most common fault. The working principle of this relay is that the impedance
measured by it is proportional to its distance from the fault location.

Transmission line Protection is a very important issue to protect the electric power
system. In transmission line faults occurs due to several reason. In practice the most common
type of fault is the single line to ground fault. Other types which occur less frequently are three-
phase faults, phase to phase faults, and two-phase to ground faults. The demand for electricity is
ever increasing. It is Important to supply quality electrical Power continuously for industrial,
business and residential usage. While failure to supply electricity to residential areas might result
in dis comport to those dwelling in them, discontinued supply to business and industrial areas
will result in loss of Productivity as well as business. Power system faults only can cause dis
continued supply, they can damage the power system equipment that is costly to replace.
Transmission line Protection is a very important issue to safe guard the electric power system.
Among the components of an electric power system, the transmission line is the most
Susceptible element to experience faults. Different kinds of faults can occur between a conductor
and ground, basically 1. Single line-to-ground-faults. 2. Phase-to ground faults, 3. 3-Phase faults.
The sampled current and voltage data are used to locate and classify the fault involving the line.
Distance relaying techniques have attracted considerable attention for the protection of
transmission lines. The Principle of these techniques is the measurement of Impedance at a
fundamental frequency between the relay location and the fault point. Voltage and current data
are used for this purpose. The proposed analysis involves the ANN techniques where the
threshold values are employed to identify faults on the transmission line.

With the rapid development of power electronics technology, fault detection and
localization are the focus of research efforts in the area of transmission and distribution system.
Because faults in electrical power systems cannot be avoided, enough information provided from
the fault analysis is needed to recognize the cause, and interpret the broken down system. It is
also needed to restore as soon as possible the transfer of power, in addition to learning more
about the system and aim to reduce the occurrence of future faults if possible. Circuit breakers
and other control components are designed to help protect the relay and to take appropriate
action and thus minimizing power loss and length of power disruption. In electrical power
system control centers, a great amount of information and data are collected from the
transmission lines. Fault signals must be detected and classified in real time and accurately in
order to protect the whole system. The related signals have to be received and processed by the
operators in the control center.

An effective and accurate mathematics based program and process is usually in place to help the
operators to detect, classify, locate, and isolate faults in the transmission system once one occurs.
The general procedure followed is based on preset threshold values according to the fault signal
values of current and voltage. When a fault occurs, the transient DC offset and high-frequency
transient components will be extracted along with the power frequency components from the
fault current and voltage signals. The fault current and voltage vary with fault type, location, size
of the fault, and the fault inception angle and other system conditions. These variations cause
space to be non-linearly separable and no threshold values can be found that satisfy the various
system and fault conditions. Furthermore, when faults take place, the faulted phases have an
effect on the healthy phases due to mutual coupling between these phases. This problem is
compounded by the fact that this coupling is highly non-linear in nature and is dependent on a
complex interplay amongst a number of variables

Transmission line system is regarded with great importance in power system. Faults that occur
frequently with transmission lines system, should affect electricity users. Faults, aforementioned
may be caused by neither a single person, animal or natural occurrences. Thus to prevent and
decrease damage that would happen, must systematically protect the transmission line system
4.6.1 Over current Relaying

Over current relays generally provide the same level of protection as power fuses. Higher
sensitivity and fault clearing times can be achieved in some instances by using an over current
relay connected to measure residual current. This application allows pick up settings to be lower
than expected maximum load current. It is also possible to apply an instantaneous over current
relay set to respond only to faults within the first 75% of the transformer

4.6.2 Directional Relaying

Protective relays are intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) which receive measured signals from
the secondary side of CTs and VTs detect whether the protected unit is in a stressed condition
(based on their type and configuration) or not. A trip signal is sent by protective relays to the
circuit breakers to disconnect the faulty components from power system if necessary. Utilization
of the current-only directional relays for possible distribution side protection, like optimized fault
localization using centralized breaking scheme, solutions to close-in faults can be referred. This
is a key focus area for enabling the smart grid.

4.6.3 Distance Relaying

Transmission line system using distance relay is very popular. Protective relaying is one of
several features of power system design concerned with minimizing damage to equipment and
interruptions to service when electrical failures occur. Distance relays are generally used for
phase fault primary and back-up protection on sub-transmission lines, and on transmission lines
where high-speed automatic reclosing is not necessary to maintain stability and where the short
time delay for end-zone faults can be tolerated on the transmission line. The fundamental
principle is based on the measure of particular fixed settings, mainly the impedance at
fundamental frequency between the relay location and the fault point

4.6.4 Pilot Relaying

Pilot relaying is the best type for line protection. It is used whenever high-speed protection is
required for all types of short circuits and for any fault location. For two-terminal lines, and for
many multi-terminal lines, all the terminal breakers are tripped practically simultaneously,
thereby permitting high-speed automatic reclosing.
The combination of high-speed tripping and high-speed reclosing permits the transmission
system to be loaded more nearly to its stability limit, thereby providing the maximum return on
the investment.

4.7 Faults

As an electrical power system is comprised of different complex interacting elements, faults

always have a possibility of occurrence. A fault is not avoidable, but if an appropriate protection
scheme is used, the damage to the power system can be minimized. In three phase circuits of a
power system, faults are such that one or several conductors are shorted to each other or to
ground in any number of combinations. The different combinations are different types of fault
and they can be caused by many various reasons which will be explained in more details in this
section.
Reasons for faults

The most common reason that causes faults on a transmission line is due to lightning. Some
weather conditions like rain, wind, snow, ice, frog, etc. can also cause faults. In some extreme
situations, such as a tornado, they may result in serious damage as breaking a transmission line
conductor or causing the collapse of a transmission tower

4.7.1 Fault Detection Systems

The electrical power system consists of so many different complex dynamic and interacting
elements, which are always prone to disturbance or an electrical fault. The use of high capacity
electrical generating power plants and concept of grid, i.e. synchronized electrical power plants
and geographical displaced grids, required fault detection and operation of protection equipment
in minimum possible time so that the power system can remain in stable condition. The faults on
electrical power system transmission lines are supposed to be first detected and then be classified
correctly and should be cleared in least fast as possible time. The protection system used for a
transmission line can also be used to initiate the other relays to protect the power system from
outages. A good fault detection system provides an effective, reliable, fast and secure way of a
relaying operation

4.7.2 ELECTRICAL FAULTS

In the electrical systems always exists the possibility of having shutdowns due to over
currents or short circuits produced by operation mistakes, ambient conditions, lack of
maintenance or atmospheric discharges.

It is common to treat a healthy power system as a balanced symmetrical three-phase network.

When a transmission line fault occurs, in most cases, the symmetry of the network will be
broken, leading to unbalanced currents and voltages occurring in the network. The three phase
fault is the only exception, which leads to a symmetrical fault, as all three phases are still equal at
the same location when the fault happens. In the case of short circuit, this can be classified in the
next types:

1. - Bolted Faults
 It occurs when the conductors (phase, neutral or ground) are solidly connected, having an
impedance equal to cero on this connection and because this, a maximum current condition is
present.

2. - Ground Fault

It occurs when one of the system phases get on direct contact to ground or to any metallic
part that is grounded.

3. - Arcing Fault

It happens between two close conductors but is not in direct contact.

4.7.3 FAULTS IN POWER SYSTEM

Fault is an unwanted short circuit condition that occurs either between two phases of
wires or between a phase of wire and ground. Short circuit is the most risky fault type as flow of
heavy currents can cause overheating or create mechanical forces which may damage
equipments and other elements of power system

CATEGORIES OF FAULTS

Faults also can be classified into three types, that is, symmetrical faults, unsymmetrical
faults, and open circuit faults.

SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

The fault that results in symmetrical fault currents (i.e., equal currents with 120
displacements) is known as a symmetrical fault. Three-phase fault is an example of symmetrical
fault where all three phases are short circuited with or without involving the ground.

UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS

Examples of different unsymmetrical faults are single phase to ground, two phases to
ground, and phase to phase short circuits. The details of these shunt fault types that can occur in
transmission line are described as follows.

SINGLE PHASE TO GROUND (L-G) FAULT

 L-G is a short circuit between any one of phase conductors and earth (prevalence is 70%–
80%). It may be caused either by insulation failure between a phase conductor and earth or
breaking and falling of phase conductor to the ground.

TWO PHASES TO GROUND (L-L-G) FAULT

L-L-G is a short circuit between any two phases and earth (prevalence is 10%– 17%).

PHASE TO PHASE (L-L) FAULT

L-L is a short circuit between any two phases of the system (prevalence is 8%–10%).

THREE-PHASE (L-L-L) FAULT

L-L-L is a short circuit between any two phases of the system (prevalence is 2%-3%).

OPEN CIRCUIT FAULTS

This type of fault is caused by breaking of conducting path. Such fault occurs when one
or more phases of conductor break or a cable joint/jumper (at the tension tower location) on an
overhead line fails. Such situations may also arise when circuit breakers or isolators open but fail
to close in one or more phases. During the open circuit of one of the two phases, unbalanced
current flows in the system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes must be
provided to deal with such abnormal conditions.

Influence of faults

Faults on a transmission line will affect the stability of the power system and the power quality
that is delivered to users. For example, when there is a shorted fault, it will increase the level of
fault current and this can cause serious damage to power system equipment and users cannot
receive normal power. In the worst case, some of the power system equipment can be
permanently destroyed and the whole power supply for users can be lost. It should also be noted
that the faults are not avoidable, but if appropriate protection is used, the damage to the power
system can be minimized

4.8 Transients Based Protection

The aforementioned traditional protection schemes have one common principle: they are based
on the sampling of the quantities at the power frequency. If a fault on a transmission line occurs,
there will be a short time period where the power frequency voltages and currents right across
the whole system experiences pollution caused primarily by high frequency signals. This is due
to the step change (caused by the fault) before they reach a steady state condition

Since the traditional relays only make use of the power frequency signals, all the other
frequencies must be filtered to minimise relay mal-operation. A band-pass filter is usually used
within the relay design to deal with this to ensure the fault detection accuracy. Even so, there are
still many limitations of such schemes. For example, the requisite signals must be measured for
at least one cycle at the power frequency of 50Hz and this is too slow for protection purposes.
Also, to remove the high frequency signals will add cost and complexity to the relay design.
Moreover, the relays might trip due to an unfaulted situation, such as electro-mechanical
oscillations due to the generators, which also occur at the power frequency. Other phenomenon
like power swings, etc. can also result into a false trip alarm

A fault on a transmission line produces wideband transients, the frequency of which is from DC
component up to several hundred kHz. It is an electromagnetic phenomenon whose behaviour
depends on the electrical parameters of transmission line components. These components consist
of series shunt distributed R, L and C which are distributed along the entire length of a
transmission line. As a consequence, the fault generated travelling waves propagate from the
fault point with multiple reflections and refractions at the transmission line ends and any
discontinuities. The observed fault transients are the composition of these travelling waves,
which are dictated by the reflection and transmitted module at the bus bars and the fault
inception point. Due to the sudden voltage change caused by the fault, the magnitudes of
transients on faulted phase(s) are larger than those of sound phases.

4.9 GOAL OF PROCESS

The goal is to employ machine learning methods to identify faults and fault location on a given
transmission line or circuit rather than hard coding the values.

The process has mainly three major steps below:

 Figure 19: High Level Overview of the Process

Data Generation: The machine learning algorithms need to be trained before deployment in real
time to detect faults and identify locations. In this step, simulated data of fault phase voltages is
collected from an emulated Transmission model resembling the live transmission model. The
collected data then is normalized and massaged before it can be used as training data to train the
models.

Fault Type Identification: The goal is to correctly classify ten types of Short circuit faults as
described

Fault Location Identification: The methodology differs for three terminals and two terminal
circuits. Fault location identification in first architecture is using wavelet-based traveling wave
method to calculate the distance. The second method is to employ regression models to predict
the distance of the fault.

4.10 PROTECTION RELAYS

Transmission lines are a necessary part of power systems due to the reason mentioned
before. There are two types of transmission lines, overhead and underground, the former being
the most commonly used. The overhead transmission lines are susceptible to faults caused by
short circuits between phases or between phase and ground. The majority of faults in power
systems occur in the transmission lines. When a fault occurs, the transmitted current rises above
the normal operating current. This can cause thermal damage to all other electrical equipment.
To reduce the adverse effects of faults, protective relays are included as part of power systems.
Relays or protective relays detect abnormal power conditions and return the power system to
normal operative conditions. Upon detecting a fault in the relay protection zone, the relay
activates the circuit breaker to clear and isolate the fault. In a radial system where there is only
one source for multiple loads, the supply will discontinue until the problem causing the fault is
fixed. To minimize blackout, it is a common practice to use network of power systems where
multiple sources are available in connections for multiple loads

4.11 Fault Location on Three-Terminal and Multiterminal Lines

Generally, multiterminal lines are those having three or more terminals with substantial
generation behind each. Similarly, tapped lines are those having three or more terminals with
substantial power generation behind at maximum two of them. Multiterminal and tapped lines
are used for economical or environmental reasons. The taps feed only loads, that is, passive
networks, while at the remaining terminals they are terminated by active networks

A fault location method is developed based on synchronized measurements of three phase

current from all three terminals and additionally three phase voltage from the terminal at which a
fault locator is installed. The delivered fault-location algorithm consists of three subroutines
designated for locating faults within particular line sections and a procedure for indicating the
faulted line section. An approach for fault location on EHV teed feeders utilizes synchronized
voltages and currents at all three ends of a teed feeder. Measurements are then digitally filtered
to accurately extract the power frequency phasor. In this approach, use is made of superimposed
modal components of signals so as to minimize errors arising in accuracy due to line loading or
source impedances. Algorithms presented in use synchronized voltage and current data from two
terminals only. They are not influenced by fault resistance, fault location, prefault loading
conditions, source impedance, and fault types.

4.11.1 Fault Location on Series-Compensated Lines

The one-line diagrams of a series-compensated transmission line with series capacitors (SCs) and
MOVs installed at midpoint and at both ends of the line are shown, respectively

Figure 20: Single transmission line compensated with SCs and MOVs installed at midpoint.
 Figure 21: Transmission line compensated with SCs and MOVs installed at both ends

Use of instantaneous values for fault location of series compensated transmission lines while
avoiding the accuracy limitation caused by the operation of MOV is discussed. The method
requires only a short duration of fault measurement data to estimate the location and can be
applied with minimum filtering of high frequencies. It is independent of the fault type and does
not require the fault to be pure resistive. However, it requires knowledge of the source
impedance at both ends of the line.

4.11.2 Adaptive Fault Location

The prime aim of adaptive fault location algorithms is to achieve a better fault location accuracy.
The idea of adaptive fault location on transmission lines boils down to proper estimation of line
parameters and system impedance. The environmental conditions and operation history of the
transmission line affect its sag. As the conductor current increases, its temperature increases and,
consequently, its sag. The line resistance changes with the line temperature. In addition, the line
reactance will change since it depends on the distance between the phase conductors which is
affected by the line sag. Therefore, the uncertainty of the line parameters could affect
substantially the accuracy of the fault location. The effect of such uncertainty can reach up to 6-
7% if the parameters vary 20% of the practical parameters. It is worth mentioning that the power
utility usually provides very ideal parameters of the line that do not take into consideration its
operation history

With normal operation, PMU can measure the voltage at both ends of the line along with its
current. The line parameters can be calculated using the prefault phase and amplitude
measurements of the voltages and currents. Four methods are presented in to identify
transmission line impedance parameters from synchronized measurements.
An adaptive fault protection scheme for transmission lines is discussed. The work includes fault
detection, direction discrimination, classification, and location. Both fault detection and fault
location indices are derived by using two-terminal synchronized measurements incorporated with
distributed line model and modal transformation theory. The fault detection index is composed of
two complex phasor and the angle difference between the two phasor determines whether the
fault is internal or external to the protected zone. The fault types can be classified by the modal
fault detection index. The proposed scheme also combines online parameter estimation to assure
protection scheme performance and to achieve adaptive protection. Simulation studies show that
fault location accuracy is high under various system and fault conditions.

4.12 Fault Location Identification

After the fault type has been identified, the next step is to locate the fault. For Three-Terminal
(TEED) Circuits, the faulty line (branch) is identified first Two Decision Trees DT1 and DT2 are
used to predict whether the fault has occurred in A-Tap or B-Tap respectively. When the
predictions of both the trees are -1 simultaneously, then the fault has occurred in C-Tap line. This
step is important to provide a reference point for the regression model as the distances and the
input feature space are non-linear in nature. Once the faulty-line has been identified, respective
regression models are used to predict the fault distance. The fault distance obtained is the
distance of the fault from the Tap point. The regression models are trained for each line of the
transmission network and it remains consistent for all types of short circuit faults.
 Figure 22: Fault Location Identification Process in Three-terminal Circuits

Figure 23: Fault Location Identification process in Two-Terminal circuits

The regression model predicts the fault distance from Terminal A. Since the features are linearly
related to the distance, Linear SVR is used for prediction of the fault distances. Next chapter
describes the implementation of both the architectures followed by results.
4.13 ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM

An adaptive algorithm is an algorithm that changes its behaviour at the time it is run,
based on information available and on a priori defined reward mechanism (or criterion). Such
information could be the story of recently received data, information on the available
computational resources, or other run-time acquired (or a priori known) information related to
the environment in which it operates.

Fig 24 adaptive algorithm

Among the most used adaptive algorithms is the Widrow-Hoff’s least mean squares
(LMS), which represents a class of stochastic gradient-descent algorithms used in adaptive
filtering and machine learning. In adaptive filtering the LMS is used to mimic a desired filter by
finding the filter coefficients that relate to producing the least mean square of the error signal
(difference between the desired and the actual signal).
 Fig 25 adaptive flow chart

An adaptive algorithm is derived, based on a weighted least-squares criterion

incorporating a penalty on parameter variations. The result is a recursive algorithm whose
covariance matrix update is identical to existing regularized or stabilized least-squares
algorithms. In particular, the covariance matrix and its inverse are bounded under weak
conditions. The parameter update equation is different from conventional algorithms and exhibits
a second-order response, as opposed to the first-order response of the standard weighted least-
squares algorithm. An averaging analysis shows that a linear time-invariant approximation of the
parameter response gives useful information about the system. The approximate system has two
sets of poles, with one set being the same as the one obtained for the weighted least-squares
algorithm. The goal is to minimize the number of evaluations used for answering a query.
Because the complexity of the problem instances varies widely, depending on the actual
function, we wish to design adaptive algorithms whose performance is close to the best possible
on every problem instance. We give optimally adaptive algorithms for winding number
computation and uni variate approximation and integration. We also give a near-optimal adaptive
algorithm for uni variate approximation when the output of function evaluations is corrupted by
random noise.
4.1 POWER SUPPLY

BLOCK DIAGRAM

The ac voltage, classically 220V rms, is linked to a transformer, which steps with the
purpose of ac voltage down to the echelon of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then
provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to
produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.

A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if the
input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage
regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.

TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER IC REGULATOR LOAD

Figure 2: Block diagram (Power supply)

4.1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

4.1.2 TRANSFORMER

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V) to (0-6V)
level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision rectifier,
which is constructed with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using precision rectifier are it
will give peak voltage output as DC; rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

4.1.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as bridge
rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network, and
the output is taken from the remaining two corners.

Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a positive potential, at
point A and a negative potential at point B. the positive potential at point A will forward bias D3
and reverse bias D4.
 The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At this time D3
and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and D2 are
reverse biased and will block current flow.

The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through RL, through D3,
through the secondary of the transformer back to point B. this path is indicated by the solid
arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed across D1 and D3.

One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the transformer reverse, forward
biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from point A
through D4, up through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to point A. This
path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be observed across D2 and
D4. The current flow through RL is always in the same direction. In flowing through RL this
current develops a voltage corresponding to that shown waveform. Since current flows through
the load during both half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a full-wave
rectifier.

This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components shown in views A
and B. assume that the same transformer is used in both circuits. The peak voltage developed
between points X and y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-wave circuit
shown—in view A, the peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y is 500 volts. Since only
one diode can conduct at any instant, the maximum voltage that can be rectified at any instant is
500 volts.

The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but never exceeds-
500 v0lts, as result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in
view B, the maximum voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is 1000
volts. Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000 volts. With both
circuits using the same transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a higher output voltage
than the conventional full-wave rectifier circuit.

4.1.4 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

 Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units
contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload
protection all in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed
negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage. The regulators can be selected for operation with
load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings

from milli watts to tens of watts.

Figure 3: Circuit diagram (Power supply)

A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi, applied
to one input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third
terminal connected to ground.

The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.
Similarly, the series 79 regulators provide fixed negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.

 For ICs, microcontroller, LCD --------- 5 volts

 For alarm circuit, op-amp, relay circuits ---------- 12 volts

DISCUSSION
 The +5 volt power supply is based on the commercial 7805 voltage regulator IC. This
simplifies the design and layout of the circuit considerably, because all of the regulating circuitry
as well as current limiters and overload protection are built into the IC. As a result, little is
needed in the way of support circuitry.
We do still need the external capacitors. One thing that is very difficult to achieve in ICs
is a capacitor of high capacitance value. Therefore, the electrolytic capacitors must be provided
to work with the IC. The disc ceramic capacitor must also be of a higher value than is readily
obtainable within an IC, so it, too, must be provided externally.
The 7805 voltage regulator IC is capable of handling load currents up to an ampere or so.
However, the IC will dissipate a fair amount of heat when the load current gets this high.
Without a heat sink, the IC will get hot and shut itself down at load currents above about 150
mA. If you add a heat sink for a TO-220 case (available at Radio Shack), this power supply can
easily deliver an ampere or more to its load

ADVANTAGE
 Small size and less weight.
 Less expensive
 High reliable and versatile
 Reduced man power
APPLICATION

It is typically used in electronic devices such as switched-mode power supply, linear

regulator, rectifier and inverter (electrical).

MICROCONTROLLER

 A microcontroller is a very small computer on a single integrated circuit (IC). All

computers have several things in common:
 • CPU (central processing unit) that executes programs.
 • RAM (random-access memory) where it can store variables.
 • Input and output devices for interaction.
 Desktop computers are “general purpose computers” that can run any of thousands of
programs. Microcontrollers are “special purpose computers.” Microcontrollers do one
thing well. Microcontrollers are often embedded onto a single printed circuit board.
This board provides all of the circuitry necessary for a useful control task. The
intention is that the board is immediately useful to an application developer, without
them needing to spend time and effort in developing the controller hardware.


 ARDUINO UNO
 The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It
has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog
inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP
header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a
AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno differs from all preceding boards
in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the
Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter
 "Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino
1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving
forward. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference
model for the Arduino platform

 Features
  1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other
new pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to
the voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with
the board that use the AVR, which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that
operate with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin, that is reserved for future
purposes.
  Stronger RESET circuit.
  Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.
 AURDINO PIN DESCRIPTION


 Power
 The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can
come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be
connected by plugging a 2.1mm centre-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied
with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board
may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and
damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The power pins are as
follows:
  VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
 source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.
  5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can
be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
  3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50 mA.
  GND. Ground pins.


 AURDINO PIN LAYOUT


 Memory
 The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB
of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM
 Input and Output
 Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each
pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized
functions:
  Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-
TTL Serial chip.
  External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt()
function for details.
  PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite()
function.
  SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
  LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is
HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
 The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labelled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits
of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5
volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin
and the analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins have specialized
functionality:
 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the
Wire library
 There are a couple of other pins on the board:
 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset
button to shields which block the one on the board.
 Communication
 The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL
(5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An
ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and
appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses
the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on
Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor
which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX
and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-
serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1). A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the
Uno's digital pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication
 Automatic (Software) Reset
 Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a
connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the
ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100
nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long
enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to
upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This
means that the boot loader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be
well-coordinated with the start of the upload. This setup has other implications. When
the Uno is connected to either a computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each
time a connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the following half
second or so, the boot loader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to ignore
malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the
first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch
running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts,
 make sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after opening
the connection and before sending this data. The Uno contains a trace that can be cut
to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of the trace can be soldered together
to re-enable it. It's labelled "RESET-EN". You may also be able to disable the auto-
reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum thread
for details.

USB Over current Protection

 The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports
from shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own internal
protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is
applied to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the
short or overload is removed.

4.6 RELAY

Fig 14 Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming
in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contractor.
Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor
device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes
multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".

4.6.1 BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION

Fig 15 Relay circuit diagram

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one
or more sets of contacts. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or
more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-
energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or
fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving
contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-
energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the
contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters.
Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise;
in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

4.6.2 APPLICATION

Relays are used for:

 Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating
power. Some special cases are:
o A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire
o Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers,
o Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile,
 Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers

4.7 ALARM

An alarm device or system of alarm devices gives an audible, visual or

other form of alarm signal about a problem or condition.
 Fig 16 Alarm circuit diagram

 Burglar alarms designed to warn of burglaries; this is often a silent alarm: the police or
guards are warned without indication to the burglar, which increases the chances of catching him
or her.

 Alarm clocks can produce an alarm at a given time

 Distributed control manufacturing systems or DCSs, found in nuclear power plants, refineries
and chemical facilities also generate alarms to direct the operator's attention to an important
event that he or she needs to address.

 Alarms in an operation and maintenance (O&M) monitoring system, which informs the bad
working state of the system under monitoring.

Fig 17 Buzzer

4.8 LCD

A liquid crystal display is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses
the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly. LCDs
are available to display arbitrary images or fixed images which can be displayed or hidden, such
as preset words, digits, and 7-segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the same basic
technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while
other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a wide range of applications
including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and
signage. They are common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming
devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones, and have replaced cathode ray
tube displays in most applications. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT
and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in.
LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.

Fig 18 LCD display unit

4.8.1 SPECIFICATION:

Important factors to consider when evaluating an LCD:

RESOLUTION VERSUS RANGE

Fundamentally resolution is the granularity with which a performance feature of the display is
divided. Resolution is often confused with range or the total end-to-end output of the display.
Each of the major features of a display has both a resolution and a range that are tied to each
other but very different. Frequently the range is an inherent limitation of the display while the
resolution is a function of the electronics that make the display work.

SPATIAL PERFORMANCE
LCDs come in only one size for a variety of applications and a variety of resolutions within each
of those applications. LCD spatial performance is also sometimes described in terms of a "dot
pitch". The size of an LCD is always described in terms of the diagonal distance from one corner
to its opposite. This is an historical remnant from the early days of CRT television when CRT
screens were manufactured on the bottoms of glass bottles, a direct extension of cathode ray
tubes used in oscilloscopes. The diameter of the bottle determined the size of the screen. Later,
when televisions went to a squarer format, the square screens were measured diagonally to
compare with the older round screen.
CONCLUSION

In the presented work a novel centralized fault detection and classification scheme is proposed
for the protection of multi-terminal HVDC grids with SCs. The developed scheme utilizes the
principles of the XGBoost ML algorithm and protects the system against faults occurring along
the cables (SC and CC) and the buses. The deployment of the SCs has introduced many fault-
related challenges within the networks due to the quenching phenomenon and renders the fast
and accurate fault detection and classification a very challenging task. The limitations of the
existing DC protection schemes, such as the derivative-based schemes, in conjunction with the
ever-increasing availability of data in the future power grids offer the opportunity for innovative
protection solutions. The proposed XGBoost-based scheme has been found to provide adequate
protection for different fault types, location and resistances. The results from the real-time SIL
testing validate the fast and accurate fault detection and classification under various fault
conditions and consequently highlight the applicability of the developed scheme for real-time
implementation. Specifically, the results showed that the operation time lies within the range of
0.0803 ms and 1.2341 ms, which complies with the protection requirements for HVDC grids.
Furthermore, the XGBoost-based algorithm presents increased discrimination capability by
initiating a fast tripping signal during the highly-resistive internal faults and remaining stable
during external faults. Additionally, the generalization capability of the proposed scheme has
been tested under the influence of white noise. The results verified the robust performance of the
XGBoost-based scheme on the noisy measurements. Overall, the proposed scheme is suitable for
the detection and classification of faults in HVDC grids with SCs, and hence can be considered a
very promising solution for the implementation of fast and reliable DC bus and SCs protection.
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