12-4 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

TABLE 12-1 Interconversion Formulas for Air-Water System, to 3 Significant Figures

T = temperature in kelvins (K); P = total pressure in pascals (Pa or N/m2)
Convert from: Y (or ppmw)* y p Yv
Convert to: 0.622Y 0.622p 0.622
Absolute humidity (mixing ratio) Y (kg⋅kg−1) 1 Y=  Y=  Y = 
1−Y P−p 0.002167P/(YvT) − 1
Y p 461.5YvT
Mole fraction y (mol⋅mol−1) y =  1 y=  y= 
0.622 + Y P P

PY
Vapor pressure p (Pa) p =  p = yP 1 p = 461.5YvT
0.622 + Y

0.002167PY 0.002167yP 0.002167p

Volumetric humidity Yv (kg⋅m−3) Yv =  Yv =  Yv =  1
(0.622 + Y)T T T

TERMINOLOGY Volumetric humidity Yv Mass of vapor per unit volume of gas-

vapor mixture. It is sometimes, confusingly, called the absolute
Terminology and nomenclature pertinent to psychrometry are given humidity, but it is really a vapor concentration; preferred units are
below. There is often considerable confusion between dry and wet kg/m3 or lb/ft3, but g/m3 and gr/ft3 are also used. It is inconvenient for
basis, and between mass, molar, and volumetric quantities, in both calculations because it depends on temperature and pressure and on
definitions and calculations. Dry- and wet-basis humidity are similar the units system; absolute humidity Y is always preferable for heat and
at ambient conditions but can differ significantly at elevated humidi- mass balances. It is proportional to the specific humidity (wet basis);
ties, e.g., in dryer exhaust streams. Complete interconversion formu- YV = YWρg, where ρg is the humid gas density (mass of gas-vapor mix-
las between four key humidity parameters are given in Table 12-1 for ture per unit volume, wet basis). Also
the air-water system and in Table 12-2 for a general gas-vapor system.
Definitions related to humidity, vapor pressure, saturation, and vol- MvPnv
Yv = 
ume are as follows; the most useful are absolute humidity, vapor pres- RT(ng + nv)
sure, and relative humidity.
Absolute humidity Y Mass of water (or solvent) vapor carried by Vapor pressure p Partial pressure of vapor in gas-vapor mixture,
unit mass of dry air (or other carrier gas). It is also known as the mixing and is proportional to the mole fraction of vapor; p = yP, where P = total
ratio, mass ratio, or dry-basis humidity. Preferred units are lb/lb or pressure, in the same units as p (Pa, N/m2, bar, atm, or psi). Hence
kg/kg, but g/kg and gr/lb are often used, as are ppmw and ppbw (parts
per million/billion by weight); ppmw = 106Y, ppbw = 109Y. nv
p = P
Specific humidity YW Mass of vapor per unit mass of gas-vapor mix- ng + nv
ture. Also known as mass fraction or wet-basis humidity, and much more
rarely used than dry-basis absolute humidity. YW = Y/(1 + Y); Y = YW/ Saturation vapor pressure ps Pressure exerted by pure vapor at
(1 − YW). a given temperature. When the vapor partial pressure p in the gas-
Mole ratio z Number of moles of vapor per mole of gas (dry vapor mixture at a given temperature equals the saturation vapor pres-
basis), mol/mol; z = (Mg /Mv)Y, where Mv = molecular weight of vapor sure ps at the same temperature, the air is saturated and the absolute
and Mg = molecular weight of gas. It may also be expressed as ppmv and humidity is designated the saturation humidity Ys.
ppbv (parts per million/billion by volume); ppmv = 106z, ppbv = 109z. Relative humidity RH or Ψ The partial pressure of vapor
Mole fraction y Number of moles of vapor per mole of gas-vapor divided by the saturation vapor pressure at the given temperature,
mixture (wet basis); y = z/(1 + z); z = y/(1 − y). If a mixture contains usually expressed as a percentage. Thus RH = 100p/ps.
mv kg and nv mol of vapor (e.g., water) and mg kg and ng mol of non- Percentage absolute humidity (percentage saturation) S Ratio
condensible gas (e.g., air), with mv = nvMv and mg = ngMg, then the four of absolute humidity to saturation humidity, given by S = 100Y/Ys = 100p
quantities above are defined by (P − ps)/[ps(P − p)]. It is much less commonly used than relative humidity.
Dew point Tdew, or saturation temperature Temperature at
m mv n nv which a given mixture of water vapor and air becomes saturated on
Y = v Yw =  z = v y=  cooling; i.e., the temperature at which water exerts a vapor pressure
mg mg + mv ng ng + nv equal to the partial pressure of water vapor in the given mixture.

TABLE 12-2 Interconversion Formulas for a General Gas-Vapor System

Mg, Mv = molal mass of gas and vapor, respectively; R = 8314 J/(kmol⋅K); T = temperature in kelvins (K); P = total pressure in pascals (Pa or N/m2)
Convert from: Y (or ppmw) y p Yv
Convert to:

Mvy pMv Mv
Absolute humidity (mixing ratio) Y (kg⋅kg−1) 1 Y =  Y =  Y = 
Mg(1 − Y) (P − p)Mg Mg(PMv /YvRT − 1)

Y p YvRT
Mole fraction y (mol⋅mol−1) y =  1 y=  y= 
Mv /Mg + Y P PMv

PY YvRT
Vapor pressure p (Pa) p =  p = yP 1 p= 
Mv /Mg + Y Mv

Mv PY MvyP Mvp
Volumetric humidity Yv (kg⋅ m−3) Yv =   Yv =  Yv =  1
RT Mv /Mg + Y RT RT
 PSYCHROMETRY 12-5

Humid volume v Volume in cubic meters (cubic feet) of 1 kg From Eq. (12-2), the density of dry air at 0°C (273.15 K) and 1 atm
(1 lb) of dry air and the water vapor it contains. (101,325 Pa) is 1.292 kg/m3 (0.08065 lb/ft3). Note that the density of
Saturated volume vs Humid volume when the air is saturated. moist air is always lower than that of dry air.
Terms related to heat balances are as follows: Equation (12-3) gives the humid volume of dry air at 0°C (273.15 K)
Humid heat Cs Heat capacity of unit mass of dry air and the and 1 atm as 0.774 m3/kg (12.4 ft3/lb). For moist air, humid volume is
moisture it contains. Cs = CPg + CPvY, where CPg and CPv are the heat not the reciprocal of humid gas density; v = (1 + Y)/ρg.
capacities of dry air and water vapor, respectively, and both are The saturation vapor pressure of water is given by Sonntag
assumed constant. For approximate engineering calculations at near- (1990) in pascals (N/m2) at absolute temperature T (K).
ambient temperatures, in SI units, Cs = 1 + 1.9Y kJ/(kg⋅K) and in U.S. Over water:
units, Cs = 0.24 + 0.45Y (Btu/(lb⋅°F).
Humid enthalpy H Heat content at a given temperature T of ln ps = − 6096.9385T −1 + 21.2409642 − 2.711193 × 10−2T
unit mass of dry air and the moisture it contains, relative to a datum + 1.673952 × 10−5T 2 + 2.433502 ln T (12-4a)
temperature T0, usually 0°C. As water is liquid at 0°C, the humid
enthalpy also contains a term for the latent heat of water. If heat Over ice:
capacity is invariant with temperature, H = (CPg + CPvY)(T − ln ps = −6024.5282T −1 + 29.32707 + 1.0613868 × 10−2T
T0) + λ0Y, where λ0 is the latent heat of water at 0°C, 2501 kJ/kg − 1.3198825 × 10−5T 2 − 0.49382577 ln T (12-4b)
(1075 Btu/lb). In practice, for accurate calculations, it is often easier
to obtain the vapor enthalpy Hv from steam tables, when H = Hg + Hv Simpler equations for saturation vapor pressure are the Antoine
= CPgT + Hv. equation and Magnus formula. These are slightly less accurate, but
Adiabatic saturation temperature Tas Final temperature reached easier to calculate and also easily reversible to give T in terms of p. For
by a small quantity of vapor-gas mixture into which water is evaporating. the Antoine equation, given below, coefficients for numerous other
It is sometimes called the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. solvent-gas systems are given in Poling, Prausnitz, and O’Connell, The
Wet-bulb temperature Twb Dynamic equilibrium temperature Properties of Gases and Liquids, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2000.
attained by a liquid surface from which water is evaporating into a
flowing airstream when the rate of heat transfer to the surface by con-
vection equals the rate of mass transfer away from the surface. It is C1 C1
ln pS = C0 −  T =  + C2 (12-5)
very close to the adiabatic saturation temperature for the air-water T − C2 C0 − ln pS
system, but not for most other vapor-gas systems; see later.
Values for Antoine coefficients for the air-water system are given in
CALCULATION FORMULAS Table 12-3. The standard values give vapor pressure within 0.1 per-
cent of steam tables over the range 50 to 100°C, but an error of nearly
Table 12-1 gives formulas for conversion between absolute humidity, mole 3 percent at 0 °C. The alternative coefficients give a close fit at 0 and
fraction, vapor pressure, and volumetric humidity for the air-water system, 100°C and an error of less than 1.2 percent over the intervening
and Table 12-2 does likewise for a general gas-vapor system. Where rela- range.
tionships are not included in the definitions, they are given below. The Sonntag equation strictly only applies to water vapor with no
In U.S. units, the formulas are the same except for the volumetric other gases present (i.e., in a partial vacuum). The vapor pressure of a
humidity Yv. Because of the danger of confusion with pressure units, gas mixture, e.g., water vapor in air, is given by multiplying the pure
it is recommended that in both Tables 12-1 and 12-2, Yv be calculated liquid vapor pressure by an enhancement factor f, for which various
in SI units and then converted. equations are available (see British Standard BS 1339 Part 1, 2002).
Volumetric humidity is also related to absolute humidity and humid However, the correction is typically less than 0.5 percent, except at
gas density by elevated pressures, and it is therefore usually neglected for engineer-
Y ing calculations.
Yv = YW ρg =  ρg (12-1)
1+Y

Two further useful formulas are as follows: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WET-BULB AND ADIABATIC
SATURATION TEMPERATURES
Air-water system,
General SI units, to 3 If a stream of air is intimately mixed with a quantity of water in an adi-
Parameter vapor-gas system significant figures Eq. no. abatic system, the temperature of the air will drop and its humidity
will increase. If the equilibration time or the number of transfer units
Density of approaches infinity, the air-water mixture will reach saturation. The
humid gas
(moist air)
adiabatic saturation temperature Tas is given by a heat balance
P − 0.378p

Mg Mv between the initial unsaturated vapor-gas mixture and the final satu-
ρg (kg/m3) ρg =  P − p +  p ρg =  (12-2)
RT Mg 287.1T rated mixture at thermal equilibrium:
Humid
volume v Cs (T − Tas) = λ as (Yas − Y) (12-6)
per unit
mass of
dry air RT RT 461.5T This equation has to be reversed and solved iteratively to obtain Yas
(m3/kg) v =  =  v =  (0.622 + Y) (12-3) (absolute humidity at adiabatic saturation) and hence Tas (the calcula-
Mg(P − p) P P tion is divergent in the opposite direction). Approximate direct formu-
las are available from various sources, e.g., British Standard BS 1339

1 Y
× + (2002) and Liley (Int. J. Mech. Engg. Educ. 21(2), 1993). The latent heat
Mg Mv of evaporation evaluated at the adiabatic saturation temperature is λas,

TABLE 12-3 Alternative Sets of Values for Antoine Coefficients for the Air-Water System
C0 C1 C2 C0 C1 C2
Standard values p in Pa 23.1963 3816.44 46.13 K p in mmHg 18.3036 3816.44 46.13 K
Alternative values p in Pa 23.19 3830 44.83 K p in mmHg 18.3 3830 44.87 K
12-6 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

which may be obtained from steam tables; humid heat Cs is evaluated at For calculation of wet-bulb (and adiabatic saturation) conditions,
initial humidity Y. On a psychrometric chart, the adiabatic saturation the most commonly used formula in industry is the psychrometer
process almost exactly follows a constant-enthalpy line, as the sensi- equation. This is a simple, linear formula that gives vapor pressure
ble heat given up by the gas-vapor mixture exactly balances the latent directly if the wet-bulb temperature is known, and is therefore ideal
heat of the liquid that evaporates back into the mixture. The only dif- for calculating humidity from a wet-bulb measurement using a psy-
ference is due to the sensible heat added to the water to take it from the chrometer, although the calculation of wet-bulb temperature from
datum temperature to Tas. The adiabatic saturation line differs from the humidity still requires an iteration.
constant-enthalpy line as follows, where CPL is the specific heat capacity
of the liquid: p = pwb − AP(T − Twb) (12-11)
Has − H = CPLTas(Yas − Y) (12-7) where A is the psychrometer coefficient. For the air-water system, the
following formulas based on equations given by Sonntag [Zeitschrift
Equation (12-7) is useful for calculating the adiabatic saturation line für Meteorologie, 40(5): 340–344 (1990)] may be used to give A for
for a given Tas and gives an alternative iterative method for finding Tas, Twb up to 30°C; they are based on extensive experimental data for Ass-
given T and Y; compared with Eq. (12-6), it is slightly more accurate mann psychrometers.
and converges faster, but the calculation is more cumbersome. Over water (wet-bulb temperature):
The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature attained by a fully
wetted surface, such as the wick of a wet-bulb thermometer or a A = 6.5 × 10−4(1 + 0.000944Twb) (12-12a)
droplet or wet particle undergoing drying, in contact with a flowing
unsaturated gas stream. It is regulated by the rates of vapor-phase heat Over ice (ice-bulb temperature):
and mass transfer to and from the wet bulb. Assuming mass transfer is
controlled by diffusion effects and heat transfer is purely convective: Ai = 5.72 × 10−4 (12- 12b)
h(T − Twb) = ky λ wb (Ywb − Y) (12-8) For other vapor-gas systems, A is given by
where ky is the corrected mass-transfer coefficient [kg/(m2⋅s)], h is the MgCs
heat-transfer coefficient [kW/(m2⋅K)], Ywb is the saturation mixing A=  (12-13)
ratio at twb, and λwb is the latent heat (kJ/kg) evaluated at Twb. Again, MVβλ wb
this equation must be solved iteratively to obtain Twb and Ywb.
In practice, for any practical psychrometer or wetted droplet or parti- Here β is the psychrometric coefficient for the system. As a cross-check,
cle, there is significant extra heat transfer from radiation. For an Ass- for the air-water system at 20°C wet-bulb temperature, 50°C dry-bulb
mann psychrometer at near-ambient conditions, this is approximately 10 temperature, and absolute humidity 0.002 kg/kg, Cs = (1.006 + 1.9 ×
percent. This means that any measured real value of Twb is slightly higher 0.002) = 1.01 kJ/(kg⋅K) and λwb = 2454 kJ/kg. Since Mg = 28.97 kg/kmol
than the “pure convective” value in the definition. It is often more con- and Mv = 18.02 kg/kmol, Eq. (12-12) gives A as 6.617 × 10−4/β, com-
venient to obtain wet-bulb conditions from adiabatic saturation condi- pared with Sonntag’s value of 6.653 × 10−4 at this temperature, giving a
tions (which are much easier to calculate) by the following formula: value for the psychrometric coefficient β of 0.995; that is, β ≈ 1, as
expected for the air-water system.
T − Twb T − Tas
=  β (12-9) PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS
Ywb − Y Yas − Y
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ Psychrometric charts are plots of humidity, temperature, enthalpy,
where the psychrometric ratio β = Cs ky /h and Cs is the mean value of and other useful parameters of a gas-vapor mixture. They are helpful
the humid heat over the range from Tas to T. for rapid estimates of conditions and for visualization of process oper-
The advantage of using β is that it is approximately constant over ations such as humidification and drying. They apply to a given system
normal ranges of temperature and pressure for any given pair of vapor at a given pressure, the most common of course being air-water at
and gas values. This avoids having to estimate values of heat- and atmospheric pressure. There are four types, of which the Grosvenor
mass-transfer coefficients α and ky from uncertain correlations. For and Mollier types are most widely used:
the air-water system, considering convective heat transfer alone, The Grosvenor chart plots temperature (abscissa) against
β∼1.1. In practice, there is an additional contribution from radiation, humidity (ordinate). Standard charts produced by ASHRAE and
and β is very close to 1. As a result, the wet-bulb and adiabatic satura- other groups, or by computer programs, are usually of this type.
tion temperatures differ by less than 1°C for the air-water system at The saturation line is a curve from bottom left to top right, and
near-ambient conditions (0 to 100°C, Y < 0.1 kg/kg) and can be taken curves for constant relative humidity are approximately parallel to
as equal for normal calculation purposes. Indeed, typically the Twb this. Lines from top left to bottom right may be of either constant
measured by a practical psychrometer or at a wetted solid surface is wet-bulb temperature or constant enthalpy, depending on the
closer to Tas than to the “pure convective” value of Twb. chart. The two are not quite identical, so if only one is shown, cor-
However, for nearly all other vapor-gas systems, particularly for rection factors are required for the other parameter. Examples are
organic solvents, β < 1, and hence Twb > Tas. This is illustrated in Fig. shown in Figs. 12-1 (SI units), 12-2a (U.S. Customary System units,
12-5. For these systems the psychrometric ratio may be obtained by medium temperature), and 12-2b (U.S. Customary System units,
determining h/ky from heat- and mass-transfer analogies such as the high temperature).
Chilton-Colburn analogy. The basic form of the equation is The Bowen chart is a plot of enthalpy (abscissa) against humidity
(ordinate). It is convenient to be able to read enthalpy directly, espe-

Sc n
β =  = Le−n (12-10) cially for near-adiabatic convective drying where the operating line
Pr approximately follows a line of constant enthalpy. However, it is very
Sc is the Schmidt number for mass-transfer properties, Pr is the Prandtl difficult to read accurately because the key information is compressed
number for heat-transfer properties, and Le is the Lewis number κ /(Csρg in a narrow band near the saturation line. See Cook and DuMont,
D), where κ is the gas thermal conductivity and D is the diffusion coeffi- Process Drying Practice, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991, chap. 6.
cient for the vapor through the gas. Experimental and theoretical values The Mollier chart plots humidity (abscissa) against enthalpy (lines
of the exponent n range from 0.56 [Bedingfield and Drew, Ind. Eng. sloping diagonally from top left to bottom right). Lines of constant tem-
Chem, 42:1164 (1950)] to 32 = 0.667 [Chilton and Colburn, Ind. Eng. perature are shallow curves at a small slope to the horizontal. The chart
Chem., 26:1183 (1934)]. A detailed discussion is given by Keey (1992). is nonorthogonal (no horizontal lines) and hence a little difficult to plot
Values of β for any system can be estimated from the specific heats, diffu- and interpret initially. However, the area of greatest interest is expanded,
sion coefficients, and other data given in Sec. 2. See the example below. and they are therefore easy to read accurately. They tend to cover a wider
 PSYCHROMETRY 12-7

FIG. 12-1 Grosvenor psychrometric chart for the air-water system at standard atmospheric pressure, 101,325 Pa, SI units.
(Courtesy Carrier Corporation.)

temperature range than Grosvenor charts, so are useful for dryer calcu- boiling point, e.g., in pulp and paper drying. See Soininen, Drying
lations. The slope of the enthalpy lines is normally −1/λ, where λ is the Technol. 4(2): 295–305 (1986).
latent heat of evaporation. Adiabatic saturation lines are not quite paral- Figure 12-4 shows a psychrometric chart for combustion products
lel to constant-enthalpy lines and are slightly curved; the deviation in air. The thermodynamic properties of moist air are given in Table
increases as humidity increases. Figure 12-3 shows an example. 12-1. Figure 12-4 shows a number of useful additional relationships,
The Salen-Soininen perspectively transformed chart is a triangu- e.g., specific volume and latent heat variation with temperature. Accu-
lar plot. It is tricky to plot and read, but covers a much wider range of rate figures should always be obtained from physical properties tables
humidity than do the other types of chart (up to 2 kg/kg) and is thus or by calculation using the formulas given earlier, and these charts
very effective for high-humidity mixtures and calculations near the should only be used as a quick check for verification.
12-8 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

In the past, psychrometric charts have been used to perform quite qa = heat added to system, Btu/lb dry air
precise calculations. To do this, additive corrections are often required qr = heat removed from system, Btu/lb dry air
for enthalpy of added water or ice, and for variations in barometric pres-
sure from the standard level (101,325 Pa, 14.696 lbf/in2, 760 mmHg, Subscripts 1, 2, 3, etc., indicate entering and subsequent states.
29.921 inHg). It is preferable to use formulas, which give an accurate fig-
ure at any set of conditions. Psychrometric charts and tables can be used Example 1: Determination of Moist Air Properties Find the prop-
erties of moist air when the dry-bulb temperature is 80°F and the wet-bulb tem-
as a rough cross-check that the result has been calculated correctly. Table perature is 67°F.
12-4 gives values of saturation humidity, specific volume, enthalpy, and Solution: Read directly from Fig. 12-2a (Fig. 12-6a shows the solution dia-
entropy of saturated moist air at selected conditions. Below the freezing grammatically).
point, these become virtually identical to the values for dry air, as satura-
tion humidity is very low. For pressure corrections, an altitude increase of Moisture content H = 78 gr/lb dry air
approximately 900 ft gives a pressure decrease of 1 inHg (0.034 bar). For = 0.011 lb water/lb dry air
a recorded wet-bulb temperature of 50°F (10°C), this gives an increase Enthalpy at saturation h′ = 31.6 Btu/lb dry air
in humidity of 1.9 gr/lb (0.00027 kg/kg) and the enthalpy increases by Enthalpy deviation D = −0.1 Btu/lb dry air
0.29 Btu/lb (0.68 kJ/kg). This correction increases roughly proportion-
True enthalpy h = 31.5 Btu/lb dry air
ately for further changes in pressure, but climbs sharply as wet-bulb tem-
perature is increased; when Twb reaches 100°F (38°C), ∆Y = 11.2 gr/lb Specific volume v = 13.8 ft3/lb dry air
(0.0016 kg/kg) and ∆H = 1.77 Btu/lb (4.12 kJ/kg). Equivalent, more Relative humidity = 51 percent
detailed tables in SI units can be found in the ASHRAE Handbook. Dew point td = 60.3°F
Examples Illustrating Use of Psychrometric Charts In these
examples the following nomenclature is used: Example 2: Air Heating Air is heated by a steam coil from 30°F dry-bulb
temperature and 80 percent relative humidity to 75°F dry-bulb temperature. Find
t = dry-bulb temperatures, °F the relative humidity, wet-bulb temperature, and dew point of the heated air.
tw = wet-bulb temperature, °F Determine the quantity of heat added per pound of dry air.
td = dewpoint temperature, °F Solution: Reading directly from the psychrometric chart (Fig. 12-2a),
H = moisture content, lb water/lb dry air Relative humidity = 15 percent
∆H = moisture added to or rejected from the airstream, Wet-bulb temperature = 51.5°F
lb water/lb dry air Dew point = 25.2°F
h′ = enthalpy at saturation, Btu/lb dry air
D = enthalpy deviation, Btu/lb dry air The enthalpy of the inlet air is obtained from Fig. 12-2a as h1 = h′1 + D1 =
h = h′ + D = true enthalpy, Btu/lb dry air 10.1 + 0.06 = 10.16 Btu/lb dry air; at the exit, h2 = h′2 + D2 = 21.1 − 0.1 = 21 Btu/lb
hw = enthalpy of water added to or rejected from system, Btu/lb dry air. The heat added equals the enthalpy difference, or
dry air qa = ∆h = h2 − h1 = 21 − 10.16 = 10.84 Btu/lb dry air

FIG. 12-2a Grosvenor psychrometric chart (medium temperature) for the air-water system at standard atmospheric pressure, 29.92 inHg,
U.S. Customary units. (Courtesy Carrier Corporation.)
 PSYCHROMETRY 12-9

FIG. 12-2b Grosvenor psychrometric chart (high-temperature) for the air-water system at standard atmospheric pres-
sure, 29.92 inHg, U.S. Customary units. (Source: Carrier Corporation.)

If the enthalpy deviation is ignored, the heat added qa is ∆h = 21.1 − 10.1 = 11 enters at 70°F. Determine exit dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature,
Btu/lb dry air, or the result is 1.5 percent high. Figure 12-6b shows the heating change in enthalpy of the air, and quantity of moisture added per pound of
path on the psychrometric chart. dry air.
Solution: Figure 12-6c shows the path on a psychrometric chart. The leav-
Example 3: Evaporative Cooling Air at 95°F dry-bulb temperature ing dry-bulb temperature is obtained directly from Fig. 12-2a as 72.2°F. Since
and 70°F wet-bulb temperature contacts a water spray, where its relative humid- the spray water enters at the wet-bulb temperature of 70°F and there is no heat
ity is increased to 90 percent. The spray water is recirculated; makeup water added to or removed from it, this is by definition an adiabatic process and there
12-10 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

FIG. 12-3 Mollier psychrometric chart for the air-water system at standard atmospheric pressure,
101,325 Pa SI units, plots humidity (abscissa) against enthalpy (lines sloping diagonally from top left to
bottom right). (Source: Aspen Technology.)

will be no change in wet-bulb temperature. The only change in enthalpy is that Exit enthalpy h2 = h′2 + D2 = 10.1 + 0.06
from the heat content of the makeup water. This can be demonstrated as fol- = 10.16 Btu/lb dry air
lows:
Inlet moisture H1 = 78 gr/lb dry air
Inlet moisture H1 = 70 gr/lb dry air
Exit moisture H2 = 19 gr/lb dry air
Exit moisture H2 = 107 gr/lb dry air
Moisture rejected ∆H = 59 gr/lb dry air
∆H = 37 gr/lb dry air
Enthalpy of rejected moisture = −1.26 Btu/lb dry air (from small
Inlet enthalpy h1 = h′1 + D1 = 34.1 − 0.22 diagram of Fig. 12-2a)
= 33.88 Btu/lb dry air Cooling load qr = 31.52 − 10.16 + 1.26
Exit enthalpy h2 = h′2 + D2 = 34.1 − 0.02 = 22.62 Btu/lb dry air
= 34.08 Btu/lb dry air
Enthalpy of added water hw = 0.2 Btu/lb dry air (from small diagram, Note that if the enthalpy deviations were ignored, the calculated cooling load
37 gr at 70°F) would be about 5 percent low.
Then qa = h2 − h1 + hw
= 34.08 − 33.88 + 0.2 = 0 Example 5: Cooling Tower Determine water consumption and amount
of heat dissipated per 1000 ft3/min of entering air at 90°F dry-bulb temperature
Example 4: Cooling and Dehumidification Find the cooling load per and 70°F wet-bulb temperature when the air leaves saturated at 110°F and the
pound of dry air resulting from infiltration of room air at 80°F dry-bulb temper- makeup water is at 75°F.
ature and 67°F wet-bulb temperature into a cooler maintained at 30°F dry-bulb Solution: The path followed is shown in Fig. 12-6e.
and 28°F wet-bulb temperature, where moisture freezes on the coil, which is Exit moisture H2 = 416 gr/lb dry air
maintained at 20°F.
Inlet moisture H1 = 78 gr/lb dry air
Solution: The path followed on a psychrometric chart is shown in Fig. 12-6d.
Moisture added ∆H = 338 gr/lb dry air
Inlet enthalpy h1 = h′1 + D1 = 31.62 − 0.1 Enthalpy of added moisture hw = 2.1 Btu/lb dry air (from small diagram
= 31.52 Btu/lb dry air of Fig. 12-2b)
 PSYCHROMETRY 12-11

FIG. 12-4 Grosvenor psychrometric chart for air and flue gases at high temperatures, molar units [Hatta, Chem. Metall.
Eng., 37:64 (1930)].

TABLE 12-4 Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Air (U.S. Customary Units, at Standard Atmospheric Pressure, 29.921 inHg)
Condensed water
Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy, Entropy,
Saturation ft3/lb dry air Btu/lb dry air Btu/(°F⋅lb dry air) Enthalpy, Btu/ Vapor
Temp. humidity Btu/lb (lb⋅°F) pressure, inHg Temp.
T, °F Hs va vas vs ha has hs sa sas ss hw sw ps T,°F
−150 6.932 × 10−9 7.775 .000 7.775 36.088 .000 36.088 0.09508 .00000 0.09508 218.77 0.4800 3.301 × 10−6 −150
−100 9.772 × 10−7 9.046 .000 9.046 24.037 .001 24.036 0.05897 .00000 0.05897 201.23 0.4277 4.666 × 10−5 −100
−50 4.163 × 10−5 10.313 .001 10.314 12.012 .043 11.969 0.02766 .00012 0.02754 181.29 0.3758 1.991 × 10−3 −50
0 7.872 × 10−4
11.578 .015 11.593 0.000 .835 0.835 0.00000 .00192 0.00192 158.93 0.3244 0.037645 × 10−2 0
10 1.315 × 10−3 11.831 .025 11.856 2.402 1.401 3.803 .00518 .00314 .00832 154.17 0.3141 0.062858 10
20 2.152 × 10−3 12.084 .042 12.126 4.804 2.302 7.106 .01023 .00504 .01527 149.31 0.3039 0.10272 20
30 3.454 × 10−3 12.338 .068 12.406 7.206 3.709 10.915 .01519 .00796 .02315 144.36 0.2936 0.16452 30
32 3.788 × 10−3 12.388 .075 12.463 7.686 4.072 11.758 .01617 .00870 .02487 143.36 0.2916 0.18035 32
32* 3.788 × 10−3 12.388 .075 12.463 7.686 4.072 11.758 .01617 .00870 .02487 0.04 0.0000 0.18037 32*
40 5.213 × 10−3 12.590 .105 12.695 9.608 5.622 15.230 .02005 .01183 .03188 8.09 .0162 .24767 40
50 7.658 × 10−3 12.843 .158 13.001 12.010 8.291 20.301 .02481 .01711 .04192 18.11 .0361 .36240 50
60 1.108 × 10−2 13.096 .233 13.329 14.413 12.05 26.46 .02948 .02441 .05389 28.12 .0555 .52159 60
70 1.582 × 10−2 13.348 .339 13.687 16.816 17.27 34.09 .03405 .03437 .06842 38.11 .0746 .73915 70
80 2.233 × 10−2 13.601 0.486 14.087 19.221 24.47 43.69 0.03854 0.04784 0.08638 48.10 0.0933 1.0323 80
90 3.118 × 10−2 13.853 .692 14.545 21.625 34.31 55.93 .04295 .06596 .10890 58.08 .1116 1.4219 90
100 4.319 × 10−2 14.106 .975 15.081 24.029 47.70 71.73 .04729 .09016 .13745 68.06 .1296 1.9333 100
110 5.944 × 10−2 14.359 1.365 15.724 26.434 65.91 92.34 .05155 .1226 .1742 78.03 .1472 2.5966 110
120 8.149 × 10−2 14.611 1.905 16.516 28.841 90.70 119.54 .05573 .1659 .2216 88.01 .1646 3.4474 120
130 0.1116 14.864 2.652 17.516 31.248 124.7 155.9 .05985 .2245 .2844 98.00 .1817 4.5272 130
140 0.1534 15.117 3.702 18.819 33.655 172.0 205.7 .06390 .3047 .3686 107.99 .1985 5.8838 140
150 0.2125 15.369 5.211 20.580 36.063 239.2 275.3 .06787 .4169 .4848 117.99 .2150 7.5722 150
160 0.2990 15.622 7.446 23.068 38.472 337.8 376.3 .07179 .5793 .6511 128.00 .2313 9.6556 160
170 0.4327 15.874 10.938 26.812 40.882 490.6 531.5 .07565 .8273 .9030 138.01 .2473 12.203 170
180 0.6578 16.127 16.870 32.997 43.292 748.5 791.8 .07946 1.240 1.319 148.03 .2631 15.294 180
190 1.099 16.379 28.580 44.959 45.704 1255 1301 .08320 2.039 2.122 158.07 .2786 19.017 190
200 2.295 16.632 60.510 77.142 48.119 2629 2677 .08689 4.179 4.266 168.11 .2940 23.468 200
NOTE: Compiled by John A. Goff and S. Gratch. See also Keenan and Kaye. Thermodynamic Properties of Air, Wiley, New York, 1945. Enthalpy of dry air taken as
zero at 0°F. Enthalpy of liquid water taken as zero at 32°F.
To convert British thermal units per pound to joules per kilogram, multiply by 2326; to convert British thermal units per pound dry air-degree Fahrenheit to joules
per kilogram-kelvin, multiply by 4186.8; and to convert cubic feet per pound to cubic meters per kilogram, multiply by 0.0624.
*Entrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium with undercooled liquid.
12-12 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
200
180 2% 5% 10%
180
160
160
140 20%
140 Dry bulb
120

120 40%
100
Temperature, °C
Enthalpy, kJ/kg dry gas

80 100 60%

60 80 100%
50 Wet
60 bulb
40 45
Adiabatic saturation
40
20 40 35
30
25 Adiabatic-saturation temperature, °C
0 20 20
15
10
5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Humidity, g vapor/kg dry gas

FIG. 12-5 Mollier chart showing changes in Twb during an adiabatic saturation process for an organic system (nitrogen-toluene).

If greater precision is desired, hw can be calculated as Heat dissipated = h2 − h1 − hw

hw = (338/7000)(1)(75 − 32) = 92.34 − 33.92 − 2.08
= 2.08 Btu/lb dry air = 56.34 Btu/lb dry air
Enthalpy of inlet air h1 = h′1 + D1 = 34.1 − 0.18 Specific volume of inlet air = 14.1 ft3/lb dry air
= 33.92 Btu/lb dry air (1000)(56.34)
Total heat dissipated =  = 3990 Btu/min
Enthalpy of exit air h2 = h′2 + D2 = 92.34 + 0 14.1
= 92.34 Btu/lb dry air
Example 6: Recirculating Dryer A dryer is removing 100 lb water/h
from the material being dried. The air entering the dryer has a dry-bulb temperature
of 180°F and a wet-bulb temperature of 110°F. The air leaves the dryer at 140°F. A
portion of the air is recirculated after mixing with room air having a dry-bulb tem-
perature of 75°F and a relative humidity of 60 percent. Determine the quantity of
air required, recirculation rate, and load on the preheater if it is assumed that the sys-
tem is adiabatic. Neglect heatup of the feed and of the conveying equipment.
Solution: The path followed is shown in Fig. 12-6f.
Humidity of room air H1 = 0.0113 lb/lb dry air
Humidity of air entering dryer H3 = 0.0418 lb/lb dry air

FIG. 12-6a Diagram of psychrometric chart showing the properties of moist air. FIG. 12-6b Heating process
 PSYCHROMETRY 12-13

Humidity of air leaving dryer H4 = 0.0518 lb/lb dry air

Enthalpy of room air h1 = 30.2 − 0.3
= 29.9 Btu/lb dry air
Enthalpy of entering air h3 = 92.5 − 1.3
= 91.2 Btu/lb dry air
Enthalpy of leaving air h4 = 92.5 − 0.55
= 91.95 Btu/lb dry air
Quantity of air required is 100/(0.0518 − 0.0418) = 10,000 lb dry air/h. At the
dryer inlet the specific volume is 17.1 ft 3/lb dry air. Air volume is (10,000)(17.1)/
60 = 2850 ft 3/min. Fraction exhausted is

X 0.0518 − 0.0418
FIG. 12-6c Spray or evaporative cooling.  =  = 0.247
Wa 0.0518 − 0.0113
where X = quantity of fresh air and Wa = total airflow. Thus 75.3 percent of
the air is recirculated. Load on the preheater is obtained from an enthalpy
balance
qa = 10,000(91.2) − 2470(29.9) − 7530(91.95)
= 146,000 Btu/h

PSYCHROMETRIC CALCULATIONS
Table 12-5 gives the steps required to perform the most common
humidity calculations, using the formulas given earlier.
Methods (i) to (iii) are used to find the humidity and dew point
from temperature readings in a wet- and dry-bulb psychrometer.
Method (iv) is used to find the humidity and dew point from a rela-
tive humidity measurement at a given temperature.
Methods (v) and (vi) give the adiabatic saturation and wet-bulb
FIG. 12-6d Cooling and dehumidifying process. temperatures from absolute humidity (or relative humidity) at a
given temperature.
Method (vii) gives the absolute and relative humidity from a dew
point measurement.
Method (viii) allows the calculation of all the main parameters if the
absolute humidity is known, e.g., from a mass balance on a
process plant.
Method (ix) converts the volumetric form of absolute humidity to
the mass form (mixing ratio).
Method (x) allows the dew point to be corrected for pressure. The
basis is that the mole fraction y = p/P is the same for a given
mixture composition at all values of total pressure P. In particu-
lar, the dew point measured in a compressed air duct can be
converted to the dew point at atmospheric pressure, from
which the humidity can be calculated. It is necessary to check
that the temperature change associated with compression or
expansion does not bring the dry-bulb temperature to a point
FIG. 12-6e Cooling tower. where condensation can occur. Also, at these elevated pres-
sures, it is strongly advisable to apply the enhancement factor
(see BS 1339).
Psychrometric Software and Tables As an alternative to using
charts or individual calculations, lookup tables have been published
for many years for common psychrometric conversions, e.g., to find
relative humidity given the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures.
These were often very extensive. To give precise coverage of Twb in
1°C or 0.1°C steps, a complete table would be needed for each indi-
vidual dry-bulb temperature.
Software is available that will perform calculations of humidity
parameters for any point value, and for plotting psychrometric charts.
Moreover, British Standard BS 1339 Part 2 (2006) provides functions
as macros which can be embedded into any Excel-compatible spread-
sheet. Users can therefore generate their own tables for any desired
combination of parameters as well as perform point calculations.
Hence, the need for published lookup tables has been eliminated.
However, this software, like the previous lookup tables, is only valid
for the air-water system. For other vapor-gas systems, the equations
given in previous sections must be used.
Software may be effectively used to draw psychrometric charts or
perform calculations. A wide variety of other psychrometric software
FIG. 12-6f Drying process with recirculation. may be found on the Internet, but quality varies considerably; the
12-14 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

TABLE 12-5 Calculation Methods for Various Humidity Parameters

Known Required Method
i. T, Twb Y Find saturation vapor pressure pwb at wet-bulb temperature Twb from Eq. (12-4). Find actual vapor
pressure p at dry-bulb temperature T from psychrometer equation (12-11). Find mixing ratio Y by
conversion from p (Table 12-1).
ii. T, Twb Tdp, dv Find p if necessary by method (i) above. Find dew point Tdp from Eq. (12-4) by calculating the T
corresponding to p [iteration required; Antoine equation (12-5) gives a first estimate]. Calculate volumetric
humidity Yv, using Eq. (12-1).
iii. T, Twb %RH (ψ) Use method (i) to find p. Find saturation vapor pressure ps at T from Eq. (12-4). Now relative humidity
%RH = 100p/ps.
iv. T, %RH Y, dv Find saturation vapor pressure ps at T from Eq. (12-4). Actual vapor pressure p = ps(%RH/100). Convert to
Y (Table 12-1). Find Yv from Eq. (12-1).
v. T, %RH (or T, Y) Tas Use method (iv) to find p and Y. Make an initial estimate of Tas, say, using a psychrometric chart. Calculate
Yas from Eq. (12-6). Find p from Table 12-1 and Tas from Antoine equation (12-5). Repeat until iteration
converges (e.g., using spreadsheet).
Alternative method: Evaluate enthalpy Hest at these conditions and H at initial conditions. Find Has from
Eq. (12-7) and compare with Hest. Make new estimate of Yas which would give Hest equal to Has. Find p
from Table 12-1 and Tas from Antoine equation (12-5). Reevaluate Has from Eq. (12-7) and iterate to refine
value of Yas.
vi. T, %RH (or T, Y) Twb Use method (iv) to find p and Y. Make an initial estimate of Twb, e.g., using a psychrometric chart, or
(for air-water system) by estimating adiabatic saturation temperature Tas. Find pwb from psychrometer
equation (12-11). Calculate new value of Twb corresponding to pwb by reversing Eq. (12-4) or using the
Antoine equation (12-5). Repeat last two steps to solve iteratively for Twb (computer program is preferable
method).
vii. T, Tdp Y, %RH Find saturation vapor pressure at dew point Tdp from Eq. (12-4); this is the actual vapor pressure p. Find Y
from Table 12-1. Find saturation vapor pressure ps at dry-bulb temperature T from Eq. (12-4). Now %RH =
100p/ps.
viii. T, Y Tdp, dv, %RH, Twb Find p by conversion from Y (Table 12-1). Then use method (ii), (iii), or (v) as appropriate.
ix. T, Yv Y Find specific humidity YW from Eqs. (12-2) and (12-1). Convert to absolute humidity Y using Y = YW(1 − YW).
x. Tdp at P1 (elevated) Tdp at P2 (ambient) Find vapor pressure p1 at Tdp and P1 from Eq. (12-4), Convert to vapor pressure p2 at new pressure P2 by
the formula p2 = p1P2/P1. Find new dew point Tdp from Eq. (12-4) by calculating the T corresponding to p2
[iteration required as in (ii)].

source and basis of the calculation methods should be carefully upon standards. It calculates all key psychrometric parameters and can
checked before using the results. In particular, most methods only produce a wide range of psychrometric tables. Users can embed the
apply for the air-water system at moderate temperatures (below functions in their own spreadsheets to do psychrometric calculations.
100°C). For high-temperature dryer calculations, only software stated Air-water system only (although BS 1339 Part 1 text gives full calcula-
as suitable for this range should be used. tion methods for other gas-vapor systems). SI (metric) units. It does
Reliable sources include the following: not plot psychrometric charts.
1. The American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE): 7. Akton Associates provides digital versions of psychrometry charts.
http://www.asae.org. Psychrometric data in chart and equation form in
both SI and English units. Charts for temperature ranges of −35 to Psychrometric Calculations—Worked Examples
600°F in USCS units and −10 to 120°C in SI units. Equations and cal-
Example 7: Determination of Moist Air Properties An air-water
culation procedures. Air-water system and Grosvenor (temperature- mixture is found from the heat and mass balance to be at 60°C (333 K) and 0.025
humidity) charts only. kg/kg (25 g/kg) absolute humidity. Calculate the other main parameters for the
2. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- mixture. Take atmospheric pressure as 101,325 Pa.
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE): http://www.ashrae.org. Psy- Method: Consult item (vi) in Table 12-5 for the calculation methodology.
chrometric Analysis CD with energy calculations and creation of From the initial terminology section, specific humidity YW = 0.02439 kg/kg,
custom charts at virtually any altitude or pressure. Detailed scientific mole ratio z = 0.0402 kmol/kmol, mole fraction y = 0.03864 kmol/kmol.
basis given in ASHRAE Handbook. Air-water system and Grosvenor From Table 12-1, vapor pressure p = 3915 Pa (0.03915 bar) and volumetric
humidity Yv = 0.02547 kg/m3. Dew point is given by the temperature corre-
charts only. sponding to p at saturation. From the reversed Antoine equation (12-5),
3. Carrier Corporation, a United Technologies Company: http:// Tdp = 3830/(23.19 − ln 3915) + 44.83 = 301.58 K = 28.43°C.
www.training.carrier.com. PSYCH+, computerized psychrometric Relative humidity is the ratio of actual vapor pressure to saturation vapor
chart and instructional guide, including design of air conditioning pressure at dry-bulb temperature. From the Antoine equation (12-5), ps = exp
processes and/or cycles. Printed psychrometric charts also supplied. [23.19 − 3830/(333.15 − 44.83)] = 20,053 Pa (new coefficients), or ps = exp
Air-water system and Grosvenor charts only. [23.1963 − 3816.44/(333.15 − 46.13)] = 19,921 Pa (old coefficients).
4. Linric Company: http://www.linric.com. PsycPro generates cus- From Sonntag equation (12-4), ps = 19,948 Pa; difference from Antoine is less
tom psychrometric charts in English (USCS) or metric (SI) units, than 0.5 percent. Relative humidity = 100 × 3915/19,948 = 19.6 percent. From a
psychrometric chart, e.g., Fig. 12-1, a humidity of 0.025 kg/kg at T = 60°C lies
based on ASHRAE formulas. Air-water system and Grosvenor charts very close to the adiabatic saturation line for 35°C. Hence a good first estimate
only. for Tas and Twb will be 35°C. Refining the estimate of Twb by using the psy-
5. Aspen Technology: http://www.aspentech.com. PSYCHIC, one of chrometer equation and iterating gives
the Process Tools, generates customized psychrometric charts. Mollier pwb = 3915 + 6.46 × 10−4 (1.033)(101,325) (60 − 35) = 5605
and Bowen enthalpy-humidity charts are produced in addition to
Grosvenor. Any gas-vapor system can be handled as well as air-water; From the Antoine equation,
data supplied for common organic solvents. Can draw operating lines Twb = 3830/(23.19 − ln 5605) + 44.83 = 307.9 K = 34.75°C
and spot points, as shown in Fig. 12-7. Second iteration:
6. British Standards Institution: http://www.bsonline.bsi-global. pwb = 3915 + 6.46 × 10−4 (1.033)(101,325)(60 − 34.75) = 5622
com. British Standard BS 1339 Part 2 is a spreadsheet-based software Twb = 307.96 K = 34.81°C.
program providing functions based on latest internationally agreed To a sensible level of precision, Twb = 34.8°C.
 PSYCHROMETRY 12-15

Mollier Chart for Nitrogen/Acetone at 10 kPa

140 160 180 200 220 240 260

120

80
100

80 60

60

Gas Temperature (°C)

40
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

40

20
20

0 0

−20
−20

−40
−40
−60

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Gas Humidity

Boiling Pt Sat Line Adiabat Sat

Triple Pt Rel Humid Spot Point
FIG. 12-7 Mollier psychrometric chart (from PSYCHIC software program) showing determination of adiabatic saturation temperature plots humidity
(abscissa) against enthalpy (lines sloping diagonally from top left to bottom right). (Courtesy AspenTech.)

From Table 12-1 Ywb = 5622 × 0.622/(101,325 − 5622) = 0.0365(4) kg/kg. From the Antoine equation (12-5), using standard coefficients (which give a bet-
Enthalpy of original hot air is approximately given by H = (CPg + CPv Y) ter fit in this temperature range), ps = exp[23.1963 − 3816.44/(343.15 − 46.13)] =
(T − T0) + λ0Y = (1 + 1.9 × 0.025) × 60 + 2501 × 0.025 = 62.85 + 62.5 = 125.35 31,170 Pa. Actual vapor pressure p = 25 percent of 31,170 = 7792 Pa (0.078
kJ/kg. A more accurate calculation can be obtained from steam tables; CPg = bar).
1.005 kJ/(kg⋅K) over this range, Hv at 60°C = 2608.8 kJ/kg, H = 60.3 + 65.22 = From Table 12-1, absolute humidity Y = 0.05256 kg/kg and volumetric
125.52 kJ/kg. humidity Yv = 0.0492 kg/m3. From the terminology section, mole fraction y =
Calculation (v), method 1: if Tas = 34.8, from Eq. (12-6), with Cs= 1 + 1.9 × 0.025 0.0779 kmol/kmol, mole ratio z = 0.0845 kmol/kmol, specific humidity Yw =
= 1.048 kJ/(kg⋅K), λas = 2419 kJ/kg (steam tables), Yas = 0.025 + 1.048/2419 (60 − 0.04994 kg/kg.
34.8) = 0.0359(2) kg/kg. From Table 12-1, p = 5530 Pa. From the Antoine equa-
tion (12-5), Tas = 3830/(23.19 − ln 5530) + 44.83 = 307.65 K = 34.52°C. Repeat until Dew point Tdp = 3816.44/(23.1963 − ln 7792) + 46.13 = 314.22 K = 41.07°C.
iteration converges (e.g., using spreadsheet). Final value Tas = 34.57°C, Yas = 0.0360
kg/kg.
Enthalpy check: From Eq. (12-7), Has − H = 4.1868 × 34.57 × (0.036 − 0.025) = From the psychrometric chart, a humidity of 0.0526 kg/kg at T = 70°C falls just
1.59 kJ/kg. So Has = 127.11 kJ/kg. Compare Has calculated from enthalpies; Hg at below the adiabatic saturation line for 45°C. Estimate Tas and Twb as 45°C.
Refining the estimate of Twb by using the psychrometer equation and iterating
34.57°C = 2564 kJ/kg, Hest = 34.90 + 92.29 = 127.19 kJ/kg. The iteration has con-
gives
verged successfully.
Note that Tas is 0.2°C lower than Twb and Yas is 0.0005 kg/kg lower than Ywb,
both negligible differences. pwb = 7792 + 6.46 × 10−4 (1.0425)(105)(70 − 45) = 9476
From the Antoine equation,
Example 8: Calculation of Humidity and Wet-Bulb Condi- Twb = 3816.44/(23.1963 − ln 9476) + 46.13 = 317.96 K = 44.81°C
tion A dryer exhaust which can be taken as an air-water mixture at 70°C
(343.15 K) is measured to have a relative humidity of 25 percent. Calculate Second iteration (taking Twb = 44.8):
the humidity parameters and wet-bulb conditions for the mixture. Pressure is pwb = 9489 Twb = 317.99 K = 44.84°C
1 bar (100,000 Pa).
Method: Consult item (v) in Table 12-5 for the calculation methodology. The iteration has converged.
12-16 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

Example 9: Calculation of Psychrometric Properties of Acetone/ In a similar way, adiabatic saturation temperature can be calculated from Eq.
Nitrogen Mixture A mixture of nitrogen N2 and acetone CH3COCH3 is (12-6) by taking the first guess as −40°C and assuming the humid heat to be 1.05
found from the heat and mass balance to be at 60°C (333 K) and 0.025 kg/kg (25 kJ/(kg ⋅K) including the vapor:
g/kg) absolute humidity (same conditions as in Example 7). Calculate the other
main parameters for the mixture. The system is under vacuum at 100 mbar (0.1 bar,
Cs
10,000 Pa). Yas = Y +  (T − Tas)
Additional data for acetone and nitrogen are obtained from The Proper- λas
ties of Gases and Liquids (Prausnitz et al.). Molecular weight (molal mass)
Mg for nitrogen = 28.01 kg/kmol; Mv for acetone = 58.08 kg/kmol. Antoine

1.05
coefficients for acetone are 16.6513, 2940.46, and 35.93, with ps in mmHg = 0.025 +  (60 + 40) = 0.235 kg/kg
501.1
and T in K. Specific heat capacity of nitrogen is approximately 1.014
kJ/(kg ⋅K). Latent heat of acetone is 501.1 kJ/kg at the boiling point. The psy-
chrometric ratio for the nitrogen-acetone system is not given, but the diffu- From Table 12-2,
sion cofficient D can be roughly evaluated as 1.34 × 10−5, compared to 2.20 ×
10−5 for water in air. As the psychrometric ratio is linked to D 2/3, it can be pas = 1018 Pa = 7.63 mmHg
estimated as 0.72, which is in line with tabulated values for similar organic From Antoine,
solvents (e.g., propanol).
Method: Consult item (vi) in Table 12-5 for the calculation methodology. Tas = 237.05 K = −36.1°C
From the terminology, specific humidity YW = 0.02439 kg/kg, the same as in Second iteration:
Example 7. Mole ratio z = 0.0121 kmol/kmol, mole fraction y = 0.01191
kmol/kmol—lower than in Example 7 because molecular weights are different. Yas = 0.025 + (1.05/501.1)(60 + 36.1) = 0.226 kg/kg pas = 984 Pa = 7.38 mmHg
From the Antoine equation (12-5), From Antoine,
C1 2940.46 Tas = 236.6 K = −36.6°C
ln ps = C0 −  = 16.6513 − 
T − C2 T − 35.93 This has converged. A more accurate figure could be obtained with more
refined estimates for Cs and λwb.
Since T = 60°C, ln ps = 6.758, ps = 861.0 mmHg. Hence ps = 1.148 bar = 1.148 ×
105 Pa. The saturation vapor pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure; this
means that acetone at 60°C must be above its normal boiling point. Check; Tbp
for acetone = 56.5°C. MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
Vapor pressure p = yP = 0.01191 × 10,000 = 119.1 Pa (0.001191 bar)—much Dew Point Method The dew point of wet air is measured
lower than before because of the reduced total pressure. This is 0.89 mmHg.
Volumetric humidity Yv = 0.0025 kg/m3—again substantially lower than at 1 atm. directly by observing the temperature at which moisture begins to
Dew point is the temperature where ps equals p′. From the reversed Antoine form on an artificially cooled, polished surface.
equation (12-5), Optical dew point hygrometers employing this method are the most
commonly used fundamental technique for determining humidity.
C1 Uncertainties in temperature measurement of the polished surface, gra-
T =  + C2
C0 − ln ps dients across the surface, and the appearance or disappearance of fog
have been much reduced in modern instruments. Automatic mirror cool-
so ing, e.g., thermoelectric, is more accurate and reliable than older methods
2940 using evaporation of a low-boiling solvent such as ether, or external
Tdp =  + 35.93 = 211.27 K = −61.88°C
16.6513 − ln 0.89 coolants (e.g., vaporization of solid carbon dioxide or liquid air, or water
cooling). Contamination effects have also been reduced or compensated
This very low dew point is due to the low boiling point of acetone and the low
concentration. for, but regular recalibration is still required, at least once a year.
Relative humidity is the ratio of actual vapor pressure to saturation vapor Wet-Bulb Method In the past, probably the most commonly used
pressure at dry-bulb temperature. So p = 119.1 Pa, ps = 1.148 × 105 Pa, RH = method for determining the humidity of a gas stream was the measure-
0.104 percent—again very low. ment of wet- and dry-bulb temperatures. The wet-bulb temperature is
A special psychrometric chart would need to be constructed for the acetone- measured by contacting the air with a thermometer whose bulb is cov-
nitrogen system to get first estimates (this can be done using PSYCHIC, as ered by a wick saturated with water. If the process is adiabatic, the ther-
shown in Fig. 12-7). A humidity of 0.025 kg/kg at T = 60°C lies just below the mometer bulb attains the wet-bulb temperature. When the wet- and
adiabatic saturation line for − 40°C. The wet-bulb temperature will not be the
same as Tas for this system; as the psychrometric ratio β is less than 1, Twb should
dry-bulb temperatures are known, the humidity is readily obtained
be significantly above Tas. However, let us assume no good first estimate is avail- from charts such as Figs. 12-1 through 12-4. To obtain reliable informa-
able and simply take Twb to be 0°C initially. tion, care must be exercised to ensure that the wet-bulb thermometer
When using the psychrometer equation, we will need to use Eq. (12-13) to remains wet and that radiation to the bulb is minimized. The latter is
obtain the value of the psychrometer coefficient. Using the tabulated values above, accomplished by making the relative velocity between wick and gas
we obtain A = 0.00135, about double the value for air-water. We must remember stream high [a velocity of 4.6 m/s (15 ft/s) is usually adequate for com-
that the estimate will be very rough because of the uncertainty in the value of β. monly used thermometers] or by the use of radiation shielding. In the
Refining the estimate of Twb by using the psychrometer equation and iterating gives Assmann psychrometer the air is drawn past the bulbs by a motor-
driven fan. Making sure that the wick remains wet is a mechanical prob-
pwb = 119.1 + 1.35 × 10−3 (104) (60 − 0) = 932.3 Pa = 7.0 mmHg
lem, and the method used depends to a large extent on the particular
From the Antoine equation, arrangement. Again, as with the dew point method, errors associated
with the measurement of temperature can cause difficulty.
Twb = 2940/(16.6513 − ln 7) + 35.93 = 235.84 K = −37.3°C For measurement of atmospheric humidities the sling or whirling
Second iteration: psychrometer is widely used to give a quick and cheap, but inaccu-
rate, estimate. A wet- and dry-bulb thermometer is mounted in a sling
pwb = 119.1 + 1.35 × 10−3 (104) (60 + 37.3) = 1433 Pa = 10.7 mmHg which is whirled manually to give the desired gas velocity across the
Twb = 241.85 K = −31.3°C bulb.
Third iteration: In addition to the mercury-in-glass thermometer, other tempera-
ture-sensing elements may be used for psychrometers. These include
pwb = 119.1 + 1.35 × 10−3 (104) (60 + 31.3) = 1352 Pa = 10.1 mmHg resistance thermometers, thermocouples, bimetal thermometers, and
thermistors.
Twb = 241.0 K = −32.1°C Electric hygrometers have been the fastest-growing form of
The iteration has converged successfully, despite the poor initial guess. The wet- humidity measurement in recent years. They measure the electri-
bulb temperature is −32°C; given the levels of error in the calculation, it will be cal resistance, capacitance, or impedance of a film of moisture-
meaningless to express this to any greater level of precision. absorbing materials exposed to the gas. A wide variety of sensing