1.

P = VI

1000x106 = 500000 I

I = 2kA

Power loss = I2R

= 20002 x 20

80MW

a) Sending end power = power transmitted + power loss

= 1000 + 80

= 1080MW

Receiving end power = transmitted – power loss

1000 – 80

= 920MW

b) transmission life efficiency = (receiving / sending ) *100

=(920/1080)*100

= 85.185%

b) Elucidate the concept of load forecasting and emphasize its relevance in the planning of power
systems

Load forecasting is the predicting of electrical power required to meet the short term, medium term
or long term demand. The forecasting helps the utility companies in their operation and
management of the supply to their customers.

Load forecasting is the process of predicting the power or energy needed to meet the demand in a
power system. Load forecasting predicts future load demand, aiding in resource planning and
system design, and operation. It assists in determining generation capacity, transmission
requirements, and distribution network upgrades. It plays a crucial role in resource allocation,
generation scheduling, infrastructure development, and energy trading.

Load forecasting minimizes utility risk by predicting future consumption of commodities transmitted
or delivered by the utility. Techniques include price elasticity, weather and demand response/load
analysis, and renewable generation predictive modeling. Forecasts must use regional customer load
data, with time series customer load profiles. Accurate forecasts require adjustments for seasonality.
Distribution load forecasting must be reconciled with distribution network configuration as part of
the distribution circuit load measurements.
Importance of load forecasting

1. Enables the utility company to plan well since they have an understanding of the future
consumption or load demand.

2. Minimize the risks for the utility company. Understanding the future long term load helps the
company to plan and make economically viable decisions in regard to future generation and
transmission investments.

3. Helps to determine the required resources such as fuels required to operate the generating
plants as well as other resources that are needed to ensure uninterrupted and yet economical
generation and distribution of the power to the consumers. This is important for short, medium,
and long term planning.

4. The load forecasting helps in planning the future in terms of the size, location and type of the
future generating plant. By determining areas or regions with high or growing demand, the
utilities will most likely generate the power near the load. This minimizes the transmission and
distribution infrastructures as well as the associated losses.

5. Helps in deciding and planning for maintenance of the power systems. By understanding the
demand, the utility can know when to carry out the maintenance and ensure that it has the
minimum impact on the consumers. For example, they may decide to do maintenance on
residential areas during the day when most people are at work and demand is very low.

6. Maximum utilization of power generating plants. The forecasting avoids under generation or
over generation.
2). Discuss the importance of protection system coordination in electrical power systems. Explain the
key principles and techniques used for achieving effective coordination. Support your answer with
relevant examples.

Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the protection of
electrical power systems from faults through the disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the
electrical network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by
isolating only the components that are under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as possible
in operation. The devices that are used to protect the power systems from faults are called
protection devices.

Protection systems usually comprise five components

 Current and voltage transformers to step down the high voltages and currents of the electrical
power system to convenient levels for the relays to deal with

 Protective relays to sense the fault and initiate a trip, or disconnection, order

 Circuit breakers or RCDs to open/close the system based on relay and auto recloser commands

 Batteries to provide power in case of power disconnection in the system

 Communication channels to allow analysis of current and voltage at remote terminals of a line
and to allow remote tripping of equipment.

For parts of a distribution system, fuses are capable of both sensing and disconnecting faults.

Failures may occur in each part, such as insulation failure, fallen or broken transmission lines,
incorrect operation of circuit breakers, short circuits and open circuits. Protection devices are
installed with the aims of protection of assets and ensuring continued supply of energy.

Switchgear is a combination of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to

control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switches are safe to open under normal load
current (some switches are not safe to operate under normal or abnormal conditions), while
protective devices are safe to open under fault current. Very important equipment may have
completely redundant and independent protective systems, while a minor branch distribution line
may have very simple low-cost protection.

Types of protection in Power System Protection

High-voltage transmission network

Protection of the transmission and distribution system serves two functions: protection of the plant
and protection of the public (including employees). At a basic level, protection disconnects
equipment that experiences an overload or a short to earth. Some items in substations such as
transformers might require additional protection based on temperature or gas pressure, among
others.
Generator sets

In a power plant, the protective relays are intended to prevent damage to alternators or to the
transformers in case of abnormal conditions of operation, due to internal failures, as well as
insulating failures or regulation malfunctions. Such failures are unusual, so the protective relays have
to operate very rarely. If a protective relay fails to detect a fault, the resulting damage to the
alternator or to the transformer might require costly equipment repairs or replacement, as well as
income loss from the inability to produce and sell energy.

Overload and back-up for distance (overcurrent)

Overload protection requires a current transformer which simply measures the current in a circuit
and compares it to the predetermined value. There are two types of overload protection:
instantaneous overcurrent (IOC) and time overcurrent (TOC). Instantaneous overcurrent requires
that the current exceeds a predetermined level for the circuit breaker to operate. Time overcurrent
protection operates based on a current vs time curve. Based on this curve, if the measured current
exceeds a given level for the preset amount of time, the circuit breaker or fuse will operate. The
function of both types is explained in "Non-Directional Overcurrent Protection

Earth fault/ground fault

Earth fault protection also requires current transformers and senses an imbalance in a three-phase
circuit. Normally the three phase currents are in balance, i.e. roughly equal in magnitude. If one or
two phases become connected to earth via a low impedance path, their magnitudes will increase
dramatically, as will current imbalance. If this imbalance exceeds a pre-determined value, a circuit
breaker should operate. Restricted earth fault protection is a type of earth fault protection which
looks for earth fault between two sets of current transformers (hence restricted to that zone).

Distance (impedance relay)

Distance protection detects both voltage and current. A fault on a circuit will generally create a sag in
the voltage level. If the ratio of voltage to current measured at the relay terminals, which equates to
an impedance, lands within a predetermined level the circuit breaker will operate. This is useful for
reasonably long lines, lines longer than 10 miles, because their operating characteristics are based
on the line characteristics. This means that when a fault appears on the line the impedance setting in
the relay is compared to the apparent impedance of the line from the relay terminals to the fault. If
the relay setting is determined to be below the apparent impedance it is determined that the fault is
within the zone of protection. When the transmission line length is too short, less than 10 miles,
distance protection becomes more difficult to coordinate. In these instances the best choice of
protection is current differential protection.
Back-up

The objective of protection is to remove only the affected portion of plant and nothing else. A circuit
breaker or protection relay may fail to operate. In important systems, a failure of primary protection
will usually result in the operation of back-up protection. Remote back-up protection will generally
remove both the affected and unaffected items of plant to clear the fault. Local back-up protection
will remove the affected items of the plant to clear the fault.

Low-voltage networks

The low-voltage network generally relies upon fuses or low-voltage circuit breakers to remove both
overload and earth faults.

Cybersecurity

The bulk system which is a large interconnected electrical system including transmission and control
system is experiencing new cybersecurity threats every day. (“Electric Grid Cybersecurity,” 2019).
Most of these attacks are aiming the control systems in the grids. These control systems are
connected to the internet and makes it easier for hackers to attack them. These attacks can cause
damage to equipment and limit the utility professionals ability to control the system.

Coordination

Protective device coordination is the process of determining the "best fit" timing of current
interruption when abnormal electrical conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an outage to the
greatest extent possible. Historically, protective device coordination was done on translucent log–log
paper. Modern methods normally include detailed computer based analysis and reporting.

Protection coordination is also handled through dividing the power system into protective zones. If a
fault were to occur in a given zone, necessary actions will be executed to isolate that zone from the
entire system. Zone definitions account for generators, buses, transformers, transmission and
distribution lines, and motors. Additionally, zones possess the following features: zones overlap,
overlap regions denote circuit breakers, and all circuit breakers in a given zone with a fault will open
in order to isolate the fault. Overlapped regions are created by two sets of instrument transformers
and relays for each circuit breaker. They are designed for redundancy to eliminate unprotected
areas; however, overlapped regions are devised to remain as small as possible such that when a fault
occurs in an overlap region and the two zones which encompass the fault are isolated, the sector of
the power system which is lost from service is still small despite two zones being isolated.
 3b) Describe the fundamental purpose of power generation dispatch in a power system and outline
the factors that are considered when optimizing the dispatch of power generation.

Power generation dispatch refers to the process of managing and allocating available power
generation resources to meet electricity demand while ensuring system reliability, stability, and
efficiency.

Purposes of power generation dispatch

1. Load Balancing: Dispatch ensures that the total power generated matches the total load demand
at any given moment. By adjusting the output of various generators, the system maintains a
balance between supply and demand.

2. System Stability: Dispatch helps maintain system stability by adjusting generation levels to
prevent voltage fluctuations, frequency deviations, and other disturbances. Proper dispatch
ensures that the grid remains reliable even during contingencies.

3. Economic Efficiency: Dispatch aims to minimize the overall cost of electricity production. By
optimizing the use of different generation sources (such as coal, gas, hydro, wind, and solar), it
reduces fuel consumption and operational expenses.

4. Environmental Considerations: Dispatch can prioritize cleaner energy sources (renewables) over
fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It contributes to achieving environmental
targets and sustainability goals.

Factors Considered in Dispatch Optimization:

Several factors influence the optimization of power generation dispatch. These factors
vary based on the specific context and objectives. Here are some critical considerations:
1. Generation Costs: Each generator type (coal, gas, nuclear, renewables) has
different operating costs. Dispatch algorithms aim to minimize the total cost
while meeting demand.
2. Fuel Availability: Dispatch accounts for the availability of fuel resources. For
example, if natural gas supply is limited, the dispatch may prioritize other
sources.
3. Transmission Constraints: The power grid has transmission lines with capacity
limits. Dispatch considers these constraints to avoid overloading lines and
maintain grid stability.
4. Generator Characteristics: Dispatch algorithms consider generator ramp rates
(how quickly output can change), start-up times, and efficiency curves. Some
generators respond faster than others.
5. Renewable Energy Variability: Solar and wind power output fluctuates due to
weather conditions. Dispatch must adapt to these variations and balance them
with other sources.
6. Reserve Margins: Dispatch ensures that sufficient reserve capacity (spinning
reserves) is available to handle sudden load changes or generator failures.
7. Environmental Impact: Dispatch can favor cleaner energy sources to reduce
emissions. This involves optimizing the mix of renewables and fossil fuels.
8. Demand Forecasting: Accurate load forecasting helps optimize dispatch
decisions. Real-time adjustments are made based on actual demand.
9. Market Considerations: In deregulated markets, dispatch decisions may be
influenced by market prices, contracts, and bidding strategies.
 10. Security and Reliability: Dispatch must maintain system reliability by
preventing blackouts or voltage instability. It considers contingencies and
emergency scenarios.

4b)

The stability limit refers to the maximum power that can be transferred within a network between
the source and the load without losing synchronism. In other words, it represents the boundary
beyond which the system becomes unstable. There are two primary types of stability limits:

1. Steady-State Stability Limit:

o The steady-state stability limit is the maximum power transfer capacity under gradual
load increase while maintaining steady-state conditions.

o It ensures that the system remains stable as the load changes.

o Exceeding this limit can lead to voltage instability or even collapse.

2. Transient Stability Limit:

o The transient stability limit pertains to the system’s ability to recover from disturbances
(such as faults or sudden load changes) and return to a stable state.

o It considers the dynamic response of generators and other components.

o Violating this limit can result in loss of synchronism and blackouts.

Dynamic Stability:

Dynamic. stability involves the response to small disturbances that occur on the system, producing
oscillations. The system is said to be dynamically stable if theses oscillations do not acquire more
than certain amplitude and die out quickly.

Approaches for Enhancing Stability:

Several approaches are employed to enhance power system stability:

1. Power System Stabilizers (PSS):

o PSS devices are installed on generators to dampen low-frequency oscillations (typically

in the range of 0.1 to 3 Hz).

o They adjust the excitation system to improve system stability.

o Different PSS designs include lead-lag (LL), proportional-derivative-integral (PID), and

fractional-order proportional-integral-derivative (FOPID) controllers.

o Recent research highlights the efficacy of FOPID-based PSS in mitigating low-frequency

oscillations when combined with other control strategies1.
2. Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS):

o FACTS devices (such as static VAR compensators, SVCs) enhance system stability by
controlling voltage and reactive power.

o SVCs can quickly regulate voltage levels and improve transient stability.

o Integrating FACTS devices with PSS creates an intelligent controller that enhances overall
stability.

3. Optimization Algorithms:

o Optimization algorithms play a crucial role in tuning controller parameters and

optimizing system performance.

o Examples include moth flame optimization (MFO) and antlion optimization (ALO).

o MFO-optimized FOPID-PSS and SVC controllers have demonstrated superior

performance in enhancing stability1.

4. Voltage Stability Indices:

o These indices assess the accessible and equitable regulation of voltage stability.

o They help power engineers predict voltage collapse and evaluate system characteristics