Power System Manual - PC EE 691 - Final - 16.08.2023

LABORATORY MANUAL
For
POWER SYSTEM - II
( PC E E - 6 9 1 )
DEPARTMENT
Of
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
EM-4/1, Sector V, Salt Lake

Kolkata-700 091
Techno Main, Salt Lake
Department of Electrical Engineering
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With the phenomenal growth of engineering colleges in West Bengal under the academic
governance of MAKAUT, established in 2001, it is imperative that a structured way of teaching
and a well guided practical sessions are conducted leading to uniformity and maintenance of
quality standard.
In view of the above, of the aim of generating the core competence through adaptation of the state-
of-the art teaching & learning system and of the laboratories considered as the labor rooms of future
engineers of West Bengal vis-a -vis India, the Department of Electrical Engineering has taken all
endeavor to bring out this Power System Laboratory Manual for the benefit of the students, the
teachers and the institute as a whole.
The efforts of Ms. Bidishna Bhattacharya (Faculty), Ms. Archana Mondal (Technical Assistant) of
the Departments of EE in documenting the Laboratory Manual and presenting the instructions for
each experiment highlighting relevant aspects in well-organized form are, nevertheless, creative
and highly appreciated.
The promises from the team members regarding validation and updating of the Manual on regular
basis based on students’ feed-back is noteworthy and heartening too.
Wishing all worthfulness of this Manual in fulfilling the objectives,
Forwarded Acknowledged
……………………… ..………………….
HOD, EE Principal
Power System Lab. Page 2 of 68

LAB INFORMATION
Course Title : POWER SYSTEM – II LAB

Course Code : PC EE- 691
Streams : Electrical Engineering.
Lab In-Charges : Ms. Bidishna Bhattacharya.
Technical Assts. : Ms. Archana Mondal
References : Lab Manual, Text Books, Handouts, Internet.
Experiments : As per the following table
Expt.
Experiments (as per MAKAUT Syllabus)
No
1 Study of the characteristics of on delay relay and off delay relay.
Test to find out polarity, ratio and magnetization characteristics of
2
CT and PT.
Test to find out characteristics of (a) under voltage relay (b) earth
3
fault relay.
4 Study on DC load flow
5 Study on AC load flow using Gauss-Seidel method
6 Study on AC load flow using Newton-Raphson method.
7 Study on Economic load dispatch.
8 Study of different transformer protection schemes by simulation.
9 Study of different generator protection schemes by simulation.
10 Study of different motor protection schemes by simulation.
11 Study of different characteristics of over current relay.
12 Study of different protection scheme for feeder.
Notes: 1) Gradation is based on the available working days and the actual number of
experiments performed.
2) The department provides necessary h/w & s/w.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
The students, staff & faculty are required to adhere to the following basic rules for maintaining a
safe and healthy working environment in the laboratory.
General Guidelines
 Not to allow unauthorized person(s) in the laboratory— ‘authorized ‘meaning person(s) having
business in the lab with permission from appropriate authority.
 To enter the laboratory when authorized to do so and at specified times only.
 Not to store or consume food, drink etc. in the laboratory.
 To wear proper shoes and personal clothing—to avoid bulky, loose or trailing clothes.
 To be familiar with the locations and operation of safety and emergency equipment like fire
extinguishers, first aid kits, emergency telephones etc.
 To learn and know what to do in an emergency
 To keep the laboratory locked when unoccupied
 Not to open or remove cover of any equipment in the laboratory
 To report all problems to Lab. in-Charges
 To dial 100 & 106, in case of emergency
Electrical Safety Guidelines
 To be familiar with the electrical hazard associated with the specific workplace
 To be careful for the safety of the others as for self—to think before acting & to be tidy &
systematic in approach.
 To use extension cords only when necessary and only on a temporary basis—to request new
outlets for equipment in an area without a fixed outlet.
 To discard damaged cords—cords becoming hot or with exposed wiring.
 To know the correct handling procedures for batteries, cells, power supplies, capacitors,
inductors and other energy storage devices.
 To isolate experiments left unattended from the supplies—for special reason if must be left on,
a barrier and a warning notice to be put.
 To report immediately regarding any equipment found to be faulty in any way—not to use till
inspected and declared safe.
 To make equipment live only after –1) checking of circuit connections and layout by a TA,
unless specifically advised otherwise & 2) according assent of all in a group.
 Not to make any change to a circuit or mechanical layout without isolating it from the supplies.

Electrical Emergency Response

 Emergency Power Off—to switch off the main switch to shut off all electrical power except for
the lights.
 Electric Shock—the victim may be knocked unconscious. If he or she is still in contact with the
current, to turn off immediately the electric power source. In case it is not possible, the main
switch to be turned off.
Important –Not to touch a victim in contact with a power source to avoid self-
electrocution. Emergency medical assistance or administering first aid, as appropriate to be
looked into.
 Electric Fire—in case of small fire and if not in immediate danger, to use the fire extinguisher
provided. When in doubt, to switch off the main switch.
Important— Not to use water on electrical fire

GUIDELINES FOR LAB REPORTS

Uniformity Criteria
 Reports to be brief, but complete and self-contained
 Accuracy of data to be checked & experiment to be repeated where advised
Pre-lab Work: To read in advance the theories, the methods & purpose of the experiment(s)
to be performed to be considered as a requisite for judging preparedness.
Report Format
 Cover Sheet: Name /Stream/Class Roll No. , Printed Rubrics with Name of the Experiment,
Objective of the Experiment.
 Data Sheet : Objective, Theory, Circuit Diagram the List of Equipment / Instruments etc with
make, range, rating etc and steps followed.
 Result Sheet :
a) Observed data to be presented in tabular form.
b) Calculations to be presented clearly. For calculations of many different values of a set of
variables, presentation of a sample calculation only will suffice and the separate values be
given in the table.
c) Plots to have Captions with Axes & Scales clearly labeled—data to be marked & the curves
to fit well and be smooth. Computer Graphs preferred.
d) Comparison of the result with theoretical value, wherever applicable to be included in the
table.
 Conclusion/Discussion:
a) To compare experimental results to the theoretical predictions—are the predictions verified?
Why or Why not?
b) To include a qualitative error analysis and suggest deficiencies in experimentation leading
to the observed errors.
c) To report any worth mentioning issue happened during the experiment and the lessons there
from.
Submission Schedule: Immediately after completion of an experiment within a week
In case of late submission, marks @ 25% to be deducted up to a maximum delay by another
week.

INSTITUTIONAL VISION AND MISSION
VISION
Emerge as a center of excellence for engineering and management studies encouraging research
and building leaders contributing towards individual and social empowerment.
MISSION
1. To identify individual potential, capabilities and skills to achieve confidence and

competence.
2. To practice innovative and modern methods of pedagogy encouraging holistic education
and research.
3. To enhance employability skills through collaborative ventures with the industry.
4. To build leaders and entrepreneurs with integrity and ethics fostering growth and
sustainability.
DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION
VISION
To impart knowledge through research based teaching –learning process as to evolve globally
competitive Electrical Engineers with high human values and thereby contributing to the
knowledge-based economy and society.
MISSION
M1. To produce industry-ready professionals in Electrical Engineering, and achieve excellence

through educational program incorporating skill based teaching-learning process and contributes in
the fast changing development in Engineering.
M2. To encourage students for entrepreneurship programs and partnerships with different segments
of the society and provide a framework for promoting collaborative and multidisciplinary activities
to contribute for the socioeconomic development of the nation
M3. To provide suitable platforms to enhance the creative talents of students and faculty member
through research and development.
M4. To prepare professionals with good technical skills, positive attitude and ethical values and
enabling students to promoting in lifelong learning.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
PEO PEO Details

To offer the basic concepts in mathematics, Physical Sciences and engineering
PEO1 fundamentals to develop proficiency in solving of electrical and electronics
engineering problems
To train the students through rigorous education to comprehend and analyze the
PEO2 real life problems and Complex laboratory skills by pedagogy process in
professional areas of Electrical Engineering.
To prepare students to undertake higher education and also to meet the demand
PEO3
of industry and make them aware of the art of technology to meet global
challenges.
To create graduates possessing sound fundamental knowledge, ethical attitude,
PEO4 effective communication skills, and teamwork to relate engineering issues to
broader social and multidisciplinary context promoting life-long learning with
leadership quality needed for a successful professional career.
PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
PSO1: To be able to apply the techniques to the engineering program that includes
physics, mathematics, Chemistry, application of computer Science, mechanical
and electronics Applications and laboratory skills for different system such as
Electrical machine, power system and Power Electronics and Drives .
PSO2: To Produce professional experts in power system, control system, and Power
Electronics and Drives and software industries.
PSO3: Analyze, design and conduct investigations on complex system containing
hardware and software for system automation

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
COURSE OBJECTIVE
This course intends to develop an idea to analyze the operation and maintenance of power system by
conducting various experiments.
COURSE OUTCOME
After attending these course students will be able to
Solve the problems related to the economic dispatch of power to minimize transmission line
CO1
losses.
CO2 Analyze a network through load flow study using different computational tools.
CO3 Identify the performance characteristics of various relays through different experiments.
CO4 Explain different protection schemes of power system feeders and equipment.
Take part in the laboratory testing working as an individual or in a team to improve

CO5
interpersonal skills.
CO6 Interpret the experimental results in a well informative way.

EXPERIMENT # 1
TITLE
Study of the characteristics of ON-Delay and OFF-Delay Relay.
OBJECTIVE:
1. Study the characteristics of ON Delay and OFF Delay Relay.

2. Find the error between Ideal Tripping Time & Actual Tripping Time.
THEORY:
1) ON- TIME DELAY RELAY:
On time delay relay is generally called Pick-up Relay. On-Time delay relay or pick-up relay
means the time of energized relay are not operate immediately. The relay will magnetize after
the setting time is over. When the relay magnetized, we say the relay has picked-up. It simply
means that the relay with normally open contacts, has closed its contacts and closed contacts
has opened. Now if we reset the relay the relay automatically demagnetized and relay comes
its normal position. The pick-up value can be changed by changing the time setting. To start
any system or device after time duration this type of relay is very essential.
VTT-11 is an ON-Time Delay Relay or Pick-up relay which manufacturer is AREVA.
2) OFF-TIME DELAY RELAY:
Off-Time delay relay is generally called Drop-Off relay. Off-time delay relay or Drop-Off
relay. Off-Time delay relay or Drop-Off relay means relay which has already operated, and the
actuating current is still flowing in the relay coil. When the relay is energized, it magnetized
immediately. That means the normally open contact of relay is closed and normally closed
contact is open. The relay will demagnetized after setting time over and relay comes to its
normal position. When the relay demagnetized we say relay has drop-off. The Drop-Off value
can be changed by changing the time setting. After reset, the relay comes to normal position.
To stop any system or device after some time duration this type of relay is very essential.
VTT2 is an OFF-Time Delay Relay or Drop-Off relay which manufacturer is AREVA.
Timing diagram for off delay timer
Timing diagram Symbol

Voltage at relay coil
Off-delay timer circuit
Closed
Contac
t
t Open

Timing diagram for on delay timer
Timing diagram Symbol

Voltage at relay coil On-delay timer circuit
Open t
Contact
Closed
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Connection diagram for ON-Time Delay Relay (VTT-11)
PROCEDURE (For ON-Time delay Relay)
1. Connect 110 DC Volt supply with the relay auxiliary terminals (9 &10, where 9 is +ve
terminal & 10 is –ve terminal).
2. Connect Alarm/Trip indicator with 3 & 4 terminals in series with 230V AC supply.
3. Connect 1& 2 terminals with Time Counter.
4. Open the relay cover and set the time by time setting potentiometer.
5. Switch ON the AC & DC supply.
6. Push the Reset Push button first for reset the relay and reset the digital time counter and then
push the start push button.
7. The relay will magnetized after the setting time is over and alarm indicates the tripping time
counter is hold.
8. Record the setting time and actual tripping time and calculate the percentage of error.
9. Repeat the procedure and take at least five readings to change the time.
OBSERVATION & RESULTS (For ON-Time delay Relay)
SL NO. SETTING TIME (Sec.) ACTUAL TRIPPING TIME (Sec.) % OF ERROR
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Connection diagram for OFF-Time Delay Relay (VTT-12)
PROCEDURE (For OFF-Time delay Relay)
1. Connect 110 volts DC supply with relay auxiliary terminals (9 & 10, where 9 is +ve terminal
& 10 is –ve terminal).
2. Connect Alarm/Trip indicator with 3 & 4 terminals in series with 230 AC supply.
3. Connect 1&2 terminals with Time counter.
4. Open the relay cover and set the time by time setting potentiometer.
5. Switch ON the AC & DC supply.
6. Push the Reset Push button first for reset the relay and digital time counter and then push
the start push button.
7. The relay will magnetized after the setting time is over and alarm indicates the time counter
is hold.
8. Record the setting time and actual tripping time and calculate the percentage of error.
9. Repeat the procedure and take at least five readings to change the time.

OBSERVATION & RESULTS (For OFF-Time delay Relay)
SL NO. SETTING TIME (Sec.) ACTUAL TRIPPING TIME (Sec.) % OF ERROR
OBSERVATIONS:
DISCUSSION QUESTION:
1. Explain the working principle of ON-DELAY & OFF-DELAY relay observe
from this experiment.

EXPERIMENT # 2
TITLE
Polarity test, ratio test and magnetizing characteristics of C.T & P.T.
OBJECTIVE:
To check the polarity and ratio of C.T & P.T.

To determine the magnetization characteristics of C.T & P.T.
THEORY:
CURRENT TRANSFORMER:
The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to

produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being
measured in its primary. Current transformers reduce high currents to a much lower value and
provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC
transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a basic current
transformer is slightly different from that of an ordinary transformer.
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER:
Potential transformer is a voltage step-down transformer which reduces the voltage of a high
voltage circuit to a lower level for the purpose of measurement. These are connected across or
parallel to the line which is to be monitored. The basic principle of operation and construction
of this transformer is similar to the standard transformer.
DIFFERENT RATIOS IN TRANSFORMER:
There are mainly three types of ratio associated with CT and PT which are as below:
 Kn = normal ratio = (Rated primary current)/(Rated secondary current)

 Kt = turns ratio = (secondary turns)/(primary turns)
 Kc = actual current ratio = (actual primary current)/(actual secondary current)
POLARITY TEST:
Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding
of the transformer. If the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should be
known for the proper connection of the transformer. There are two types of polarity.
1. Additive Polarity
2. Subtractive Polarity

Additive Polarity
In additive polarity, the voltage (Vc) between the primary side (Va) and the secondary side (Vb)
will be the sum of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get Vc = Va + Vb
Subtractive Polarity
In subtractive polarity, the voltage (Vc) between the primary side (Va) and the secondary side (Vb)
will be the difference of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get Vc = Va – Vb
In subtractive polarity, if Vc = Va – Vb, it is a step-down transformer and if Vc = Vb – Va, it is a
step-up transformer.
We use additive polarity for small-scale distribution transformers and subtractive polarity for
large-scale transformers.
MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFORMER:
The EMF induced in the CT secondary windings is
E2 = 4.44φfT2
Where, f is the system frequency,
φ is the maximum magnetic flux in Wb.
T2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding.
The flux in the core, is produced by excitation current Ie. We have a non- liner relationship
between excitation current and magnetizing flux. After certain value of excitation current, flux
will not further increase so rapidly with increase in excitation current. This non-linear relation
curve is also called B - H curve. Again from the equation above, it is found that, secondary
voltage of a current transformer is directly proportional to flux φ. Hence one typical curve can
be drawn from this relation between secondary voltage and excitation current as shown below.
It is clear from the curve that, linear relation between V and Ie is maintained from point A and
K. The point ′A′ is known as ′ankle point′ and point ′K′ is known as ′Knee Point′.

PROCEDURE OF POLARITY TEST FOR CT AND PT:
STEP 1 -> Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram drawn below figure and set the
autotransformer to zero position.
STEP 2 -> Switch on the single phase supply
STEP 3 -> Records the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeter V1, V2 and V3.
STEP 4 -> If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value of V1 and V2 that is
V3 = V1+V2 the transformer is connected in opposite polarity.
STEP 5 -> If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the readings of V1 and V2, then the
transformer is said to be connected in same polarity.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR POLARITY TEST:

OBSERVATION TABLE:
SL NO. CONFIGURATION PRIMARY SECONDARY V3(VOLTS) TURNS NATURE POLARITY

DIA. VOLTAGE VOLTAGE RATIO
(VOLTS)(V1) (VOLTS)(V2)
PROCEDURE FOR MAGENTIZATION CHARACTERISTICS:
STEP 1 -> Make the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

STEP 2 -> Switch ON the supply.
STEP 3 -> Take down the reading of primary voltage and the corresponding primary current.
(FOR PT)
OR
Take down the reading of primary current and the corresponding primary voltage. (FOR CT)
TABLE FOR MAGNETIZATION CURVE OF PT:
SL NO. PRIMERY VOLTAGE (Volts) PRIMERY CURRENT (mA)

1.
2.
.
.
12.

TABLE FOR MAGNETIZATION CURVE OF CT:
SL NO. PRIMERY CURRENT (Amp) PRIMERY VOLTAGE (mVolts)

1.
2.
.
.
12.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Draw and explain the magnetization characteristics of CT & PT.

EXPERIMENT # 3(a)
TITLE
Testing on: Under voltage relay.
OBJECTIVE:
To study the operation of Under Voltage Relay.

To Test under Voltage Relay.
To determine the characteristics of Under Voltage Relay.
THEORY:
Under Voltage Relay:-
Under Voltage protection is provided for A.C. circuits, Bus-bars, Motors, Rectifiers and
Transformers etc. Under voltage Relays are necessary for voltage control and reactive power
control of network buses and load buses. Under voltage relays can have instantaneous
characteristics or inverse characteristics depending upon the construction and design. Inverse
time under-voltage relays have inverse characteristic their operating time reduces with reduction
of voltage. Induction disc type construction is used for Inverse-under voltage relay. The relay
is energized by voltage to be measured either directly or via a voltage transformer.
Typical setting-range of an Inverse Under-Voltage Relays:
 50% to 90% adjustable in equal steps of 10%.

 For 50 volts to 400 volts
 Disc resets completely at 10% or less of voltage setting.
 Inverse characteristic.
 Consumption 5 VA at setting voltage
Plug Setting of the Relay: -

It should be possible to use the relay for a certain range of voltage or current. Hence a plug
setting bridge is provided with electromagnetic relays. The plug setting refers to the reference
value of operating quantity at which the relays starts operating. If by inserting the plug, setting
100 volts is selected, the relay will start operating when in the relay coil is about 100 volts or
more. Plug setting determines the number of turns tapped from relay coil shown in fig 1. The
voltage-time characteristics for various plug setting is generally same, provided time setting
remains unchanged. Such performance is achieved by matching the plug setting and
corresponding number of turns tapped from coil such that the voltage turns remains same for
various plug-settings.

Fig-1. Plug-Setting Arrangement for Inverse type Induction Disc Relay
Time setting of the Relay:-
In induction disc relays, the starting position of moving contact is adjusted by means of
backstop. The length of arc through which the moving contact travels before touching the fixed
contacts decides the time taken by relay to close.
By increasing the length of travel of moving contacts the relay time is increased. By reducing
the length of travel the relay time is minimized. The time-dial is marked from 1 to 0.1.
Test Facility:
It should be possible to test the relay by injection test without actually tripping the circuit
breaker i.e. without closing the trip circuit or without disturbing the panel wiring. In flush
mounted withdraw able relays; the relay is mounted on a carriage, which can be completely
pulled out the case for the purpose of testing keeping the connections undistributed. The
terminals of current transformers are automatically short-circuited. Inserting test plugs between
finger contacts between the case and the carriage can test such relays.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig-2. Connection Diagram for Under Voltage Relay (Dotted lines are already connected
internally and Black lines to be connects externally).
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect all the terminals as per circuit diagram.

2. Reduce the Plug-setting Voltage source knob and operating voltage source knob at minimum
position.
3. Set the Plug-setting Multiplier and Time-setting Multiplier.
4. Switch ON the supply.
5. Push the plug-setting voltage (P.S.V) push button.
6. Reset the Time-counter if necessary.
7. Increase the plug-setting voltage by rotates the knob o plug-setting voltage source at desire
voltage. The disc will start to rotate at clockwise direction when the voltage equal to plug-
setting multiplier.
8. Increase the operating voltage by rotates the knob of operating voltage source. This voltage
is below the plug-setting voltage.
9. Push the operating voltage (O.V.) push button.
10. The disc will be starting to rotate at anti-clockwise and trip the circuit.
11. Record the operating voltage and time.
12. Take at least 10 readings at different operating voltage and draw a curve between operating
voltage vs. time.
13. Change the Plug setting multiplier and repeat 4 to 12.

Observation & Results: -
Sl.NO.- Plug-setting Fault voltage % of Tap Setting Operating Time(Sec)

voltage voltage Ideal Actual
Time(Sec) Time(Sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Draw and explain the characteristics of under voltage relay.

EXPERIMENT # 3(b)
TITLE
Testing on: Earth fault relay.
OBJECTIVE
To study the operation of Inverse type Earth-Fault Relay.

To Testing Induction type Earth-Fault Relay.
To determine the Inverse characteristics of Induction type Earth-Fault Relay.
THEORY
When the fault current flows through the earth return path, the fault is called earth fault. Such
faults are relatively frequent. Hence earth fault protection is generally provided.
There are three types of earth fault protection:
1. Residual Earth Fault Protection
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection
3. Stand-by Earth Fault Protection
Basically these relays are also over current type but their settings are different from over current
relay settings. They can be directional and non- directional type. The relay operates whenever
the earth fault current I0 exceed the pickup value of the relay operating current and thus provides
protection against earth fault.
RESIDUALLY CONNECTED EARTH – FAULT RELAY:
In absence of earth fault, the vector sum of three line currents are zero.
→ → →
IR + IY + IB = 0
This sum is called residual current.
The earth fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it.
In absence of earth fault,
→ → → →
IRS = IR + IY + IB = 0
Therefore, it does not operate. But in presence of earth fault the IRS is not zero and it flows
through the relay. If it is greater than the earth fault pick up value of the relay, then relay
operates. Such protection is called unrestricted earth fault protection since in this scheme, the
earth fault at any location near or away from the location of CT’s can change the residual current
flow.
STAND – BY EARTH – FAULT RELAY
The relay is connected to the secondary of the CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth
connection. Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting earth in the
neutral to earth connection of the voltage level. The fault current finds the return path through
the earth and then flows through the neutral to earth connection. The magnitude of fault current
depends upon the type of earthing and location of the fault.
In this scheme the zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. It is not restricted to the
machine concerned. It senses the fault beyond the machine. So it is called unrestricted earth
fault protection. In case of large generator, voltage transformer is connected between neutral
and earth. The earth fault relay is connected to the secondary of the VT.
RESTRICTED EARTH- FAULT – RELAY
In this scheme, the zone of protection is defined. In case of fault (F1) within the zone of
protection, the relay operates and if fault (F2) occurs beyond the zone of protection, the relay
remains inoperative. The polarity of all the CT’s including the natural CT also is determined
before connecting them in the circuit. If the polarity is not proper, then the zone of protection
reverses.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Make connection as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Set the plug setting multiplier and time setting multiplier.
3. Set the current setting variac at minimum position.
4. Switch on the supply to on the DP MCB.
5. Push the, current setting, push button.
6. Set the current at desire values (minimum current setting value are 1.5 times of plug
setting).
7. Push the “Start “push button.
8. Observe the tripping time.

9. Record the fault current from digital ammeter and tripping from digital time counter.
10. Take at least 10 readings for every PSM and TSM.
11. Plot the curve between fault current and tripping time.
12. Repeat 2 to 11 at another PSM & TSM.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Plug setting multiplier(PSM) =
Sl. No. PICK UP FAULT PSM IDEAL ACTUAL %

CURRENT CURRENT TRIPPING TRIPPING ERROR
TIME TIME
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Draw and explain the characteristics of earth fault relay.

EXPERIMENT # 5
TITLE
Study on AC load flow using Gauss-Seidel method
OBJECTIVE
To study AC load flow using Gauss-Seidel method with the help of Mi-power Software.
THEORY:
Power-flow studies are of great importance in planning and designing the future expansion of
power system as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principle
information obtained from a power-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage
at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line. Much additional information
of value is provided by the printout of the solution from computer programs used by the electric
utility companies.
The Gauss-Seidel method is also known as the method of successive displacements. The Gauss-
Seidel method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linier load flow equations. The
non-linear load flow equations are given by
1 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄
𝑉 = − 𝑌 𝑉 + 𝑌 𝑉
𝑌 𝑉∗
Where p = 1, 2, 3…..n
The variable in the equations for p = 1, 2, 3…..n are the node voltages V1, V2, V3…Vn. In Gauss-
Seidel method an initial value of voltages are assumed and they are denoted as 𝑉 ,𝑉 , 𝑉 …..𝑉 .
On substituting these initial values in the above equation and by taking p=1, the revised value
of bus-1 voltage 𝑉 is computed. The revised value of bus voltage V1 is replaced for initial value
𝑉 and the revised bus-2 voltage 𝑉 is computed. Now replace the 𝑉 for 𝑉 and 𝑉 for 𝑉
and perform the calculation for bus-3.
The iteration process is then repeated till the bus voltage converges within prescribed accuracy.
The convergence of bus voltage is quite sensitive to the initial assumed.
The load flow equation can be written in the modified form as
1 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄
𝑉 = − 𝑌 𝑉 + 𝑌 𝑉
𝑌 𝑉∗
In the above equation to compute the (k+1)th iteration value of bus-p voltage, the (k+1)th
iteration values of voltages are used for all buses less than p and kth iteration values of voltages
are used for all buses, since in load bus changes in both magnitude and phase of voltages are
allowed. But in generator bus the magnitude of the voltage remains constant and so the above
equation is used to calculate the phase of the voltage and also in case of slack bus its voltage
will not change. Therefore in each iteration the slack bus voltage is not modified.
For a generator bus, the reactive power is not specified. Therefore in order to calculate the phase
of bus voltage of a generator bus using above equation, we have to estimate the reactive power
from the bus voltages and admittance as shown below.
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄
= 𝑌 𝑉 +𝑌 𝑉 𝑌 𝑉
𝑉∗
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝑌 𝑉 + 𝑌 𝑉
From the above equation, the equation for complex power in bus-p during (k=1)th iteration can
be obtained as
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉 )∗ 𝑌 𝑉 + 𝑌 𝑉
The reactive power of bus-p during (k+1)th iteration is given by imaginary part of above
equation.
𝑄 = (−1) × 𝐼 𝑉 )∗ 𝑌 𝑉 + 𝑌 𝑉
Also, for generator buses a lower and upper limit for reactive powers will be specified. In each
iteration, the reactive power of generation bus is calculated using above equation and then
checked with specified limits. If it violates the specified limits then the reactive power of the
bus is equated to the limit violated and it is treated as load bus. If it does not violates the limits
then the bus is treated as generator bus.
Computation of slack bus power and line flows:
The slack bus power can be calculated after computing the bus voltages up to the specified
accuracy. The equation to calculate slack bus power is given by
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝑌 𝑉
The line flows are the power fed by the buses into various lines and they are calculated as shown
below.
Consider a line connecting bus-p and bus-q as shown in fig. Usually the transmission line is
connected to the buses using transformer at its ends. The 𝜋 - equivalent of the transmission line

with transformer at its end consists of a series admittance 𝑌 and shunt admittances as
shown in fig.
𝑌
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 = 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑌 +𝑉
2
Complex power injected by bus-p in line – pq
𝑌
𝑆 = 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉∗𝐼 = 𝑉∗ 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑌 +𝑉
2
𝑌
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 = 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑌 +𝑉
2
Complex power injected by bus-q in line – pq
𝑌
𝑆 = 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗𝐼 = 𝑉∗ 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑌 +𝑉
2
Power loss in the transmission line – pq
𝑆 . =𝑆 +𝑆
STEPS TO SOLVE:
 OPEN Mi-Power.
 Super user
 Power system network editor
 File
 Open ( From: local disk-> Mi-Power-> Sample -> Database Manager -> Open file
GLOVER)
 Load Flow Analysis
 Study Info…
 Gauss-Siedel method
 Ok
 Execute
 Report.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:

EXPERIMENT # 6
TITLE:
Study on AC load flow using Newton-Raphson method.
OBJECTIVE:
To study AC load flow using Newton-Raphson method with the help of Mi-power Software.
THEORY:
Power-flow studies are of great importance in planning and designing the future expansion of
power system as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principle
information obtained from a power-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage
at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line. Much additional information
of value is provided by the printout of the solution from computer programs used by the
electric utility companies.
The Newton - Raphson (NR) method is a powerful method of solving nonlinear algebraic
equations. It works faster, and is sure to converge in most cases as compared to Gauss – Seidel
(GS) method. The number of iteration required to obtain a solution is independent of the
system size, but more functional evolutions are required at each iteration. Since in the power
flow problem real power and voltage magnitude are specified for voltage- control buses, the
power flow equation is formulated in polar form. For the typical bus of the power system the
current entering bus I is giving by
𝐼 = 𝑌 𝑉
In the above equation, j includes bus i. expressing this in polar form, we have
𝐼 = 𝑌 𝑉 ∠θ + 𝛿
The complex power at bus i is
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼
Therefore
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = |𝑉 |∠ − 𝛿 𝑌 𝑉 ∠θ + 𝛿
Separating the real and imaginary parts
𝑃 = |𝑉 | 𝑉 𝑌 cos θ − 𝛿 + 𝛿 … … … … . (1)

𝑄 =− |𝑉 | 𝑉 𝑌 sin θ − 𝛿 + 𝛿 … . … … (2)
Above equations constitutes a set of nonlinear algebraic equations in terms of the independent
variables, voltage magnitudes in per unit, and phase angle in radians. We have two equations
for each load bus. Expanding in Taylor’s series about the initial estimate and neglecting all
higher order terms results in the following set of linear equations.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⎡ 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 ⎤
… … ( )
𝜕|𝑉 | ⎥ ⎡ ∆𝛿
( )
𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝑉
⎡ ∆𝑃 ⎤ ⎢ 𝜕𝛿 … ⎤
⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ 𝐽1 ⋮ ⋮ … 𝐽2 ⋮⎥ ⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ( ⋮
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ ) … ( ) ( ) ( )⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 ⎥ ⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ … … ( )
⎢ 𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝑉 𝜕|𝑉 | ⎥ ⎢ ∆𝛿 ⎥
⎢ ∆𝑃 ( )
⎥ … … …
= ⎢ … … … …… ⎥⎢ ( ) ⎥
⎢ ( )⎥
⎢ ( ( ) ⎥ ⎢∆ 𝑉 ⎥
⎢∆𝑄 ) ( )
⎥ 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
⎢𝜕𝑄 … … … ⎥⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ … 𝜕𝛿 𝜕|𝑉 | ⎥ ⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕𝛿
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ 𝐽3
⎢ ⋮ ⋮ … … 𝐽4 … ⎥⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⎥
( ) ⎢ ( ) … ( ) ( ) ⎥⎢ ( ) ⎥
⎣∆𝑄 ⎦ ⎢𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 ⎥ ⎣∆ 𝑉 ⎦
… … …
⎣ 𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝛿 𝜕|𝑉 | ⎦
In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be slack bus. The Jacobean matrix gives the
( )
linearized relationship between small changes in voltage angle ∆𝛿 and voltage magnitude
( ) ( ) ( )
∆𝑉 with small changes in real and reactive power ∆𝑃 and ∆𝑄 . Elements of jacobian
( ) ( )
matrix are the partial derivatives of the equation (1) and (2), evaluated at ∆𝛿 and ∆ 𝑉 .
∆𝑃 𝐽 𝐽 ∆𝛿
=
∆𝑄 𝐽 𝐽 ∆|𝑉|
The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of 𝐽 are
𝜕𝑃
= |𝑉 | 𝑉 𝑌 sin 𝜃 − 𝛿 + 𝛿
𝜕𝛿
𝜕𝑃
= −|𝑉 | 𝑉 𝑌 sin 𝜃 − 𝛿 + 𝛿
𝜕𝛿
𝑗≠𝑖
The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of 𝑗 are
𝜕𝑃
= 2|𝑉 ||𝑌 | cos 𝜃 + |𝑉 | 𝑌 cos 𝜃 − 𝛿 + 𝛿
𝜕|𝑉 |
𝜕𝑃
= |𝑉 | 𝑌 cos 𝜃 − 𝛿 + 𝛿
𝜕|𝑉 |
𝑗≠𝑖
The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of 𝑗 are
𝜕𝑃
= 2|𝑉 | 𝑌 sin 𝜃 − 𝑉 𝑌 sin 𝜃 − 𝛿 + 𝛿
𝜕|𝑉 |
𝜕𝑃
= −|𝑉 | 𝑌 sin 𝜃 − 𝛿 + 𝛿
𝜕𝑉
𝑗≠𝑖
( ) ( )
The terms ∆𝑃 and ∆𝑄 are the difference between the schedule and calculated values,
known as the power residuals, given by
( )
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 −𝑃
( )
∆𝑄 = 𝑄 −𝑄
But we know that

∆𝑃 𝐽 𝐽 ∆𝛿
=
∆𝑄 𝐽 𝐽 ∆|𝑉|
Now calculate the change in bus voltage and angle.
∆𝛿 ∆𝑃 𝐽 𝐽 -1
=
∆𝑉 ∆𝑄 𝐽 𝐽
The new estimates for bus voltages are
( ) ( ) ( )
𝛿 =𝛿 + ∆𝛿
( ) ( ) ( )
𝑉 = 𝑉 +∆ 𝑉
( ) ( )
The process is continued until the residuals ∆𝑃 and ∆𝑄 are less than the specified
accuracy, i.e,
( )
∆𝑃 ≤∈
( )
∆𝑄 ≤∈

STEPS TO SOLVE:
 OPEN Mi-Power.
 Super user
 Power system network editor
 File
 Open ( From: local disk-> Mi-Power-> Sample -> Database Manager -> Open file
GLOVER)
 Load Flow Analysis
 Study Info…
 Gauss-Siedel method
 Ok
 Execute
 Report.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:

EXPERIMENT # 7
TITLE:
Study on Economic load dispatch.
OBJECTIVE:
To study Economic load dispatch with the help of Mi-power Software.
THEORY:
In power generation our main aim is to generate the required amount of power with minimum
cost. Economic load dispatch means that the generator’s real and reactive power are allowed to
vary within certain limits so as to meet a particular load demand with minimum fuel cost.
 Different constraints in economic load dispatch: The allocation of loads are based on some
constraints.
Like inequality constraints.
1. Voltage constraints:-
𝑉 ≤𝑉≤𝑉
𝛿 ≤𝛿≤𝛿
2. Generator constraints:- The KVA loading of generator should not exceed prescribed
value.
𝑃 ≤𝑃≤𝑃
𝑄 ≤𝑄≤𝑄
3. Running space capacity constraints: -

These constraints are needed to meet forced of one or more alternators in the system and
also unexpected load on the system.
4. Transmission line constraints: -

Flow of power through transmission line should be less than its thermal capacity.
5. Transformer tap set: -

For auto-transformer tap should be between 0 and 1. For two winding transformer between
0 and K.

 Equality constraints: -
1) Real power –
𝑃 =𝑉 𝑌 𝑉 cos 𝑄 − 𝛿 +𝛿
2) Reactive power –
𝑄 =𝑉 𝑌 𝑉 sin 𝑄 − 𝛿 +𝛿
 Operation cost of thermal plant:
The factors influencing minimum cost are operating efficiencies of generators, fuel cost and
transmission losses. The most efficient generator in the system does not generate minimum cost
as it may be located in an area where fuel cost is high.
If the plant is located far from the load center; transmission losses may be considerably higher
and hence the plant may be overly uneconomical. The input to the thermal plant is generally
measured in Btu/h, and the output is measured in MW. In all practical cases, the fuel cost of
generation can be represented as a quadratic function of real power generation.
𝐶𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑃 + 𝛾 𝑃
(i) HEAT RATE CURVE
(ii) FUEL COST CURVE

 Incremental fuel cost curve: -

By plotting the derivative at the fuel cost curve versus the real power we get the incremental
fuel cost curve.
𝑑𝑐
= 2𝛾 𝑃 + 𝛽
𝑑𝑃
(iii) INCRIMENTAL FUEL COST CURVE
The incremental fuel-cost curve is measure of how costly will it be to produce the next increment
of power.
 Economic dispatch including losses:
When power is transmitted over long distances transmission losses are a major factor that effect the
optimum dispatch of generation. One common practice for including the effect of transmission loss
to express the total transmission loss as a quadratic function of the generator power outputs. The
simplest quadratic form is:
𝑃 =∑ ∑ 𝑃𝛽 𝑃
The coefficients βij are called low coefficients of β-coefficients.
The condition for optimum dispatch is:
𝑑𝐶𝑖 𝑑𝑃
+𝜆 = 𝜆, 𝑖 = 1,2, … … 𝑛𝑔
𝑑𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖
Initially assume a ‘𝜆’ value.
Update value of 𝜆.
𝜆( )
= 𝜆(k)+ Δ 𝜆(k).

Repeat the procedure with the new value of λ until the power mismatch is within the limit.
𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹
= =⋯= =𝜆
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
Here is the incremental production cost of plant n in Rs. per MWhr.
PROBLEM:
Cost equation and loss coefficient of different limits in a plant are given. Determine
economic generation for a total load demand of 240 MW.
UNIT NO COST OF FUEL INPUT IN Rs /hr.

1 C1=0.05 P12 + 20 P1 + 800 0 <= P1 = 100
2 C2=0.06 P22 + 15 P2 + 1000 0 <= P2 = 100
3 C3=0.07 P32 + 18 P3 + 900 0 <= P3 = 100
Loss Co-efficient:
B11 = 0.0005; B12 = 0.00005; B13 = 0.0002;
B22 = 0.0004; B23 = 0.00018; B33 = 0.0005;
B21 = B12; B23 = B32; B13 = B31;
STEPS TO SOLVE:
 OPEN Mi-Power.
 TOOLS
 ECONOMIC DESPATCH BY B- COEFFICIENT
 NEW
 PUT A FILE NAME
 PUT THE GIVEN DATA
 SAVE
 EXECUTE
OBSERVATIONS:

EXPERIMENT # 8
TITLE
Study of different transformer protection schemes by simulation.
OBJECTIVE:
To study the operation of transformer protection scheme using ‘MERZ PRICE’ protection.
To Test transformer differential relay using ‘MERZ PRICE’ protection.
THEORY:
The term “differential” itself signals that the chapter will be concerned with relays responding
to difference of actuating quantities; and that is true. Differential protection compares two (or
more) currents to locate a fault; which actually makes current protection. In comparison with
other types of protection, differential current protection possesses an absolute selectivity in the
sense that it operates smarty only in those cases where the fault is within the protected zone,
and does not operate at all if the fault is out of its zone. A differential relay responds to vector
difference between two similar electrical quantities.
The differential relay has two actuating quantities say I1, I2. The relay responds to the vector
difference between two i.e. to I1 - I2 , which includes magnitude and / or phase angle difference.
Applications of Differential Relays:

a) Protection of Generator,
b) Protection of Transformer,
c) Protection of Feeder,
d) Protection of Motor etc.
The zone of the differential relay is limited by a apart of the electric circuit between the current
transformers (CTs), to which the relay is connected. Due to such high selectivity of protection,
there is no need to activate a delay for the relay pick – up, which is why all differential relays
are high speed. That being so, extraordinarily high selectivity and high speed of operation are
the distinguishing features of differential protection.
The simple differential protection scheme:

This scheme is also known as the “Merz-Price scheme”. The currents entering and leaving the
equipment to be protected are stepped down with the help of C.T, s on either side. The following
rule can be applied for the dot notation. When the current enters the dotted terminal on the
primary side of the C.T, it should leave the similarly marked dotted terminal on the secondary
side.
For normal condition, the currents transformed by the C.T being equal in phase and magnitude
just circulate on the secondary side and there is spill current in the over current relay.

The over current relay is wired to trip the two circuit breakers on either side of the equipment
to be protected. A differential relay (over current relay) responds to the vector difference
between two or more similar electrical quantities. Thus the simple differential relay is stable
during normal operation condition.
Similarly during external fault condition, there is no difference in phase or magnitude of the
entering and leaving current thus giving a zero spill current. Thus the simple differential relay
is stable for the external fault condition also.
Differential current protection is applied for sections of power lines and some important
elements of the power- supply system such as generators, transformers, reactors, and power
electric motors. In addition to the protection from current overloading, differential protection is
also used for localization of insulation damages in high – voltage equipment (generators, for
instance).
Differential protection of power lines is divided into longitudinal protection and transverse
Protection. The formed refers to protection of longitudinal sections of single lines (which is of
course why it is called “longitudinal”), and the latter to the protection of parallel lines
(comparing currents in these parallel lines).
Longitudinal differential protection operates on the principle of comparison of magnitude and

phase of the currents entering and leaving the protected circuit section or element. To
accomplish differential protection, two CTs (Ct1 and CT2), having identical ratios of
transformation, are interposed in the circuit at both ends of the protected circuit element. These
CTs have their secondary interconnected by the connecting leads as the CT interconnection
leads.
This scheme, based on the circulation of currents, was first established at the end of 19th
centuries by Merz and Price and called the “Merz – Price differential scheme”. This fundamental
principle has formed the basis of many highly developed protective arrangements.

If the secondary current of CTs CT1 and CT2 are denoted, respectively, by I1 and I2 , and the
positive direction of the relay is taken to be that of current I1, during normal operating conditions
on line AB (here and hereinafter vector values):
IR E L= I1 –I2
This relation is valid by virtue of the fact that the impedance of the winding of relay Rel (usually
a current relay) is considerably less than that of the current – transformer secondary windings,
and it can hence be considered that the secondary currents flow through interconnection leads
and complete their circuits through the relay winding.
In the ideal case, during normal operation conditions and in the event of external short circuits
(outside the zone of protection), the secondary currents of CTs CT1 and CT2 will be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. Because of this, no current will flow in the differential
relay circuit or:
IR E L= I1 –I2 = 0
In the actual circuit, a current of unbalance will flow in the relay circuit because of the unequal
magnitude of the CTs currents at one and the same primary current. This problem will be studied
in greater detail below.
When a short circuit occurs within the zone of protection and the power supply comes from one
end (Figure 12.1b), the relay circuit carries a current:
IR E L= I1 -0 =I1
The relay then operates to transmit an impulse to trip the circuit breaker at the supply end.
When a short circuit occurs within the zone of protection and power is supplied from both ends
(Figure 1), the sum of the secondary currents will flow through the relay, or:
IR E L= I1 + I2
(These currents, in general, being different in magnitude). The relay in this case operates to
transmit impulses to trip the circuit breakers at both ends of the faulted line. The differential
scheme studied here is called a “circulating – current circuit ‘’ due to the fact that the current
continuously circulates in the interconnecting leads of this circuit. If two identical power lines
are run in parallel from one substation to another and are connected to the buses by a common
circuit breaker, a common protection is installed for both lines and will trip out the circuit
breaker when a short circuit occurs on any one of the lines. For protecting two parallel high –
voltage lines of wide applications, transverse differential current protection is implemented,
based on a comparison of the magnitude also the differential protection is applied not only for
protection of segments of lines, but also for protection of such important system components as
transformers, reactors, generators, switchgears, power motors, etc.

High –Impedance Differential Relays:
The most simple design of this type is the so –called “high –impedance differential relays,” used
for protection of concentrated objects such as switchgear, bus – bars, generators, reactors, and
power motors. The following limitation on CTs is required for applying these relays:
1. All CTs in the differential circuit must have the same ratio.
2. All CTs should be operated on their full winding (i.e., tap connections must be given special
consideration).
3. Inlet and outlet current levels of protection object must be equivalent.
4. No other equipment, including no other types of protection devices, can be connected to the
CT used for high – impedance differential relays.
As already mentioned above, under external fault conditions if the CT has no error, the current
in the secondary of the CT in the faulted line is equal and opposite to the factorial sum of the
currents in the secondary of the remaining CT in the same phase. No current flows in the relay
and the voltage that appears across the paralleling points is zero. Unfortunately, during fault
conditions, CTs do not always perform ideally, since core saturation may cause a breakdown of
ratio. Such core saturation usually is the result of a DC transient in the primary fault current,
and may be aggravated by residual flux left in the core by a previous fault.
The worst condition of unbalanced secondary currents is realized when the CT in the faulted
circuit is completely saturated and none of the other CTs suffer a reduction in ratio. Under this
condition the saturated transformed secondary winding presents an impedance which is
practically equal to its DC resistance, since the leakage reactance of the full winding of the
toroidally wound CT can be neglected and a secondary current will be forced through the
saturated CT equal to the sum of the secondary currents in the remaining paralleled CTs, less
the current through the high – impedance relay which is negligible. The maximum voltage
across the relay under external fault conditions therefore, will be the resistance drop of the
theoretical secondary current which flows through the leads and secondary winding of the
saturated CT in the faulted line. It is obvious that under external fault conditions, no higher
voltage than this can exist.
Biased Differential Relays:
In modern power systems, transformers with ratings of more than about 100 KVA are protected
against internal short – circuits by differential protection. The heart of this form of protection is
the differential relay in which the currents on the primary and secondary side of the transformer
to be protected are compared with respect to magnitude and phase relationship.

The reason for using this modification is circulation current differential relay is to overcome the
trouble arising out of differences in CT ratio for high values of external short – circuit currents.
The percentage differential relay has an additional restraining coil connected in the pilot wire.
In this relay the operating coil is connected to the mid – point of the restraining coil. The number
of ampere turns. For external faults both I1 and I2 increase and thereby the restraining torque
increases which prevents the mal – operation.
The ratio of differential operating current to average restraining current is fixed Percentage.
Hence the relay is called “Percentage Differential Relay “.
The relay is also called “Biased Differential Relay”, because the restraining coil is also called a
biased coil as it provides additional flux.

The percentage of biased differential relay has a rising pick-up characteristic. As the
magnitude of through current increases current increases.
The operating characteristic of such relay is given in fig.-4
In normal operation the ratio between the primary and secondary current is constant at any
instant, apart from the magnetizing current which appears on one side but which only amounts
to a few percent of the rated current of the transformer depending on the transformation ratio of
the transformer. The phase relationship between the two currents is fixed by the vector group
of the transformer. On occurrence of a fault inside the protected zone restricted by the location
of CTs necessary for connecting the differential protection on the high and low-voltage sides of
the transformer, this ratio of currents and in some circumstances their phase relationship, is
disturbed. The unbalanced current can be evaluated directly as a criterion of the fault. The
differential relay responds to this current by closing its tripping contacts, causing the circuit
breakers on the high-and low-voltages sides of the transformer to open.
Even under normal working conditions unbalanced currents appear, their magnitude depending
on the individual ratio and phase-angle errors of the CTs employed. They generally increase as
the load on the transformer increases. They attain particularly high values when through faults
outside the protected zone the CTs tend to saturate; and also in the case of tap-changing
transformer when the CTs are not adjusted when the ratio of power transformation is changed.
To compensate for these influences, the differential relay is stabilized that is the relay is given
a characteristic basically similar to that in Fig. This shows the unbalance current Id necessary to
operate the differential relay in relation to the circulating current Id. Differentially, the increase
of circulating current results in a desensitization of the relay to a differential current.
At low values of the circulating current the curve does not rise more steeply than is necessary
with a view to the spill currents and changes its slope only when the circulating currents are
such that the CTs are approaching saturation.

Fig-5 is a schematic diagram of a differential protective system stabilized in this way. The
measuring circuit of the differential relay contains a bias system (H) and an operating system
(A), which work in opposition. The CTs in the same phase on the high and low voltage sides of
the transformer are connected in series through the bias system (H) of the relay and the operating
system (A) is connected across the bridge. As will be seen in fig.-3 the vector sum of the two
current-transformer currents.
I1 +I2=2ID + Id
acts on the bias system in a restraining sense and the vector difference on he operating system
in the tripping sense;
I1 -I2= Id
The secondary currents of the CTs;
I1=ID + Id and I2=ID
are so matched, if necessary by the inclusion of intermediate CTs to compensate for differing
current transformer secondary currents and in some cases dissimilar phase angles if the
protected transformer is of a vector group causing a phase difference. That is so because in
normal working a spill current flowing through the operating system is not sufficient to
operate the differential relay. The desired relationship between the unbalanced current and the
circulating current is obtained by suitable design of the bias and operating systems.
In early electromagnetic differential relay, the comparison of the vector sum:
I1 + I2
and the vector difference:
I1 – I2
Induction-Type Differential Relays:

Along with the principle of construction of differential relay for the protection of power
transformer based on electromagnetic relays described above another approach was developed
based on application an induction magnetic system with a rotating disc. It should be noted that
induction-type biased relays are not more modern than the relays described above. Induction-
type biased relays contain arranged to develop opposed torques. The operation magnet will be
supplied with supplied with the differential current while the other will be energized by the
biasing quantity. The windings will be proportioned to provide the desired bias ratio.

According to such principle many types of differential relays were designed and produced for
example this percentage-differential relay of the DDT 12 type. The relays contain two shaded
pole U-magnet driving elements acting on opposite sides of a single disc. One of these drives
the disc in the contact-closing direction, and the other drives the disc in the contact-opening
direction. Since it is not always possible to provide CTs that supply equal secondary currents
the relays have tapped coils to permit balancing these currents.
Percentage-differential protection of a two-winding power transformer is shown in fig 4. while

this scheme balances the incoming current against the outgoing current as is done in the
protection of AC rotating machines the CTs are in leads from different windings. Because of
this protection is provided for turn to turn faults as well as for faults to ground and for faults
between phases or winding. Protection is also provided to the leads between the CT location
and the power transformer.
The relay will close contacts on a minimum operating current, with no restraint of 0.4 times tap
rating. This value in conjunction with the short time delay provided by the relay, is usually not
sufficient to prevent incorrect operation on magnetizing inrush currents that occur when the
transformer is connected to the line or bus bar. It is probable that the current setting will not be
high enough to take care of the magnetizing inrush and therefore it is recommended that
auxiliary desensitizing equipment be added. In high-speed differential relays, the induction
magnet system with a rotated cup is widely used also, for example the relays produced by the
General unit consists of a multi pole stator a stationary central core and a cup-like induction
rotor. The cup rotates about a vertical axis in the air gap between the stator and core. The
lightweight aluminium cylinder offers a high ratio of torque to inertia and results in a fast
operate time. The axis of the cylinder is supported at the lower end by a steel pivot, which
rotates against a selected sapphire jewel. The jewel is spring mounted to protect it from shocks.
The upper end of the shaft is held in place by a polished steel pivot, which projects down through
a bronze guide bearing mounted in the end of the shaft.
The stator of the induction unit is of the eight-pole construction but uses only six of the poles in
two sets of three. One set carries the current from the CTs in one phase on each side of the
generator winding. The other set carries the difference current between the two CTs.
Operating Procedure:
1. Connect the Auxiliary DC supply to the relay terminals.

2. Connect Output terminal of CT1 & CT2 (a,b,&c) the Digital meters.
3. Connect 5,7 & 10 nos. relay terminals with Digital meter terminals.
4. All switches of the Load & Fault are OFF position.
5. Switch ON the set – up & Aux. DC Supply.
6. Load the transformer step by step and take the reading of three ammeters. In any loading
position the Ammeter Ia show the primary current of the transformer and Ammeter Ib show
the secondary current of the transformer. This two current are almost same (slightly
different due to the no – load current of the transformer), Therefore the IC is the different
of Ia & Ib. This is the healthy condition of the system.
7. OFF all the loading switches. ON the FAULT switch step by step and observe the reading
of three ammeters. Ammeter Ia show the primary current of the transformer and ammeter
Ib show the secondary current of the transformer. This two current are not same. The Ic is
the different of Ia & Ib. If the fault current is above the relay operating current the disc
comes to rotates and after a few times the relay will trip and tripping indicator indicate the
relay trapping.
8. Note the readings of three Ammeter in observation table.
9. Take at least five reading to apply different load and fault condition.
10. You can create the fault at ON load condition.
Experimental Data:
For Loading Condition:
Sl. Load No. Primary Secondary Differential Current Average restraining

No Current (Ia) Current (Ib) (Ic = Ia -Ib) (Amps) current {(Ia + Ib )/2}
(Amps) (Amps) (Amps)

For Fault Condition:
Sl. Load No. Primary Secondary Differential Current Average restraining

No + Current (Ia) Current (Ib) (Ic = Ia -Ib) (Amps) current {(Ia + Ib )/2}
Fault No. (Amps) (Amps) (Amps)
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Draw graph of differential current w.r.to average restraining current.

EXPERIMENT # 10
TITLE
Study of different motor protection schemes by simulation.
OBJECTIVE:
To study the different types of protection.

To Test the different types of protection by different relay.
THEORY:
The small Sq. Cage Induction Motor is arranged normally by HRC fuse, bimetallic relay with
motor starter. Most common cause of motor burn outs on LV fuse protected system is due to
single phasing, over current, blocked rotor, unbalance voltage, Over/Under voltage, Earth fault
etc.
Three-phase induction motors are the most popularly used motors especially in industry because
of their reliability and simplicity. These motors experience different types of faults during their
operation. These faults can be classified as internal and external faults.
This single phasing may remain undetected even if the motors are protected by conventional
bimetallic relay. The difficulties of detecting single phasing can be overcome by employing a
set of three current operated relays. The current operated relays are very simple relay. These are
mainly two parts in this relay one is a current coil and other is one or more normally open
contacts (NO Contacts). The NO contacts are operated by the mmf of the current coil. This relay
is connected in series with each phase of the supply and backup by fuse. When the electrical
motor starts and runs the supply current passes through the current coil of the protective relay.
The mmf of the current coil makes the NO contacts closed. If suddenly a single phasing or over
current occurs the corresponding current through the current coil will falls and the contacts of
the corresponding relay will become to its normal open position. The NO contacts of the all
three relays are connected in series to hold – in the motor contractor. So if any one relay contact
opens, results to release of motor contractor and hence motor will stop running.
Motor over heating that means over heating of motor winding is due to either of mechanical
over loading, reduced supply voltage, unbalanced supply voltage and single phasing. The
overheating may cause deterioration of insulation life of motor hence it must be avoided by
providing proper motor protection scheme. To avoid overheating, the motor should be isolated
in 40 to 50 minutes even in the event of small overloads of the order of 10%. The protective
relay should take into account the detrimental heating effects on the motor rotor due to negative
sequence currents in the stator arising out of unbalance in supply voltage. The motor should
also be protected by protection relay against single phasing such as a stall on loss of one phase
when running at full load or attempting to start with only two of three phases alive.
Loss of phase protection: The relay has a separate element for this protection. Loss of a phase
gives rise to large negative sequence currents, and therefore a much shorter time delay is
required. A definite time delay of 5sec is considered appropriate.

The protection relay should have instantaneous trip elements or time delay trip elements to
detect motor winding failure such as phase to phase and phase to earth faults. Preferably phase
to phase fault unit should be energized from positive phase sequence component of the motor
current and another instantaneous unit connected in the residual circuit of the current
transformers be used for earth faults protection.
Unbalanced voltage comprises of two opposing components, a positive sequence component

that produces the wanted positive torque, and a negative sequence component that produces
unwanted negative torque. As the amount of unbalance in the supply voltage increase, the
positive sequence voltage decreases and negative sequence voltage increases. The percentage
of unbalance defined by:
Maximum devintion from average voltage

𝑈𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (%) =
Average Voltage
Single phasing occurs when one phase of the three-phase supply is open. Single-phasing
condition is the worst case of voltage unbalance. The three-phase motor is running with the
single phase condition; it will attempt to deliver its full horsepower of the load. The motor
continuously trying to drive the load, until the motor burns out or until the properly sized
overload elements make the motor off.
UNDER VOLTAGE PROTECTION:
The under voltage occurs when a reduced supply voltage with a rated mechanical load on the
motor. Under voltage fault is simulated by reducing the maximum voltage on all three phases
by a certain percentage when the motor is running under normal condition. For under voltage
condition increased currents, excess heating of machine, stator and Rotor losses increase.
Motors may shall when subjected to prolong under voltage conditions. Transient under voltages
will generally allow a motor to recover when the voltage is restored, unless the supply is weak.
Motors fed by contactors have inherent under voltage protection, unless a latched contractor is
used. Where a specific under voltage trip is required, a definite time under voltage element is
used. If two elements are provided, alarm and trip settings can be used. An interlock with the
motor starter is required to block relay operation when the starting device is open, otherwise a
start will never be permitted. The voltage and time delay setting will be system and motor
dependent. They must allow for all voltage dips likely to occur on the system during transient
faults, starting of motors, etc. to avoid spurious trips. As motor starting can result in a voltage
depression to 80% of nominal, the voltage setting is likely to be below this value. Re-
acceleration is normally possible for voltage dips lasting between 0.5-2 sec, depending on
system, motor and drive characteristics, and therefore the time delay will be set bearing these
factors in mind.
OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION:
Any one of the line voltage is greater than 110% of rated value, over voltage fault occurs. When
the motor is operating at normal condition with load, the three phase voltages are increased by
a certain percentage. Due to increase in the phase voltages, the current increases further from
normal rated value.

EARTH FAULT PROTECTION:
Earth faults are more prevalent in notes than other power system devices, because of the violent
manner and frequency with which they are started. The earth fault is monitored and detected by
measuring leakage current. The two types of faults occur in a motor are turn to turn and turn to
ground. The amount of phase current unbalance is a very good indication of the turn-turn
insulation conditions. Turn-turn insulation failure is a prelude to most insulation failure in
motors and normally occurs before a fault propagating to a turn to ground failure. Ground fault
current leads to insulation failure in motor; therefore, a considerable amount of attention is given
to the ground current levels available in the system. The effect of earth fault Hazards for human
safety, thermal stress due to fault current, voltage stress, interference with telecommunication,
interruption of power supply.
One of the most common faults to occur on a motor is a stator winding fault. Whatever the
initial form of the fault (phase-phase etc.) or the cause (cyclic overheating, etc.), the presence
of the surrounding metallic frame and casing will ensure that it rapidly develops into a fault
involving earth. Therefore, provision of earth fault protection is very important. The type and
sensitivity of protection provided depends largely on the system earthing, so the various types
will be dealt with in turn. It is common, however, to provide both instantaneous and time-
delayed relay elements to cater for major and slowly developing faults.
It is assumed that for a CBCT is fitted. A stabilizing resistor is required to operate the time delay
relay. To prevent mal-operation due to CT spill current during starting as the CT’s may saturate.
With the stabilizing resistor present, instantaneous tripping is permitted.
The alternative is to omit the stabilizing resistor and use a definite time delay in association with
the earth fault element. However, the time delay must be found by trial and error during
commissioning.
THERMAL OVER LOADING PROTECTION:
Whenever we think about the overheating of a motor, the first thing strikes in our mind is over
loading. Due to mechanical overloading of the motor draws higher current from the supply
which leads to excessive over heating of the motor. The motor can also be excessively over
heated if the rotor is mechanically locked i.e. becomes stationary by any external mechanical
force. In this situation the motor will draw excessively high current from the supply which also
leads to thermal over loading of electrical motor or excessive over heating problem. Another
cause of overheating is low supply voltage. As the power id drawn by the motor from the supply
depends upon the loading condition of the motor, for lower voltage supply, motor will draw
higher current from mains to maintain required torque. Single phasing also causes thermal over
loading of motor. When one phase of the supply is out of service, the remaining two phases
draw higher current to maintain required load torque and this leads to overheating of the motor.
Unbalance condition between three phases of supply also causes over heating of the motor
winding as because unbalance system results to negative sequence current in the stator winding.
Again, due to sudden loss and reestablish of supply voltage may cause excessive heating of the
motor. Since due to sudden loss of supply voltage, the motor is de-accelerated and due to sudden
reestablishment of voltage the motor is accelerated to achieve its rated speed and hence for that
motor draws higher current from the supply.

As the thermal over loading or over heating of the motor may lead to insulation failure and
damage of winding, hence for proper motor thermal overload protection, the motor should be
protected against the following conditions:
Mechanical over loading. Stalling of motor shaft, low supply voltage, single phasing of supply
mains, unbalancing of supply mains, sudden loss and rebuilding of supply voltage.
The most basic protection scheme of the motor is thermal over load protection which
primarily covers the protection of all the above mentioned condition.
This problem is overcome by providing time over current relay with high pickup. The time
current characteristics of those over current relays are so chosen that for lower value of over
load, the relay will not operate since thermal overload relay will be actuated before it. But for
higher value of overload and for blocked rotor condition time over load relay will be operated
instead of thermal relay because former will actuate much before the latter.
Hence both the bimetallic over load relay and time over current relay are provided for
complete motor thermal over load protection.
BLOCKED ROTOR PROTECTION:
Should a motor stall when unable to start because of either mechanical rotor blocked or
excessive load, it will draw a current from the supply equivalent to the locked rotor current. It
is obviously desirable to avoid damage by disconnecting the machine as quickly as possible if
this condition arises.
Motor stalling can be recognized by the motor current exceeding the start current threshold after
a successful start i.e. a motor start has been detected and the motor current has dropped below
the start current threshold within the motor safe start time. A subsequent rise in motor current
above the motor starting current threshold is then indicative of a stall condition, and tripping
will occur if this condition persists for greater than the setting of the stall timer. An instantaneous
over current relay element provides protection.
NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE PROTECTION:
Negative phase sequence current is generated from any unbalanced voltage condition, such as
unbalanced loading, loss of a single phase, or single-phase faults. The actual value of the
negative sequence current depends on the degree of unbalance in the supply voltage and the
ratio of the negative to the positive sequence impedance of the machine. The degree of
unbalance depends on many factors, but the negative sequence impedance is more easily
determined.
A typical setting for negative sequence current protection must take into account the fact that
the motor circuit protected by the relay may not be the source of the negative sequence current.
Time should be allowed for the appropriate protection to clear the source of the negative
sequence current without introducing risk of overheating to the motor being considered. This
indicates a two stage tripping characteristic, similar in principle to over current protection. A
low-set definite time-delay element can be used or with an IDMT element used to trip the motor

in the case of higher levels of negative sequence current, such as loss-of-phase conditions at
start, occurring. The IDMT time delay has to be chosen to protect the motor.
The induction motor experiences several types of electrical faults like over/under voltage, over
load, unbalanced voltage, single phasing, and lock rotor and earth fault. Due to these electrical
faults, the windings of the motor get over heated which lead to insulation failure and thus reduce
the life time of the motor. To analyze the behavior of induction motor during electrical faults
the faults are created and the variation of the induction motor parameters under faulty conditions
is observed.
The faults come under this classification are over/under voltage, over load, blocked rotor,
unbalanced voltage, single phasing and earth fault.
INTERNAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1(NC) for O/C fault, 2(NC) for Blocked Rotor fault, 3(NC) for O/V fault, 4(NC) for U/V
fault, 5(NC) for single phasing, 6(NC) for unbalance fault & 7(N/C) for E/F fault.
Fig-1. Internal circuit diagram to study different protection of Sq. Cage Induction Motor.
OPERATING PROCEDURE:
In general in a Sq. Cage inductio0n motor several types of electrical faults occurred like over
voltage, under voltage, over current, unbalanced voltage, single phasing, lock rotor and earth
fault.
In this trainer we are create the different type of faults and observe how relays protect or save
the motor from damage or burning.

Table – 1 (Blocked Rotor Fault).
Sl. No. Voltage Voltage Voltage Current Current in Current Earth Time
in ‘R’ in ‘Y’ in ‘B’ in ‘R’ ‘Y’ Phase in ‘B’ Fault in
Phase Phase Phase Phase (Amp.) Phase Current sec.
(volts) (volts) (volts) (Amp.) (Amp.) (Amp.)
Rotary
Position -1
Rotary
Position -2
Rotary
Position -3
Table – 2 (Over Voltage Fault).
Rotary
Position -1
Rotary
Position -2
Rotary
Position -3
Table – 3 (Under Voltage Fault).
Rotary
Position -1
Rotary
Position -2
Rotary
Position -3

Table – 4 (Earth Fault).
Rotary
Position -1
Rotary
Position -2
Rotary
Position -3
Table – 5 (Unbalance Voltage Fault).
Rotary
Position -1
Rotary
Position -2
Rotary
Position -3
Table – 6 (Single Phasing Fault).
Rotary
Position -1
Rotary
Position -2
Rotary
Position -3
OBSERVATIONS:

EXPERIMENT # 11
TITLE
Study of different characteristics of over current relay.
OBJECTIVE:
To study the characteristics of Over-Current Relay.

To Test on Over-Current Relay.
THEORY:
Over current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of
current exceeds the pickup level. The basic element of over current protection is an over current
relay. The overcurrent protection includes the protection from over loads. Over loading means
the machine is taking more current than its rated current.
The over current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits can be phase faults,
earth faults, winding faults. Short circuit currents are generally several times higher than full
load current.
When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided in addition
as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained through fault.
Over current relay has following protection:-
1) High speed over-current protection.
2) Definite time over-current protection.
3) Inverse minimum time protection.
4) Differential over-current protection.
The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the time/current characteristics
and other features desired.
There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their type and
characteristics. The major characteristics include:
 Definite characteristic.
 Extremely Inverse characteristic.
 Very Inverse characteristic.
In definite characteristics the time of operation is almost definite i.e.

𝑰𝟎 ∗ 𝒕 = 𝑲
Where, I=Current in Relay coil
t=Relay time
K=Constant
Instantaneous relay are those which have no intentional time lag and which operate in less than
0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As such they are not instantaneous in real sense.
The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time-Delay Relay.
The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also called Definite
Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics.
Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied where is an abrupt
difference between fault current within the protected section and that outside the protected
section and these magnitudes are almost constant. The over-current protection is provided for
the following:
 Motor Protection
 Transformer Protection.
 Feeders Protection.
 Protection of Utility Equipment i.e. Furnaces, Industrial Installations, Domestic
Equipment etc.
Characteristics of Over-Current Relay

According to timing characteristics the relays can be divided into following classes:
(i) Instantaneous Over-Current Relay.
(ii) Inverse-Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Over-Current Relay.
(iii) Induction Type Over-Current Relay.
(i) Instantaneous Over-Current Relay
An instantaneous over-current relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided for
operation. In such a relay the relay contacts close immediately after the current in the relay coil
exceeds that for which it is set. Although there will be a short time interval between the instant
of pick-up and the closing of the relay contacts. These characteristics can be achieved with the
help of hinged armature relays. Such relay has a unique advantage of reducing the time of
operation to a minimum for faults very close to the source where the fault is large. The
instantaneous relay is effective only where the impedance between the relay and the source is
small compared with the impedance of the section is protected. The time of operation is lesser
than 0.2 second.
(ii) Inverse-Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay
Such a relay is one which operating time is approximately inversely proportional to fault current
near pick-up value and becomes substantially constant slightly above the pick-up value of the
relay. This is achieved using a core of electro-magnet which gets saturated for currents slightly
greater than the pick-up current.

Current-time characteristics of an IDMT relay are given below:
Operating current expressed as a Operating time in second at the maximum

Multiple of setting time setting (TMS=1.0)
20 2.2
10 3.0
5 4.0
2 10.0
(iii) Induction Type Over-Current Relay: -

An induction type over-current relay giving inverse-time operation with a definite minimum
time characteristic is shown in above figure. It consists essentially of an AC energy meter
mechanism with slight modification to give required characteristics. The relay has two electro-
magnets. The upper electromagnet has two windings, one of these is primary and is connected
to the secondary of a CT in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The tapings are
connected to a plug setting bridge by which the number of turns in use can be adjusted, thereby
giving the desired current setting. The plug bridge is usually arranged to give sections of tapping
to give over-current range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%.The values assigned to each tap
are expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of CT with which the relay is associated
and represents and the value above which the disc commences to rotate and finally closed the
trip circuit. Thus pick-up current equals the rated secondary current CT multiplied by current
setting. Adjust of current setting is made by inserting a pin between the spring loaded jaw of
the bridge socket at the tap value required. When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of
changing the setting value the relay in service, the relay automatically adopts higher setting,
thus the CT’s secondary is not open circuited. The second winding is energized by induction
from the primary and is connected in series with the winding on the lower magnet and leakage
fluxes of upper and lower electro-magnets are sufficiently displaced in space and phase to set
up a rotational torque the aluminum disc suspended between the two magnets as in shaded pole
induction disc motor. This torque is controlled by the spiral spring and also sometimes by a
permanent magnet brake on the disc. The torque is given by the expression 𝑇 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐼 −𝐾 ,
where 𝐼 is the current through the coil and 𝐾 is the restraining torque of the spring. The
disc spindle carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts)
when the disc has rotated through a preset angle. The angle can be set to any value between 0
to 360 and thereby giving desired time setting. This adjustment is known as time-setting
multiplier. Time multiplier setting is generally in the form of an adjustable back-stop which
decides the arc length through which the disc travels by reducing the length of travel, the
operating time is reduced. The time-setting multiplier is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of
0.05.Since the time required to rotate the disc through a pre-set angle depends upon the torque
which varies as the current in primary circuit therefore more the torque lesser will be the time
required. So the relay has inverse-time characteristic.

Figure-2. Induction Type Non-Directional Over- Current Relay
Current-Time Characteristics of an Over-Current Induction Relay:-

A set of typical time-current characteristics of the above relay is given in the figure. The
horizontal scale is marked in terms of plug-setting multiplier and represents the number of times
the relay current is in excess of the current setting. The vertical scale is marked in terms of the
time required for relay operation. The abscissa is taken as multiple of pick-up value so that the
same curves can be used for any value of pick-up i.e. if the curves are known for pick-up value
of 5A,then the characteristics remains same for 2.5A,6.25A,7.5A or any other pick-up value.
This possible with induction type relays where pick-up adjustment is by coil, because the
ampere-turns at pick-up are same for each tap and hence at a given multiple of pick-up, the coil
ampere turns and hence the torque are same regardless of the tap used.
Setting of Induction Relay: -

The-setting for a phase-fault relay is usually of the order of 150-200% of the full-load current.
An induction relay will not operate at a current equal to or less than its setting and minimum
operating current of the relay must not exceed 130% of the setting. A time interval of 0.4 to 0.5
second may be allowed in the time settings of two adjacent inductions relays for proper
selectivity. Shorter interval of 0.35 second may be used with very inverse over-current relays.
Whenever a protective system comprises of a series of Earth-fault relays with graded time
settings, it is imperative that the current-time characteristics of all such relays must flatten out
in the same fashion so that a flawless relay operation is ensured however severe may be nature
of the fault.

Determination of Relay Operating Time: -

For determination of actual operating time of a relay, the data required is (1) Time-PSM Curve
(2) Current-Setting (3) Time Setting (4) Fault Current (5) CT ratio. The actual operating time
of a relay is determined by following steps given below;
 Determination of relay current from fault current 𝐼 and CT ratio x: y from the expression
Relay current 𝐼 = (𝐼 ∗ 𝑦)/𝑥 ……………………………………… (1)
 Determination of relay Plug-setting multiplier (i.e. PSM) which is given as –
PSM= ( )
=
∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
=( = = = ……………………….. (2)
∗ )∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Where, 𝐼 is the percent current setting of the relay.
 Determination of operating time of relay corresponding to calculated PSM from Time-

PSM curve.
 Determination of actual operating time of relay by multiplying the time obtained in step as
above procedure by time-setting multiplier in use.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Figure- 3. Connection diagram of Time - Over Current Relay.

Procedure: -
1. Make the connection as per circuit diagram.
2. Rotate the variac at minimum position.
3. Switch on main AC supply.
4. Push the current setting push button.
5. Set the current by adjusting the variac at clockwise direction.
6. Reset the time at zero position.
7. Push the start push button.
8. Note the final Ammeter reading and tripping time.
9. Take at least six readings at different current.
10. Plot the Current Vs. time curve and verify it.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA:
Sl. No. Plug-setting Fault PSM Ideal Actual % Error

Current Current Tripping Tripping
Time Time
1
2
3
4
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Draw graph of Ideal tripping time & Actual tripping time w.r.t PSM.

EXPERIMENT # 12
TITLE:
Study of different protection scheme for feeder.
OBJECTIVE:
To study different types of Faults in the Feeder.

To Test the transmission line protection using distance relay.
THEORY:
Distance relays, sometimes referred to as impedance relay, measure the impedance of its
protected unit, e.g. a line, using current and voltages supplied by CTs and VTs. The relay have
been provided with the calculated impedance of the line, and continuously compare the two.
Should the measured impedance at any time drop below the known line impedance, it will know
that there is a fault and trip.
The relay operates depending upon the impedance between the point of fault and the point where
relay is installed. These relays are known as Distance Relay or Impedance Relay.
The operation of such relay depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to current ratio.
This ratio is nothing but impedance. The relay will only operate when this voltage to current
ratio becomes less than its predetermined value. Hence, it can be said that the relay will only
operate when the impedance of the line becomes less than predetermined impedance (voltage /
current). As the impedance of a transmission line is directly proportional to its length, it can
easily be concluded that a distance relay can only operate if fault is occurred within a
predetermined distance or length of line.
Relays may sometimes be set based on the line impedance, for typical setting for zone 1, zone
2 and zone 3.
Figure – 1; Three Zone step of Distance Relay

Careful selection of the reach point settings and tripping times for various zones of measurement
enables correct coordination between distance relays on a power system. Fig 1 shows a three-
zone step distance relaying scheme. Basic distance protection will comprise one instantaneous
protection of the protected line section (Zone 1) and time – delayed protection over the
remainder of the line (Zone 2 & Zone 3).
Zone 1: This is set to protect between 80% of the line length AB and operates without any time
delay. This “under – reach” setting has been purposely chosen to avoid “over – reaching” into
the next line section to ensure selectivity since errors and transients can be present in the voltage
and current transformers. Also manufacturing tolerances limit the measurement accuracy of the
relays.
Zone 2: This is set to protect 100% of the line length AB, plus at least 20% of the shortest
adjacent line and operates with time delay. It not only covers the remaining 20% of the line, but
also provides backup for the next line section.
Zone 3: This is set to protect 100% of the two lines AB, BC, plus about 25% of the third line
and operates with time delay.
Figure 2 : Example – Relay Coordination for Adjacent Lines – Fault at Line 3
Fig 2 illustrates three adjacent lines with their respective protection system. If a fault occurs at
Line 3, the primary protection is Relay C, i.e. it should operate first without any intentional time
delay. Relay B should have an added time delay, so that it will function as remote back-up
protection if the primary protection fails. At the same time, Relay A should be coordinated with
both relays, typically the intentional time delay will here be double the one for relay B. This is
due to the fact that Relay A should function as remote back-up for Relay B, meaning it indirectly
has the role as remote back-up protection for Relay C.
Figure 3; Distance Relay Principle

A common application for distance protection of a line is to have two distance relays at both
ends of the line looking towards each other, as seen in fig 3. The zone setting of the relays are
set equal and in opposite direction, with Zone 1 normally being set to 80-85 % of the line length.
The main purpose of using dual relays is to improve reliability for far-bus faults, i.e. faults
outside of Zone 1.
Assuming a fault occurs close to bus B, Relay A will see the fault in Zone 2, while Relay B will
see it in its Zone 1. This means Relay A will have longer operating time than Relay B, due to
the added time delay. To improve operating time, and allow both relays to operate
instantaneously communication between the relays can be added. The communication can be
simple with transferring of one or more variables. i.e. trip signals and breaker positions.
Figure 4; Corresponding RX diagram with Zone Settings.
The different fault types can be divided into four groups. Looking at all faults over a statistical
significant time and area, the different faults will have the following:
1. Three-phase to Ground Fault.
2. Phase to Ground Faults.
3. Phase to Phase Faults.
4. Double Phase to Ground Faults.
Different faults will have the following:

a) Fig- 5 showing Three – Phase to Ground Fault.
Figure 5; Three-Phase-to-Ground Fault

A Three – phase fault is a condition where all three phases in a network is short circuited. The
connection between the three phases and ground, however assuming the system is
symmetrical, Kirchhoff’s current law yields that the sum of the three phase current is equal,
i.e. no current will be flowing to ground.
b) Figure – 6 showing Phase-to-Ground Fault.
Figure 6; Phase-to-Ground Fault
Single phase-to-Ground faults are the most common fault types in common three-phase
networks. They may be caused by direct or indirect lightning strokes, leading to transient over
voltages. Falling trees or other objects may also lead to a short circuit between phase and
ground.
c) Fig- 7 showing Phase to Phase Fault.
Figure 7: Phase-to-Phase Fault
When two phases in a three-phase system comes in contact with each other it is called a phase-
to-phase fault. This is an asymmetrical fault. Consider a case where Phase a and b are the faulted
phases.

d) Fig- 8 showing Double Phase to Ground Fault.
Figure 8: Double-Phase-to-Ground Fault
Double- Phase to Ground faults occur when two phases come in contact with each other and
ground at the same time.
Input of the Distance relay were to be used in secondary values of current transformer &
voltage transformer. Therefore impedance setting of the relay must be converted:
Zsec =ZPrl . CTR/VTR
Where CTR & VTR are the ratio of the current and voltage transformer.
OPERATING PROCEDURE:
[The MHO type Distance Protection Relay (YCG) set up are a compact system. Connection
procedure are very critical, therefore all are internally connected. Only run the system with
healthy and faulty condition and observe what happen in actual transmission line if fault
occur.
The system run in Three-phase, 400V, 50Hz but all parameters are set in respect of three-
phase 232 KV, 400MW line. All meters also calibrate in respect of 232 KV, 400MW line].
1. Switch ON the system. Meters display the voltage, current and power in no-load
condition.
2. Load the system with help of loading MCB. Meter display the voltage, current and three
phase power in load condition.
3. In the front desk there have different fault creator push button.
4. Press START push button at any fault creator.
5. The fault go to the relay and relay trip and indicator show the fault position and type of
fault.
6. Reset the system and repeat from 4.
7. It is remember that not press more than one fault push button at a time, if press then
system short circuited internally and may be damaged.

8. Observe the reading of the voltmeters, ammeters, power meter and time counter and note
down in observation table.
Experimental Data:
Sl Fault Voltage Voltage Voltage Current Current Current Power Time in

no. Number (RN) (YN) (BN) (R-phase) (Y- (B-phase) (W) mili-sec
volts volts volts amp. phase) amp. watt.
amp.
OBSERVATIONS:

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LABORATORY MANUAL

EM-4/1, Sector V, Salt Lake

Wishing all worthfulness of this Manual in fulfilling the objectives,

Power System Lab. Page 2 of 68

Course Title : POWER SYSTEM – II LAB

Power System Lab. Page 3 of 68

Power System Lab. Page 4 of 68

Electrical Emergency Response

Important— Not to use water on electrical fire

Power System Lab. Page 5 of 68

GUIDELINES FOR LAB REPORTS

Power System Lab. Page 6 of 68

INSTITUTIONAL VISION AND MISSION

1. To identify individual potential, capabilities and skills to achieve confidence and

DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION

M1. To produce industry-ready professionals in Electrical Engineering, and achieve excellence

Power System Lab. Page 7 of 68

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO PEO Details

PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

Power System Lab. Page 8 of 68

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

Take part in the laboratory testing working as an individual or in a team to improve

CO6 Interpret the experimental results in a well informative way.

Power System Lab. Page 10 of 68

1. Study the characteristics of ON Delay and OFF Delay Relay.

1) ON- TIME DELAY RELAY:

2) OFF-TIME DELAY RELAY:

Timing diagram Symbol

Power System Lab. Page 11 of 68

Timing diagram for on delay timer

Timing diagram Symbol

Connection diagram for ON-Time Delay Relay (VTT-11)

PROCEDURE (For ON-Time delay Relay)

OBSERVATION & RESULTS (For ON-Time delay Relay)

SL NO. SETTING TIME (Sec.) ACTUAL TRIPPING TIME (Sec.) % OF ERROR

Connection diagram for OFF-Time Delay Relay (VTT-12)

PROCEDURE (For OFF-Time delay Relay)

Power System Lab. Page 13 of 68

OBSERVATION & RESULTS (For OFF-Time delay Relay)

SL NO. SETTING TIME (Sec.) ACTUAL TRIPPING TIME (Sec.) % OF ERROR

Power System Lab. Page 14 of 68

To check the polarity and ratio of C.T & P.T.

The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to

DIFFERENT RATIOS IN TRANSFORMER:

 Kn = normal ratio = (Rated primary current)/(Rated secondary current)

Power System Lab. Page 15 of 68

MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFORMER:

The EMF induced in the CT secondary windings is

Power System Lab. Page 16 of 68

PROCEDURE OF POLARITY TEST FOR CT AND PT:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR POLARITY TEST:

Power System Lab. Page 17 of 68

SL NO. CONFIGURATION PRIMARY SECONDARY V3(VOLTS) TURNS NATURE POLARITY