Principles of Nava 00 Unit

- PRINCIPLES OF
NAVAL ENGINEERING |
Prepared by
BUREAU OF NAVAL PERSONNEL
NAVPERS 10788-B
PREFACE
This text provides an introduction tothe theory and design of engineer-

ing machinery and equipment aboard ship. Primary emphasis is placed
on helping the student acquire an overall view of shipboard engineering
plants and an understanding of basic theoretical considerations that
underlie the design of machinery and equipment. Details of operation,
maintenance, and repair are not included in this text.
The text is divided into five major parts. Part I deals with the devel-
opment of naval ships, ship design and construction, stability and buoyancy
of ships, and preventive and corrective damage control. Certain theoreti-
cal considerations that apply to virtually all engineering equipment are
discussed in part II. Part III takes upthe major units of machinery in the
main propulsion cycle of the widely used steam turbine propulsion plant.
Auxiliary machinery and equipment are discussed in part IV. Other types
of propulsion machinery, together witha brief survey of new developments
in naval engineering, are considered in part V. In addition to these five
major parts, the text includes an appendix which surveys and briefly
describes a number of references that should be of value to engineering
officers.
This text was prepared by the Training Publications Division, Naval
Personnel Program Support Activity, Washington, D. C., for the Bureau
of Naval Personnel. Review of the manuscript and technical assistance
were provided by Officer Candidate School at Newport, Rhode Island;
Naval Development and Training Center, San Diego, California; Service
School Command, Great Lakes, Illinois; and Naval Ship Systems Command.
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First edition 1958
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ia Revised 1966, 1970
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Washington, D.C. 20402
Stock No. 008-047-00127-4/ Catalog No. D208.112/:EN3/2/970.
ii
CONTENTS
PART I THE NAVAL SHIP
Chapter 1 The Development of Naval Ships......

Chapter 2 Ship Design and Construction........
Chapter 3 Stability and) BuoyanGyewsscete)s sete) - )
Chapter 4 Preventive and Corrective Damage Con-
EHOl bs... -e valet eset eyeran eee emanate ee
PART II BASIC ENGINEERING THEORY
Chapter 5 Fundamentals of Ship Propulsion

and Steering sicweice
ere eacter orcer cite otalia’fe
Chapter 6 Theory Ofmubricacion sciences hence
Chapter 7 Principles of Measurement .........
Chapter 8 Introduction to Thermodynamics......
PART IIT THE CONVENTIONAL STEAM TURBINE

PROPULSION PLANT
Chapter 9 Machinery Arrangement and

Plantelsay Outharememenenteremenet
atonenen sieicne rs
Chapter 10 PropulsionyBolersiieienieienoncnsl isis
Chapter 11 Boiler Fittings and Controls ........
Chapter 12 Propulsion Steam Turbines .........
Chapter 13 Condensers and Other Heat Exchangers .
PART IV AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Chapter 14 Piping, Fittings, and Valves.........

Chapter 15 Pumps and Forced Draft Blowers.....
Chapter 16 Auxiliary Steam Turbines ..........
Chapter 17 Compressed Air) Plantsi. 5... se «6
Chapter 18 IONSVON TS EINES 5 Gp 6G On 0 oo DION o
Chapter 19 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
IPE, GG a6 0k Cobo dUDOODOOOOOC
Chapter 20 Shipboard Electrical Systems........
Chapter 21 Other Auxiliary Equipment..........
PART V OTHER TYPES OF PROPULSION PLANTS
Chapter 22 Diesel and Gasoline Engines ........

Chapter 23 GaSPINIPDINeS)seevewe es cissit cre ehesere a (ee
Chapter 24 Nuclears Power Plants icacacwenenemenencecwcne
Chapter 25 New Developments in Naval
FING
INE CHING: emeier ee aieliene:
lee. «os S06
CREDITS
The illustrations indicated below are included in this edition of Prin-
ciples of Naval Engineering through the courtesy of the designated
publishers, companies, and associations. Permission to reproduce these
illustrations must be obtained from the original sources.
Source Figures
American Engineering Co. 21-7

American Society of Mechanical Engineers 22-43
Babcock & Wilcox Co. 10-15, 10-19, 11-6
Bert A. Shields 7-33
Buffalo Meter Co. 7-28
Cooper-Bessemer Corp. 22-11, 22-13, 22-23,
29n26. 20-27) 22-38
Crane Co. 14-12, 14-14
Crosby Valve and Gage Co. 7-25
Cutler-Hammer, Inc. 20-25
De Laval Steam Turbine Co. 16-7, 16-8
Fairbanks, Morse and Co. 22-9
General Motors Corp.
Cleveland Diesel Engine Division 22-14, 22-35
Detroit Diesel Engine Division 22-19, 22-20, 22-24,
22-25, 22-34
Gray Marine Motor Co. 22-2, 22-3
James G. Biddle Co. 7-35, 7-36
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 8-11
From: Joseph H. Keenan and Frederick G.
Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties
of Steam, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1937. (Excerpts from
Table III.)
Kingsbury Machine Works, Inc. 5-10, 5-11
Leeds and Northrup Co. 7-12
Leslie Co. 14-23, 14-24, 14-25
Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc. 7-17, 7-18, 7-20
7-23, 7=24
Moeller Instrument Co. 18-13
Packard Motor Car Co. 22-27, 22-28
Shell Oil Co. 5-12
Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers 9-19, 5-20, 5-21
Stewart Warner 7-34
U. S. Naval Institute
Naval Auxiliary Machinery 7-8; 7-16, 7-29
7-32, 11-35, 13-4
14-2, 14-5, 14-6,
14-9, 14-10, 14-16,
iv
PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ENGINEERING
a ee
Source Figures
Naval Auxiliary Machinery (Cont’d) 14-20, 14-27, 14-29

15-20, 17-5, 21-5,
21-6
Naval Boilers 11-15, 11-17
Naval Turbines 12-6, 12-7, 12-9,
12-10, 12-11, 12-12,
12-13, 12-14, 12-15,
12-18, 12-20, 12-21,
16-1, 16-2, 16-3,
16-4, 16-5, 16-6
Velan Engineering Companies 14-8
Westinghouse Electric Corp. 15-32, 15-33, 15-34,
15-36, 24-7, 24-8,
24-9, 24-10, 24-11
PART I—THE NAVAL SHIP
Chapter 1 The Development of Naval Ships

Chapter 2. Ship Design and Construction
Chapter 3 Stability and Buoyancy
Chapter 4 Preventive and Corrective Damage Control
The four chapters included in this part of the text deal primarily with
the ship as a whole, rather than withspecific items of engineering equip-
ment. Most of the information given in this part applies to naval ships in
general, without regard to the type of ship or the type of propulsion plant
employed.
Chapter 1 provides a brief historical survey of the development of
naval ships. Chapter 2 takes up basic design considerations, ship flota-
tion, ship structure, compartmentation, and the geometry of the ship.
Chapter 3 deals with the basic principles of stability and buoyancy; al-
though this information is largely theoretical, it is essential for a true
understanding of the naval ship and for an understanding of many aspects
of damage control. Chapter 4 is concerned with preparations to resist
damage, the damage control organization, material conditions of readi-
ness, the investigation of damage, the control of damage, and certain
aspects of nuclear, biological, and chemical defense.
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CHAPTER 1
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVAL SHIPS
The story of the development of naval ships involved in the design of steam turbines, internal
is the story of prime movers: oars, wind-filled combustion engines, and gas turbine engines may
sails, reciprocating steam engines, steam tur- be attributed to a few men; but the innumerable
bines, internal combustion engines, gas turbine small improvements that have resulted in our
engines, It is also the story of the conversion present efficient machines are very largely
and utilization of energy: mechanical energy, anonymous.
thermal energy, chemical energy, electrical
energy, nuclear energy. Seen in broader con- THE DEVELOPMENT OF STEAM
text, the development of naval ships is merely MACHINERY
one fascinating aspect of man’s long struggle
to control and utilize energy and thereby re- One of the earliest steam machines of record
lease himself from the limiting slavery of is the aeolipile developed about 2000 years ago
physical labor. by the Greek mathematician Hero. This ma-
We have come a great distance in the chine, which was actually considered more of a
search for the better utilization of energy, toy or novelty than a machine, consisted of a
from the muscle power required to propel an hollow sphere which carried four bent nozzles.
ancient Mediterranean galley to the vast re- The sphere was free to rotate on the tubes that
serves of power available ina shipboard nuclear carried steam from the boiler, below, to the
reactor. No part of this search has been easy; sphere. As the steam flowed out through the
progress has been slow, difficult, and often nozzles, the sphere rotated rapidly ina direction
beset with frustrations, And the search is far opposite to the direction of steam flow. Thus
from over. Even within the next few years, new Hero’s aeolipile may be considered as the
developments may drastically change our pres- world’s first reaction turbine.
ent concepts of energy utilization. Giovanni Battista della Porta’s treatise on
This chapter touches briefly on some of the pneumatics (1601) describes and illustrates a
highlights in the development of naval ships. device which utilizes steam pressure to force
In any historical survey, it is inevitable that a water up from a Separate vessel. In the same
few names will stand out and a few discoveries treatise, the author suggests that the condensa-
or inventions will appear to be of crucial sig- tion of steam could be used to create a vacuum,
nificance. We may note, however, that our and that the vacuum could be utilized to draw
present complex and efficient fighting ships water upward from a lower level—a remarkably
are the result not only of brilliant work by a sophisticated concept, for the time.
relatively small number of well known men but Throughout the 17th century, many other de-
also of the steady, continuing work of thousands vices were suggested (and some of them built)
of lesser known or anonymous contributors who which attempted to utilize the motive power of
have devised small but important improvements steam. In many instances the scientific princi-
in existing machinery and equipment. The primi- ples were sound but the technology of the day
tive man who invented the wheel is often cited did not permit full development of the devices.
as an unknown genius; we might do well to
remember also the unknown genius who dis-
covered that wheels work better when they turn lHero's aeolipile is illustrated in chapter 12 of this
in bearings. Similarly, the basic concepts text.
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In 1698, Thomas Savery patented a condens- Savery’s device, the Newcomen engine was
ing steam engine which was designed to raise originally designed for removing water from
water. This machine consisted of two displace- mines, and in this it was highly successful.
ment chambers (or one, in some models), a However, the significance of the Newcomen
main boiler, a supplementary boiler, and ap- engine goes far beyond mere pumping. The sec-
propriate piping and valves. The operating ond was the Watt engine, which brought the
principles are simple, though most ingenious for reciprocating steam engine to the point where it
the time. When steam is admitted to one of the could be used as a prime mover on land and at
displacement vessels, it displaces the water sea,
and forces it upward through a check valve. The Newcomen engine was the first workable
When the displacement vessel has been emptied steam engine to utilize the piston and cylinder.
of water by this method, the supply of steam is As early as 1690, Denis Papin? had suggested
cut off. The steam already in the displacement a piston and cylinder arrangement for a steam
vessel is condensed as cold water is sprayed engine. The piston was to be raised by steam
on the outside surface of the vessel. The con- pressure from steam generated in the bottom of
densation of the steam creates a vacuum in the the cylinder. After the piston was raised, the
displacement vessel, and the vacuum causes heat would be removed and condensation of
more water to be drawn up through suction steam in the bottom of the cylinder would create
piping and a check valve. When the displacement a vacuum. The downward stroke of the piston
vessel is again full of water, steam is again would thus be caused by atmospheric pressure
admitted to the vessel and the cycle is repeated. acting on top of the piston. Papin’s theory was
In a model with two displacement chambers, the good but his engine turned out to be unworkable,
cycles are alternated so that one vessel is dis- chiefly because he attempted to generate the
charging water upward while the other is being steam in the bottom of the cylinder. When Papin
filled with water drawn up through the suction heard of Savery’s engine, he stopped working on
pipe. his own piston and cylinder device and devoted
Although technological difficulties prevented himself to improving the Savery engine.
Savery’s engine from being used as widely as The Newcomen engine, shown in figure 1-1,
its inventor would have liked, it was success- was built by Thomas Newcomen and his assist-
fully used for pumping water into buildings, for ant, John Cawley, in the early part of the 18th
filling fountains, and for other applications which century.* The Newcomen engine differs from
required a relatively low steam pressure. The the engine suggested by Papin in several impor-
machine was originally designed as a device for tant respects. Most important, perhaps, is the
removing water from mines, and Savery was fact that Newcomen separated the boiler from
convinced that it would be suitable for this the cylinder of the engine.
purpose. It was never widely used in mines, As- may be seen in figure 1-1, the boiler is
however, because very high steam pressures located directly under the cylinder. Steam is
would have been required to lift the water the admitted through a valve to the bottom of the
required distance. The metalworking skills of cylinder, forcing the piston up. The piston is
the time were simply not up to producing suitable connected by a chain to the arch on one side of
pressure vessels for containing steam at high a large, pivoted, working beam. The arch onthe
pressures. other side of the beam is connected by a chain
Although Savery’s machine was used through- to the rod of a vertical lift pump.
out the 18th century and well into the 19th cen-
tury, two new steam engines had meanwhile
made their appearance. The first of these,
Newcomen’s ‘‘atmospheric engine,’’ represents
a real breakthrough in steam machinery. Like 3Papin is also credited with the invention of the safety
valve.
4The year 1712 is frequently given as the date of the
Newcomen engine, and it is probably the yearin which
2It is reported that Savery attempted to use steam the engine was first demonstrated to a large public.
pressures as high as 8 or 10 atmospheres. When one It is likely, however, that previous versions of the
considers the weakness of his pressure vessels and engine were-built at a considerably earlier date, and
the total lack of safety values, it appears somewhat some authorities give the year 1705 as the date of the
remarkable that he survived. Newcomen engine.
Chapter 1—~THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVAL SHIPS
WORKING BEAM
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147.1
Figure 1-1.—The Newcomen engine.
After the steam has forced the piston to its engine, it is most likely that the admission of
top position, the steam valve is shut anda jet of steam and cold water was controlled by the
cold water enters the cylinder, condensing the manual operation of taps rather than by auto-
steam and creating a partial vacuum. Atmos- matic gear. The origin of the automatic gear
pheric pressure then causes the down stroke is a matter of some dispute. One story has it
(work stroke) of the piston, that a young boy named Humphrey Potter, who
As the piston comes down, the working beam was hired to turn the taps, invented the valve
is pulled down on the cylinder side. Asthe beam gear so that he could go fishing while the engine
rises on the pump side, the pump rodalso rises tended itself. This story, although persistent,
and water is lifted upward. As soonasthe pres- is considered ‘‘absurd’’ by_some serious his-
sure in the cylinder equals atmospheric pres- torians of the steam engine.
sure, an escape valve in the bottom ofthe cylin- James Watt, although often given credit for
der opens and the condensate is discharged inventing the steam engine, did not even begin
through a drain line into a sump. working on steam engines until some 50 years
The use of automatic valve gear to control
the admission of steam and the admission of
cold water made the Newcomen engine the first 5See, for example, Eugene S. Ferguson, ''The Origins
Sself-acting mechanism since the invention of the of the Steam Engine,"' Scientific American, January
clock. In the earliest versions of the Newcomen 1964, pp. 98-107.
eer ee
or so after the Newcomen engine was opera- this force of steam only, by discharging the
tional. However, Watt’s brilliant and original steam into the air after it has done its office.’’
contributions were ultimately responsible for
the utilization of steam engines ina wide variety As a result of these and other improvements,
of applications beyond the simple pumping of the Watt engine achieved an efficiency (interms
water. of fuel consumption) which was twice that of the
In 1799 Watt was granted a patent for certain Newcomen engine at its best. Among the other
improvements to ‘‘fire-engines’’ (Newcomen major contributions made by Watt, the following
engines). Since some of these improvements were particularly significant in the development
represent major contributions to steam engi- of the steam engine:
neering, it may be of interest to see how Watt
himself described the improvements in a speci- 1. The development of devices for translat-
fication: ing reciprocating motion into rotary motion,
Although Watt was not the first to devise such
arrangements, he was the first to apply them
““My method of lessening the consumption of to the task of making a steam engine drive a
steam, and consequently fuel, in fire-engines, revolving shaft. This one improvement alone
consists of the following principles:— Opened the way for the application of steam
“First, That vessel in which the powers of engines to many uses other than the pumping of
steam are to be employed to work the engine, water; in particular, it paved the way for the
which is called the cylinder in common fire- use of
steam engines as propulsive devices.
engines, and which I call the steam vessel, 2. The use of a double-acting piston—that
must, during the whole time the engine is at is, one which is moved first in one direction
work, be kept as hot as the steam that enters and then in the opposite direction, as steam is
it; first by inclosing it in a case of wood, or admitted first to one end ofthe cylinder and then
any other materials that transmit heat slowly; to the other.
secondly, by surrounding it with steam or other 3. The development of parallel-motionlink-
heated bodies; and thirdly, by suffering neither ages to keep a piston rod vertical as the beam
water nor any other substance colder than the moved in an arc.
steam to enter or touch it during that time. 4. The use of a centrifugal ‘‘flyball’’ gov-
ernor to control the speed of the steam engine.
“Secondly, In engines that are to be worked Although the centrifugal governor had beenused
wholly or partially by condensation of steam. before, Watt brought to it the completely new—
the steam is to be condensed in vessels distinct and very significant—concept of feedback. In
from the steam-vessels or cylinders, although previous use, the centrifugal governor had been
occasionally communicating with them; these capable of making a machine automatic; by add-
vessels I call condensers; and, whilst the ening the feedback principle, Watt made his ma-
gines are working, these condensers ought at chines self-regulating.
least to be kept as cold as the air in the neigh- Neither Newcomen nor Watt were able to
bourhood of the engines, by application of water utilize the advantages of high pressure steam,
or other cold bodies. largely because a copper pot was about the best
that could be done in the way of a boiler. The
‘“‘Thirdly, Whatever air or other elastic
first high pressure steam engines were built by
vapour is not condensed by the cold of the con-
denser, and may impede the working of the
engine, is to be drawn out of the steam-vessels 6The distinction between automatic machines and
or condensers by means of pumps, wrought by self-regulating machines is of considerable signifi-
cance, An automatic pump, for example, can operate
the engines themselves or otherwise.
without a human attendant but it cannot change its mode
‘Fourthly, I intend in many cases to employ of operation to fit changing requirements. A self-
the expansive force of steam to press on the regulating pump, on the other hand, operates auto-
pistons, or whatever may be used instead of matically and can change its speed (or some other
them, in the same manner in whichthe pressure characteristic) to meet increased or decreased de-
of the atmosphere is now employed in common mands for the fluid being pumped. To be self-regulat-
fire-engines. In cases where cold water cannot ing, a machine must have some type of feedback
be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by information from the output side of the machine to
the operating mechanism.
Chapter 1—THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVAL SHIPS
a a
Oliver Evans, in the United States, and Richard Fulton. The ship, which is shown in figure 1-2,
Trevethick, in England. The Evans engine, was built in the United States in 1815. The ship
which was built in 1804, had a vertical cylinder had a displacement of 2475 tons. A paddle wheel
and a double-acting piston. A boiler, made of 16 feet in diameter, was mounted in a trough or
copper but reinforced with iron bands, provided tunnel inside the ship, for protection from gun-
steam at pressures of several atmospheres. fire. The paddle wheel was driven by a one-
The boiler was one of the first ‘‘fire-tube’’ cylinder steam engine with a 48-inch cylinder
boilers; the ‘‘tubes’’ were actually flues which and a 60-inch stroke.
were installed in such a way as to carry the The next large steam-driven warship to be
combustion gases several times through the built in the United States was the Fulton 2nd.
vessel in which the water was being heated. This ship was built in 1837 at the Brooklyn
This type of boiler, with many refinements and Navy Yard. The Fulton 2nd, like the Fulton (or
variations, became the basic boiler design of the Demologos) before it, was fitted with sails as
19th century. Trevethick, using a similar type of well as with a steam engine. The plant efficiency
boiler, built a successful steam carriage in of the Fulton 2nd has been calculated” to be about
1801; in 1804, he built what was probably the 3 percent. Its maximum speed was about 15
first modern type of steam locomotive. knots, with a shaft horsepower of approximately
Continuing efforts by many people led to 625.
steady improvements in the steam engine andto The Fulton 2nd was rebuilt in 1852 andnamed
its eventual application as a prime mover for the Fulton 3rd. The Fulton 3rd had a somewhat
ships. For many years, the major effort was to different kind of steam engine, and its operating
improve the reciprocating steam engine. How- steam pressure was 30 psi, rather than the 11
ever, the latter half of the 19th century saw the psi of the Fulton 2nd. Several other significant
introduction of the first practicable steam tur- changes were incorporated inthe Fulton 3rd—bnit
bines. Sir Charles Parsons, in 1884, and Dr. the ship still had sails as wellasa steam engine.
Gustaf de Laval, in 1889, made major contri- The Navy was still a long ways away from
butions to the development of the steam turbine. abandoning sails in favor of steam.
The earliest application of a steam turbine for The Mississippi and the Missouri, built in
ship propulsion was made in 1897, when a 100- 1842, are sometimes regarded as marking the
ton vessel was fitted with a steam turbine which beginning of the steam Navy—even though they,
was directly coupled tothe propeller shaft. After too, still had sails. The two ships were very
the installation of the steam turbine, the vessel much alike except for their engines. The Mis-
broke all existing speed records for ships of any souri had two inclined engines. The Mississippi
size. In 1910, Parsons introduced the reduction had two side-lever engines of the type shown in
gear, which allowed both the steam turbine and figure 1-3. Three copper boilers were used on
the screw propeller to operate at their most each ship. Operating steam pressures were
efficient speeds—the turbine at very high speeds, approximately 15 psi.
the propeller at much lower speeds. With this The Michigan, which joined the steam Navy
improvement, the steamturbine became the most about 1843, had iron boilers rather than copper
significant development in steam engineering ones. These boilers lasted for 50 years. The
since the development of the Watt engine. With Michigan operated with a steam pressure of 29
further refinements and~ improvements, the psi.
steam turbine is today the primary device for The Princeton, which joined the steam Navy
utilizing the motive power of steam. in 1844, was remarkable for a number of rea-
sons. It was the first warship inthe world to use
screw propellers, although they had been tried
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MODERN NAVAL SURFACE SHIPS
The 19th century saw the application of

steam power to naval ships. The first steam- 7See Morris Welling, Gerald M. Boatwright, and
driven warship in the world was the Demologos Maurice R. Hauschildt, "Naval Propulsion Machin-
(voice of the people) which was later renamed ery,'' Naval Engineers Journal, May 1963, pp. 339-
the Fulton in honor of its builder, Robert 348. :
<
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WH OZIELLLLD IZIZZA tH
WATER LINE
BOILER PADDLES ENGINE
147.2
Figure 1-2.—The Demologos: the first steam-driven warship.
out more than forty years before.8 The Princeton these was the Merrimac. Another was the
had an unusual oscillating, rectangular-piston Pensacola, which was somewhat ahead of its
type of engine (fig. 1-4). The piston rod was con- time in several ways. The Pensacola had the
nected directly to the crankshaft, and the cylinder first surface condenser (as opposed to a jet
oscillated in trunnions. This ship was also note- condenser) to be used on a Ship of the U.S.
worthy for being the first warship to have all Navy. It also had the first pressurized fire-
machinery located below the waterline, the first rooms,
to burn hard coal, and the first to supply extra It was not until 1867 that the U.S. Navy
air for combustion by having blowers discharge obtained a completely steam-driven ship. In the
to the fireroom. But even the Princeton still Navy’s newly created Bureau of Steam Engi-
had sails. neering, a brilliant designer, Benjamin Isher-
Almost twenty steam-driven warships joined wood, conceived the idea for a fast cruiser. One
the steam Navy between 1854 and 1860. One of of Isherwood’s ships, the Wampanog, attained
the remarkable speed of 17.75 knots during her
8m 1802, Colonel John Stevens applied Archimedes' trial runs, and maintained an average of 16.6
screw as a means of ship propulsion. The first ship
knots for a period of 38 hours in rough seas.
that Stevens tried the screw on was a single-screw
ship, which unfortunately ran in circles. The second The Wampanog had a displacement of 4215
application—a twin-screw ship with the screws revolv- tons, a length of 335 feet, and abeam of 45 feet.
ing in opposite directions—was more successful. John The engines consisted of two 100-inch single-
Ericsson, who designed the Princeton, developed the expansion cylinders turning one shaft. The engine
forerunner of the modern screw propeller in 1837. It shaft was geared to the propeller shaft, driving
is interesting to note that the original problem with the propeller at slightly more than twice the
screw propellers was that they were inefficient at the speed of the engines. Steam was generated by
slow speeds provided by the large, slow engines of the
time. This is just the opposite of the present-day
four boilers at a pressure of 35 psi and was
problem. Both then and now, the solution is gears: superheated by four more boilers. The
step-up gears, in the old days, and reduction gears, Wampanog propulsion plant, shown in figure
at the present time. 1-5, was a remarkable power plant for itstime.
Chapter 1—~THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVAL SHIPS
Sad to relate, the Wampanog came to an Ship designers approached the close of the
ignominious end. A board of admirals concluded 19th century with an intense regard for speed.
that the ship was unfit for the Navy, that the Shipbuilders were awarded contracts with bonus
four-bladed propeller was an interference to and penalty clauses based on speed performance.
good sailing, and that the four superheater In the construction of the cruisers Columbia and
boilers were merely an unnecessary refinement, Minneapolis, a speed of 21 knots was specified.
As a result of this expert opinion, two of the The contract stipulated a bonus of $50,000 per
four propeller blades and all four of the super- each quarter-knot above 21 knots and a penalty
heater boilers were removed. The Wampanog of $25,000 for each quarter-knot below 21 knots.
was thus reduced from a superior steam-driven The Columbia maintained a trial speed of 22.8
ship to an inferior sailing vessel, with steam knots for 4 hours, and thereby earned for her
used merely as an auxiliary source of power. builders a bonus of $350,000. Her sister ship,
The modern U.S. Navy may be thought of as the Minneapolis, made 23.07 knots onher trials,
dating from 1883, the year in which Congress canning $414, 660 for that performance. Other
appropriated funds for the construction of the shipbuilders profited in similar fashion from the
first steel warships. The major type of engine speed race. And some, of course, were penalized
was still the reciprocating steam engine; for failure. The builders of the Monterey, for
however, the latter part of the 19th century saw example, lost $33,000 when the ship failed to
increasing interest inthe development of internal meet the specified speed.
combustion engines and steam turbines. By the early part of the 20th century, steam
was here to stay; the ships of all navies of the
world were now propelled by reciprocating steam
P ADDL E-WHEEL engines or by steam turbines. Coal was still the
SHAFT
standard fuel, although it had certain disadvan-
tages that were becoming increasingly apparent.
One of the problems was the disposal of ashes.
The only practicable way to get rid of them was
to dump them overboard, but this left a telltale
floating line on the surface of the sea, easily
seen and followed by the enemy. Furthermore,
the smoke from the smokestacks was enough to
reveal the presence of a steam-driven ship even
when it was far beyond the horizon. The military
disadvantages of coal were further emphasized
by the fact that it took at least one day to coal
the ship, another day to clean up—a minimum of
147.3 two days lost, and the coal would only last for
Figure 1-3.—Side-lever engine, another two weeks or so of steaming.
USS Mississippi (1842). Then came oil. The means for burning oil
were not developed until the early part of the
20th century. Once the techniques and equip-
ment were perfected, the change from coal to
oil took place quite rapidly. Our first oil-burn-
ing battleships were the Oklahoma and the
Nevada, which were laid down in 1911. All coal-
burning ships were later altered to burn oil.
While the coal-to-oil conversion was in prog-
ress, a tug-of-war was going on inanother area.
The reciprocating steam engine and the steam
turbine each had its proponents. To settle the
matter, the Bureau of Engineering made the
decision to install reciprocating engines in the
147.4 Oklahoma and steam turbines in the Nevada.
Figure 1-4.—Oscillating engine, Although there were still many problems to be
USS Princeton (1844), solved, the steam turbine was well on its way
ee
yl rh on tele ed
to becoming the major prime mover for naval drive; and today there are relatively few ships
ships. of the Navy that have turboelectric drive.
With the advent of the steam turbine, the The period just before, during, and after
problem of reconciling the speed of the prime World War II saw increasing improvement and
mover and the speed of the propeller became refinement of the geared-turbine propulsion
critical. The turbine operates most efficiently plant. One of the most notable developments
at high speed, and the propeller operates most of this period was the increase in operating
efficiently at low speed. The obvious solution steam pressures—from 400 psi to 600 psi and
was to use reduction gears between the shaft finally, on some ships, to 1200 psi. Other im-
of the prime mover and the shaft of the pro- provements included reduction in the size and
peller; and, basically, this is the solution that weight of machinery and the use of a variety
was adopted and that is still in use on naval of new alloys for high pressure and high tem-
ships today. However, other solutions are pos- perature service.
sible; and one—the use of turboelectric drive— Although the development of naval surface
was tried out on a fairly large scale. ships, unlike the development of submarines,
During World War I, the collier Jupiter (later has been largely dependent upon the develop-
converted to the aircraft carrier Langley) was ment of steam machinery, we should not over-
fitted with turboelectric drive. The high speed look the importance of an alternate line of
turbines drove generators which were electri- work—namely, the development of internal com-
cally connected to low speed motors. The ‘‘big bustion engines. In the application of diesel
five’’ battleships—the Maryland, the Colorado, engines to ship propulsion, Europe was con-
the West Virginia, the California, and the siderably more advanced than the United States;
Tennessee—were all built with turboelectric as late as 1932, in fact, the United States was
drive. Ultimately, however, starting with the in the embarrassing position of having to buy
modernization of the Navy in 1934, the turbo- German plans for diesel submarine engines. A
electric drive gave way to the geared-turbine concerted effort was made during the 1930’s
BOILER
PROPELLER SHAFT
SUPERHEATER
BOILER
WORKING
CYLINDERS
BOILER
147.5
Figure 1-5.—Propulsion plant of the Wampanog.
10
147.6
Figure 1-6.—The nuclear surface fleet, 1965: USS Long Beach, CGN 9 (top); USS
Enterprise, CVAN 65 (middle); and USS Bainbridge, DLGN 25 (bottom).
to develop an American diesel industry, and the One of the most dramatic events in the
U.S. Naval Engineering Experiment Station (now entire history of naval ships is the application
the Marine Engineering Laboratory) at Annapolis of nuclear power, first to submarines and then
undertook the testing and evaluation of prototype to surface ships. The first three ships of our
diesel engines developed by American manufac- nuclear surface fleet are shown in figure 1-6.
turers. The success of this effort may be seen The middle ship is the aircraft carrier USS
in the fact that by the end of World War II the Enterprise, CVAN 65; on the flight deck, crew
diesel horsepower installed in naval vessels members are shown forming Einstein’s famous
exceeded the total horsepower of naval steam equation which is the basis of controlled nuclear
plants. power. The other two ships are (top) the guided
Since World War II, the gas turbine engine missile cruiser USS Long Beach, CGN 9, and
has come into increasing prominence as a pos- (bottom) the guided missile frigate USS Bain-
sible prime mover for naval ships. It is con- bridge, DLGN 25. The fourth nuclear surface
sidered likely that the next few years will see Ship to join the fleet was the USS Truxton,
enormously increased application of the gas DLGN 35. A fifth nuclear surface ship soon
turbine engine for ship propulsion, either singly to join the fleet is the USS Nimitz, CVAN 68.
or in combination with steam turbines or diesel Although the full implications of nuclear pro-
engines, pulsive power may not yet be fully realized,
11
one thing is already clear: the nuclear-powered closed automatically when the water reached
ship is virtually free of the limitations on steam- a certain level.
ing radius that apply to ships using other forms In 1798, Robert Fulton built a small sub-
of fuel. Because of this one fact alone, the future mersible which he called the Nautilus. This
of nuclear propulsive power seems assured. vessel, which is shown in figure 1-8, had an
overall length of 20 feet and a beam of 5 feet.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUBMARINES The craft was designed to carry three people
and to stay submerged for about an hour. The
Although ancient history records numerous first Nautilus carried sails for surface propul-
attempts of varying degrees of success to build sion and a hand-driven screw propeller for
underwater craft and devices, the first success- submerged propulsion. The periscope had not
ful submersible craft—and certainly the first to yet been invented, but Fulton’s craft hada modi-
be used as an offensive weapon in naval war- fied form of conning tower which had a porthole
fare—was the Turtle, a one-man submersible for underwater observation. In1801, Fultontried
invented by David Bushnell during the American to interest France, Britain, and America in his
Revolutionary War. The Turtle, which was pro- idea, but no nation was willing to sponsor the
pelled by a hand-operated screw propeller, at- development of the craft, even though this was
tempted to sink a British man-of-war in New the best submarine that had yet been designed.
York Harbor. The plan was to attach a charge Interest in the development of the submarine
of gunpowder to the ship’s bottom with screws was great during the period of the Civil War,
and to explode it with a time fuse. After re- but progress was limited by the lack of a suitable
peated failures to force the screws through the means of propulsion. Steam propulsion was
copper sheathing of the hull of the British ship, attempted, but it had many drawbacks, and hand
the submarine gave up, released the charge, and propulsion was obviously of limited value. The
withdrew. The powder exploded without any first successful steam-driven submarine was
result except to cause the British man-of-war built in 1880 in England. The submarine had a
to shift to a berth farther out to sea. coal-fired boiler and a retractable smokestack.
TORPEDO SPIKE
BALLAST TANK-
BALLAST-
WATERTIGHT “P UMPS |
BULKHEAD HOLLOW IRON KEEL
ANCHOR
110.104
Figure 1-7.—The Turtle—the first submersible 147.7
used in naval warfare. Figure 1-8.—The first Nautilus
(Robert Fulton, 1798).
The Turtle, shown infigure 1-7, looked some-
what like a lemon standing on end. The vessel In 1886, an all-electric submarine was built
had a water ballast system with hand-operated by two Englishmen, Campbell and Ash. Their
pumps, as well as the hand-operated propeller. boat was propelled at a surface speed of 6 knots
It also had a crude arrangement for drawing in by two 50-horsepower electric motors operated
fresh air from the surface. The vent pipes even from a 100-cell storage battery. However, this
12
eraft suffered from one major defect: its bat- There was little that was spectacular about
teries had to be recharged and overhauled at submarine development in the United States
such short intervals that its effective range between 1918 and 1941. The submarines built
never exceeded 80 miles. just before and during World War II ranged
In 1875, in New Jersey, John P. Holland built from 300 to 320 feet in length and displaced
his first submarine. Twenty-five years andnine approximately 1500 tons on the surface. These
boats later, Holland finally built the U.S. Navy’s included such famous classes as Balao, Gato,
first submarine, the USS Holland (fig. 1-9). Al- Tambor, Sargo, Salmon, Perch, and Pike.
though Holland’s early models had features which In the latter part of World War II, the
were later discontinued, many of his initial Germans adopted a radical change insubmarine
ideas, perfected in practice, are still in use design known as the ‘‘schnorkel.’’ The spelling
today. The Holland had a length of 54 feet anda was reduced to ‘‘snorkel’’ by the Americans and
displacement of 75 tons. A50-horsepower gaso- to ‘‘snort’’ by the British. The snorkel is a
line engine provided power for surface propul- breathing tube which is raised while the sub-
sion and for battery charging; electric motors marine is at periscope depth. With the snorkel
run from the storage batteries provided power in the raised position, air for the diesel engines
for underwater running. can be obtained from the surface.
Just before Holland delivered his first sub- The snorkel was developed and improved by
marine tothe Navy, his company was reorganized the U.S. Navy at the end of World War II and was
into the Electric Boat Company, which continued installed on a number of submarines. Another
to be the chief supplier of U.S. Navy submarines post-war development was the Guppy submar-
until 1917, After the acceptance of the Holland, ine. The Guppy (Greater Underwater Propulsion
new contracts for submarines came rapidly. The Power) was a conversion of the fleet-type sub-
A-boats, of which there were seven, were com- marine of World War II, The main change was
pleted in 1903. These were improved versions in the superstructure of the hull; this was changed
of the Holland; they were 67 feet long and were by reducing the surface area, streamlining every
equipped with gasoline engines and electric protruding object, and enclosing the periscope
motors. This propulsion combination persisted shears in a Streamlined metal fairing.
through a series of B-boats, C-boats, and D- With the advent of nuclear power, a new
boats turned out by the Electric Boat Company. era of submarine development has begun. The
The E-boat type of submarine was the first first nuclear submarine was the USS Nautilus,
to use diesel engines. Diesel engines eliminated SSN 571, which was commissioned on 30 Sep-
much of the physical discomfort that had been tember 1954. At 1100 on 17 January 1955, the
caused by fumes and exhaust gases of the old Nautilus sent its historic message: ‘‘Underway
gasoline engines. The K-boats, L-boats, and on nuclear power.’’
O-boats of World War I were all driven by The Nautilus broke all existing records for
diesel engines. speed and submerged endurance, but even these
ee oe
STORAGE STORAGE
BATTERY BATTERY
| U
AFTER ; I
rane |PS () I
ee
MAIN BALLAST TANK
Figure 1-9.—The USS Holland; first U.S. Navy submarine. (lait
13
records were soon broken by subsequent gen- which is capable of submerged firing of the
erations of nuclear-powered submarines. The Polaris/Poseidon missile—the submarine has
modern nuclear-powered submarine is some- become one of the most vital links in our
times considered ‘‘the first true submarine’’ national defense. The modern nuclear-powered
because it is capable of staying submerged al- missile firing submarine is a far cry from
most indefinitely. David Bushnell’s hand-propelled Turtle, but
an identical need led to the development of both
With the development of the modern missile types of vessels: the need for better and more
firing submarine—a nuclear-powered submarine effective fighting ships.
14
CHAPTER 2
SHIP DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
As ships have increased in size and com- 4. Port Facilities.—The port facilities
plexity, plans for building them have become available in the normal operating zone of the
more detailed and more numerous. Today only ship affect the design to some extent. Dockyard
meticulously detailed plans and well conceived facilities available for drydocking and main-
Organization, from the designers to the men tenance work must be taken into consideration.
working in the shops and on the ways, can pro- 5. Prime Mover.—The type of propelling
duce the ships required for the Navy. machinery to be used must be considered from
After intensive research, many technical ad- the point of view of the required speed of the
vances have been adopted in the design and con- ship, the location in the ship, space and weight
struction of warships. These changes were requirements, and the effect of the machinery
brought about by the development of welding on the center of gravity of the ship.
techniques, by the rapid development in air- 6. Special Considerations.—Special consid-
craft, submarines, and weapons, and by develop- erations such as the fuel required, the crew to
ments in electronics and in propulsion plants. be carried, and special weapons are factors
This chapter presents information concern- which restrict the designer of a naval ship.
ing basic ship design considerations, ship flo- Naval ships are designed for maximum sim-
tation, basic ship structure, ship compartmen- plicity that is compatible with the requirements
tation, and the geometry of the ship. of service. Naval ships are designed as simply
as possible in order to lower building and oper-
ating costs and in order to ensure greater avail-
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
ability of construction facilities.
The following operating considerations affect
Combat efficiency is the prime requisite of the size of a naval ship:
warships. Some important factors contributing
to combat efficiency are sea-keeping capabili-
ties, maneuverability, and ability to remain in 1. Width and Length of Canal Locks and
action after sustaining combat damage. Dock Facilities. These considerations obviously
Basic considerations involved in the design have an effect on the size of ships that must
of naval ships include the following: use the canals or dock facilities.
2. Effect of Speed.—For large ships, speed
1. Cost.—The initial cost is important in may be maintained with a smaller fraction of
warship design, but it is not the only cost displacement devoted to propulsion machinery
consideration. The cost of maintenance and than is the case for smaller ships. Also, large
operation, as well as the cost and availability ships lose proportionately less speed through
of the required manning, are equally impor- adverse sea conditions.
tant considerations. 3. Effect of Radius of Action.—An increas-
2. Life Expectancy.—The life expectancy of ing cruising radius may be obtained by in-
a ship is limited by ordinary deterioration in creasing displacement without increasing the
service and also by the possibility of obsoles- fraction of displacement allotted to fuel and
cence due to the design of more efficient ships. stores. If the fraction of displacement set
3. Service.—The service to be performed aside for fuel and stores is increased, some
substantially affects the design of any ship. other weight must be decreased. Since the hull
15
weight is a constant percentage of the displace- SHIP FLOTATION

ment, an increase in the fraction of the dis-
placement assigned to one military charac- When a body floats in still water, the force
teristic involves the reduction of other fractions which supports the body must be equal to the
of displacement. By increasing the displacement weight. Assume that an object of given volume
of the ship as a whole, it is possible to in- is placed under water. If the weight of this
crease the speed and the radius of action with- object is greater than the weight of an equal
out adversely affecting the other required volume of water, the object will sink. It sinks
characteristics. because the force which buoys it up is less
4. Effect of Seagoing Capabilities.— Larger than its own weight. However, if the weight of
ships are more seaworthy than smaller ships. the submerged object is less than the weight
However, smaller ships are more maneuver- of an equal volume of water, the object will
able because they have smaller turning circle rise. It rises because the force which buoys it
radii than larger ships, where all other factors up is greater than its own weight. The object
are proportional. The maneuverability of large will continue to rise until part of it is above
ships may be increased somewhat by the use the surface of the water. Here it floats at such
of improved steering gear and large rudders. a depth that the submerged part of the object
displaces a volume of water, the weight of
In general, larger ships have the advantage which is equal to the weight of the object.
of greater protection because of their greater The principle implied in this discussion is
displacement. From the point of view of under- known as Archimedes’ law: the weight of a
water attack, larger ships also have an ad- floating body is equal to the weight of the fluid
vantage. If compartments are of the same size, displaced.
the number of compartments increases linearly The cube of steel shown in part A of figure
with the displacement. It is apparent, then, that 2-1 is a solid cube of the dimensions shown.
protection against both surface and subsurface If this cube is dropped into salt water, it will
attacks may be more effective on larger ships sink because it weighs approximately 490 pounds
without impairing other military characteristics. and the weight of the salt water it displaces
Many compromises must be made in de- is approximately 64 pounds. If the cube is
signing any ship, since action which improves hammered out into a watertight flat plate
one feature may degrade another. For example, of the dimensions shown in part B of figure
in the design of a conventionally powered ship 2-1, with the edges bent up one foot all around,
there is the problem of choosing the hull line the box thus formed will float. This box could
for optimum performance at a cruising speed be made from the same volume of steel as
of 20 knots and at a trial speed of 30 knots or that of the cube. The box will not only float;
more. One may select a hull type which would in calm water, it will carry an additional 1800
minimize resistance at top speed, and thus pounds of weight before sinking. As a box, the
keep the weight of propulsion machinery to metal displaces a greater volume than the same
a minimum. When this is done, however, re- amount of metal does as a 1-foot cube.
sistance at cruising speed may be high and the
fuel load for a given endurance may be rela-
tively great, thus nullifying some of the gain
from a light machinery plant. On the other hand,
One may choose a hull type favoring cruising
power. In this case, fuel load will be lighter
but the shaft horsepower required to make
trial speed may be greater than before. Now
the machinery plant is heavier, cancelling some
of the weight gain realized from the lighter
fuel load. A compromise based on the inter-
relationship of these considerations must usually
be adopted. The need for compromise is always
present, and the manner in which it is made 8.44
has an important bearing on the final design of Figure 2-1.—Steel cube and box made
any naval ship. from same volume of steel.
16
Chapter 2—SHIP DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
BASIC SHIP STRUCTURE bend (fig. 2-3). As the beam bends, the upper
section of the beam compresses and the lower
In considering the structure of a ship, it part stretches. Somewhere between the top and
is common practice to liken the ship to a box bottom of the beam, there is a section which
girder. Like a box girder, a ship may be sub- is neither in compression nor in tension; this
jected to tremendous stresses. The magnitude is known as the neutral axis. The greatest
of stress is usually expressed in pounds per stresses in tension and compression occur
Square inch (psi). near the middle of the length of the beam,
When a pull is exerted on each end of a bar, where the loads are applied.
as in part A of figure 2-2, the bar is under the
type of stress called tension. When a pressure LONGITUDINAL BENDING AND STRESSES
is exerted on each end of a bar, as in part
B of figure 2-2, the bar is under the type of In an I-beam, the greater mass of struc-
stress called compression. If an equal but tural material is placed in the upper and lower
opposite pull is exerted on the upper and lower flanges to resist compression and tension. Rel-
bars, as shown in part C of figure 2-2, the atively little material is placed in the web
pins connecting these bars are subjected to a which holds the two flanges so that they can
stress at right angles to their length. This work together; the web, being near the neutral
stress is called shear. When a Shaft, bar, or axis, is less subject to tension and compres-
other material is subjected to atwisting motion, sion stresses than are the flanges. The web
the resulting stress is known as torsional does take care of shearing stresses, which
stress. Torsional stress is not illustrated in are sizeable near the supports.
figure 2-2. A ship in a Seaway canbe considered similar
When a material is compressed, it is short- to this I-beam (or, more correctly, it can be
ened. When it is subjected to tension, it is likened to a box girder) with supports and dis-
lengthened. This change in shape is called strain. tributed loads. The supports are the buoyant
The change of shape (strain) may be regarded forces of the waves; the loads are the weight
as an effect of stress. of the ship’s structure and the weight of every-
If a simple beam is supported at its two thing contained within the ship.
ends and various vertical loads are applied The ship shown in figure 2-4 is supported
over the center of the span, the beam will by waves, with the bow and stern each riding
a crest and the midship region in the trough.
This ship will bend with compression at the
top and tension at the bottom. A ship in this
condition is said to be sagging. In a sagging
Ship, the weather deck tends to buckle under
compressive stress and the bottom plating tends
to stretch under tensile stress. A sagging ship
is undergoing longitudinal bending—that is, it
is bending in a fore-and-aft direction.
When the ship advances half a wave length,
so that the crest is amidships and the bow and
stern are over troughs, as shown in figure 2-5,
LOAD LOAD LOAD NEUTRAL

AXIS
I*BEAM
147.8 147.9
Figure 2-2.—Stresses in metal: (A) tension; Figure 2-3.—I-beam with load placed
(B) compression; (C) shear. over center.
17
HULL MEMBERS
The principal strength members of the ship

girder are at the top and bottom, where the
greatest stresses occur. The top flange in-
cludes the main deck plating, the deck stringers,
VAAL
and the sheer strakes of the side plating. The
bottom flange includes the keel, the outer bottom
44 TENSION th plating, the inner bottom plating, and any con-
tinuous longitudinals in way of the bottom. The
147.10 side webs of the ship girder are composed of
Figure 2-4.—Sagging. the side plating, aided to some extent by any
long, continuous fore-and-aft bulkheads. Some
the stresses are reversed. The weather deck of the strength members of a destroyer hull
is now in tension and the bottom plating is in girder are indicated in figure 2-6.
compression. A ship in this condition is said
to be hogging. Hogging, like sagging, is a form Keel
of longitudinal bending. The effects of longitu-
dinal bending must be considered in the design The keel is a very important structural
of the ship, with particular reference to the member of the ship. The keel, shown in figure
overall strength that the ship must have. 2-7, is built up of plates and angles into an
In structural design, the terms hull girder I-beam shape. The lower flange of this I-beam
and ship girder are used to designate the struc- structure is the flat keel plate, which forms
tural parts of the hull. The structural parts the center strake of the bottom plating-2
of the hull are those parts which contribute to The web of the I-beam is a solid plate which
its strength as a girder and provide what is is called the vertical keel. The upper flange
known as longitudinal strength. Structural parts is called the rider plate; this forms the center
include the framing (transverse and longitu- strake of the inner bottom plating. An inner
dinal), the shellplating, the decks, and the longi- vertical keel of two or more sections, con-
tudinal bulkheads. These major strength mem- sisting of I-beams arranged one on top of the
bers enable the ship girder to resist the various other, is found on many large combatant ships.
stresses to which it is subjected.
Framing
The ship girder is subjected to rapid re-
versal of stresses when the ship is in a seaway
Frames used in ship construction may be of
and is changing from a hogging condition toa
various shapes. Figure 2-8 illustrates frames
Sagging condition (and vice versa), since these
of the angle, I-beam, tee, bulb angle, and chan-
changes occur in the short time required for
nel shapes. Figure 2-9 shows two types of
the wave to advance half a wave length. Other
dynamic stresses are caused by pressure loads
forward due to the ship’s motion ahead, by
panting! of forward plating due to variations
of pressure, by the thrust of the propeller, and
by the rolling of the ship.
Transverse stress results from the pres-
sure of the water on the ship’s sides which Ht TENSION ++
subjects the transverse framing, deck beams,
and shellplating below water to a hydrostatic
load. Local stresses occur in the vicinity of tH |
masts, windlasses, winches, and heavy weights.
These areas are strengthened by thicker deck 147.11
plating or by deeper or reinforced deck beams. Figure 2-5.—Hogging.
1 panting is a Small in-and-out working of the plating zon large ships, an additional member is attached to
at the bow. this flange to serve as the center strake.
18
DECK STRINGER
SHEER STRAKE
—— Gann
DECK
ale (“G" STRAKE)
eee tL STIRAKE
ee EY SRY
BILGE STRAKE
4
—@$ _ LONGITUDINALS —____ “D" STRAKE
S
S
STRAKE
= “B’’ STRAKE
GARBOARD OR ‘‘A’’ STRAKE
147,12
Figure 2-6.—Destroyer hull girder, showing some strength members.
built-up frames, one of welded construction and turn of the bilge and up to the edge of the main
the other of riveted construction. deck. They are closely spaced along the length
Frames are strength members, They act of the ship, and they define the form of the ship.
as integral parts of the ship girder when the Longitudinals (fig. 2-11) run parallel to the
ship is exposed to longitudinal or transverse keel along the bottom, bilge, and side plating.
stresses. Frames stiffen the plating and keep The longitudinals provide longitudinal strength,
it from bulging or buckling. They act as girders stiffen the shellplating, and tie the transverse
between bulkheads, decks, and double bottoms, frames and the bulkheads together. The longi-
and transmit forces exerted by load weights tudinals in the bottom (called side keelsons)
and water pressures. The frames also support are of the built-up type.
the inner and outer shell locally and protect Where two sets of frames intersect, one
against unusual forces such as those caused set must be cut to allow for the other set.
by underwater explosions. As may be inferred, The frames whichare cut, and thereby weakened,
frames are called upon to perform a variety are known as intercostal frames; those which
of functions, depending upon the location of the continue through are called continuous frames.
frames in the ship. Figure 2-10 shows a web
frame uSed in wing tank construction.
There are two important systems of fram-
ing in current use: the transverse system and INNER BOTTOM
the longitudinal system. The transverse system
provides for continuous transverse frames with
the longitudinals intercostal between them.
Transverse frames are closely spaced and
a small number of longitudinals are used. The
longitudinal system of framing consists of SN
closely spaced longitudinals which are con- —.
tinuous along the length of the ship, with trans- DISHED OR FLAT KEEL PLATE LIGHTENING HOLE
verse frames intercostal between the longitu- COLLAR PLATE SHELL PLATING
dinals,
Transverse frames are attached to the keel 147.13
and extend from the keel outward around the Figure 2-7.—One type of keel structure.
19
MAIN DECK LONGITUDINALS

STRINGER
- ~<a
DECK BEAM
oe
11.30(147)A
Figure 2-8.—Angle, I-beam, tee, bulb STRINGERS
angle, and channel frames. STANCHION
(PILLAR)
KEEL
WELD” (SHELL OR FRAME BAR
BULKHEAD)
REVERSE BAR
LONGITUDINALS
11.30(147)B
Figure 2-9.—Built-up frames. 147,15
Figure 2-11.—Basic frame section
(longitudinal framing).
In the bottom framing, which is probably

the strongest part of a ship’s structure, the
floors and keelsons are integrated into a rigid
cellular construction (fig. 2-13). Heavy loads
such as the ship’s propulsion machinery are
bolted to foundations which are built directly
on top of the bottom framing (fig. 2-14).
Double Bottom
In many naval ships, the inner bottom plat-

ing is a watertight covering laid on top of the
bottom framing. The shellplating, framing,
and inner bottom plating form the space known
147,14 as the double bottom. This space may be used
Figure 2-10.—Web frame used in wing for stowage of fresh water or fuel oil or it
tank construction. may be used for ballasting.
The inner bottom plating is a second skin
Both intercostal and continuous frames are inside the bottom of the ship. It prevents
shown in figure 2-12. flooding in the event of damage to the outer
A cellular form of framing results from a bottom, and it also acts as a strength member.
combination of longitudinal and transverse
Stem and Bow Structure
framing systems utilizing closely spaced deep
framing. Cellular framing is used on most The stem assembly, which is the forward
naval ships. member of the ship’s structure, varies in form
STRINGER
FILLER < |
PLATE
147.16
Figure 2-12.—Intercostal and continuous frames.
YCL
!
INNER BOTTOM
PLATING LONGITUDINALS
1
FLOOR
BILGE KEEL
147.17
Figure 2-13.—Bottom structure.
from one type of ship to another. The external shellplating, so that the outside presents a
shape shown in figure 2-15 is commonly used smooth surface to cut through the water. The
on combatant ships. This form is essentially keel structure is securely fastened to the lower
bulbous at the forefoot, tapering to a sharp end of the stem by welding. The stem maintains
entrance near the waterline and again widening the continuity of the keel strength uptothe main
above the waterline. Figure 2-16 shows the deck. The decks support the stem at various
relationship between the stem assembly and intermediate points along the stem structure
the keel. Internally, the stem assembly has a between the keel and the decks.
heavy centerline member which is called the
stem post (not illustrated). The stem post is Triangular plates known as breast hooks
recessed along its after edge to receive the are fitted paraliel to and between the decks or
side stringers in the bow for the purpose of
rigidly fastening together the peak frames, the
2 This recess is called a rabbet. stem, and the outside plating.
21
Stern Structure
The aftermost section of the ship’s structure

is the stern post, which is rigidly securedto the
keel, shellplating, and decks. On single-screw
ships, the stern post is constructed to accom-
modate the propeller shaft and rudder stock
bosses. Because of its intricate form, the stern
post is usually either a steel casting or a com-
MACHINERY bination of castings and forgings. Inmodern war-
FOUNDATION f
ships having transom sterns, multiple screws,
and twin rudders, the stern post as suchis diffi-
A
cult to define, since it has been replaced by an
equivalent structure of deep framing. This struc-
ture (fig. 2-17) consists of both longitudinal and
transverse framing that extends throughout the
BILGE KEEL
width of the bottom in the vicinity of the stern.
In order to withstand the static and dynamic loads
147.18 imposed by the rudders, the stern structure is
Figure 2-14.—Deep floor assembly for strengthened in the vicinity of the rudder post by
machinery foundations. a structure known as the rudder post weldment.
SEES 9
Figure 2-15.—Bulbous-bow configuration.
22
Plating
The outer bottom and side plating forms a

strong, watertight shell. Shellplating consists of
RABBET
approximately rectangular steel plates arranged
longitudinally in rows or courses called strakes.
The strakes are lettered, beginning with the A
am
STEM
JOINT —™
strake (also called the garboard strake) which
is just outboard of the keel and working up to
the uppermost side strake (called the sheer
strake).
The end joint formed by adjoining plates ina
strake is called a butt. The joint between the
edges of adjoining strakes is called a seam.
Butts and seams in side plating are illustrated
in figure 2-18.
Since the hull structure is composed of a
great many individual pieces, the strength and
tightness of the ship as a whole depend very
147,20 much upon the strength and tightness of the
Figure 2-16.—Relationship of stem assembly to connections between the individual pieces. In
keel. modern naval ships, welded joints are used toa
DECK
DECK PLATING LONGITUDINALS
STANCHION
RUDDER
STOCK
PACKING
RUDDER(0RLLLL
POST
ZZ RUDDER
SS) POST
WEL DMENT
LONGITUDINAL STERN WELDMENT

WITH FLOOR AND RUDDER
KEEL
Sears
SSSS
So
ING
Wass
TWOVYY SQ
SOON
147.21
Figure 2-17.—Stern structure.
INNER BOTTOM PLATING
TRANSVERSE
\
eae PLATING
BUTT
SEAM
ue
STANCHION
3.92
Figure 2-18.—Section of ship, showing plating and framing.
very great extent. However, riveted joints are are Similar to the plates used in side and bottom
still used for some applications. shellplating, are supported by deck beams and
deck longitudinals.
Bilge Keels The term strength deck is generally applied
to the deck which acts as the top flange of the
Bilge keels, which may be seen in figures
hull girder. It is the highest continuous deck—
2-11, 2-13, and 2-14, are fitted in practically
usually the main or weather deck. However, the
all ships at the turn of the bilge. The bilge keels
term strength deck may be applied to any con-
extend fifty to seventy-five percent of the length
tinuous deck which carries some of the longi-
of the hull. A bilge keel usually consists of a
tudinal load. On destroyers and similar ships
plate about 12 inches deep, standing at right
in which the main deck is the only continuous
angles to the shellplating and secured to the
high deck, the main deck is the strength deck.
Shellplating by double angles. On more recent
The flight deck is the strength deck on recent
ships, bilge keels consist of two plates forming
large aircraft carriers (CVAs) and helicopter
a Vee shape welded to the hull and on large
support ships (LPH), but the main or hangar
ships may extend out from the hull nearly three
deck is the strength deck on older types of car-
feet. Bilge keels serve to reduce the extent of
riers,
the ship’s rolling.
The main deck is supported by deck beams
and deck longitudinals. Deck beams are the
Decks
transverse members of the framing structure.
Decks provide both longitudinal and trans- The beams are attached to and supported by the
verse strength to the ship. Deck plates, which frames at the sides, as shown in figure 2-19.
24
In most naval construction, light deck beams are

interspaced at regular intervals with deep deck
beams. Deck longitudinals are used to provide
longitudinal strength. When possible, the heavi-
est longitudinals are located at the center and
near the outboard edges.
The outboard strake of deck plating which
connects with the shellplating is called the deck
stringer (fig. 2-11). The deck stringer, which
is heavier than the other deck strakes, serves
as a continuous longitudinal stringer, providing
longitudinal strength tothe ship’s structure.
Upper Decks and Superstructure
The decks above the main deck are not

strength decks on most ships other than CVAs.
The upper decks are usually interrupted at in-
tervals by expansion joints. The expansion joints
keep the upper decks from acting as strength
decks (which they are not designed to be) and
thus prevent cracking and buckling of deck 147,22
houses and superstructure. Figure 2-19.—Deck beam and frame.
BRACKET
Stanchions
In order to reinforce the deck beams and

to keep the deck beam brackets and side frames
from carrying the total load, vertical stanchions
or columns are fitted between decks. Stanchions
are constructed in various ways of various mate-
rials. Some are made of pipe or rods; others
are built up of various plates and shapes, welded
or riveted together. The stanchion shown in
figure 2-20 is in fairly common use; this pipe
stanchion consists of a steel tube which is fitted
with special pieces for securing it at the upper
end (head) and at the lower end (heel).
Bulkheads
Bulkheads are the vertical partitions which,

extending athwartships and fore and aft, provide
WELD
compartmentation to the interior of the ship.
Bulkheads may be either structural or nonstruc-
tural. Structural bulkheads, which tie the shell-
plating, framing, and decks together, are capable
of withstanding fluid pressure; these bulkheads
usually provide watertight compartmentation.
Nonstructural bulkheads are lighter; they are
used chiefly for separating activities aboard 147,23
ship. Figure 2-20.—Pipe stanchion.
25
Bulkheads consist of plating and reinforcing

beams. The reinforcing beams are known as
bulkhead stiffeners. Two types of bulkhead stif-
feners are shown in figure 2-21. Bulkhead
stiffeners are usually placed in the vertical
plane and aligned with deck longitudinals; the
stiffeners are secured at top and bottom to any
intermediate deck by brackets attached to deck
plating. The size of the stiffeners depends
upon their spacing, the height of the bulkhead,
and the hydrostatic pressure which the bulkhead
is designed to withstand.
Bulkheads and bulkhead stiffeners must be
strong enough to resist excessive bending or
bulging in case of flooding in the compartments
which they bound. If too much deflection takes
place, some of the seams might fail.
In order to form watertight boundaries,
structural bulkheads must be joined to all
decks, shellplating, bulkheads, and other struc-
tural members with which they come in contact.
Main transverse bulkheads extend continuously ANGLE
through the watertight volume of the ship, from
the keel to the main deck, and serve as flooding 11.30(147)C
boundaries in the event of damage below the Figure 2-21.—Bulkhead stiffeners.
waterline.
In general, naval ships are divided into as
many watertight compartments, both above and
below the waterline, as are compatible with the
missions and functions of the ships. The com-
partmentation provided by transverse and longi-
tudinal bulkheads is illustrated in the bow sec-
tion shown in figure 2-22.
SHIP COMPARTMENTATION
Every space in a naval ship (except for

minor spaces such as peacoat lockers, linen
lockers, cleaning gear lockers, etc.) is consid-
ered as a compartment and is assigned an iden-
tifying letter-number symbol. This symbol is
marked on a label plate secured to the door,
hatch, or bulkhead of the compartment.
There are two systems of numbering com-
partments, one for ships built prior to March
1949 and the other for ships built after March
1949. In both of these systems, compartments
on the port side end inan even number and those
on the starboard side end in an odd number. In
147.24
both systems, a zero precedes the deck number
Figure 2-22.—Compartmentation provided by
for all levels above the main deck.
transverse and longitudinal bulkheads.
Figure 2-23 illustrates both systems of
numbering decks. The older system identifies bottoms. In the newer system, decks are iden-
decks by the numbers 100, 200, 300, etc., with tified as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and the double bottoms
the number 900 always being used for the double are given whatever number falls to them.
26
MAIN DECK eine See]

WEDISECONDIDECK
77m l|[nician AMA |
ISR NLR Mew = es |ick
THIRDIDECKHRMMT THIRDIDECKERRM.
2S TAU
BOILER AND PLATFORM
MACHINERY SPACES
HOLD
DOUBLE BOTTOMS
3.106
Figure 2-23.—Deck symbols for naval ships.
SHIPS BUILT BEFORE MARCH 1949 Second deck compartments run from 201 through
299, third deck compartments forma 300 series,
For ships built prior to March 1949, the first etc. A zero preceding the number indicates a
letter of the identifying symbol is A, B, or C, location above the main deck. The double bot-
and indicates the section of the shipin which the toms always form the 900 series on any ship
compartment is located. The A section extends built before March 1949, regardless of the
from the bow of the ship aftto the forward bulk- number of decks above.
head of the engineering spaces. The B section The use of the compartments is indicated
includes the engineering spaces, while the C by the following letters:
section extends from the after bulkhead of the
engineering spaces aft to the stern. The divi- A—Supply and storage
sions of the ship are indicated in figure 2-24. C—Control
The lower half of the diagram shows the num- E— Machinery
bering of compartments, beginning at the forward F—Fuel
end of each section. The even numbers are on L—Living quarters
the port side and the odd numbers are on the M—Ammunition
starboard side. T—Trunks and passages
After the division letter, the deck designation V—Voids
comes next in the symbol. Main deck compart- W—Water
ments are indicated by numbers from 101 to 199.
C--217--A
SUPERSTRUCTURE
n Supply compartment
Compartment number (starboard

side)
Second deck
After part of ship (C section)
3.107 147.25
Figure 2-24.—Divisions of a ship built prior to Figure 2-25.—Example of compartment symbol
March 1949. on ship built prior to March 1949.
27
———————————
et
Letter Type of compartment Examples
Stowage spaces....... Storerooms; issue rooms; refrigerated

compartments.
Cargo holds... Cargo holds and cargo refrigerated

compartments.
Control centers for ship and CIC room; plotting rooms, communi-
fire-control operations cation centers; radio, radar, and
(normally manned). sonar operating spaces; pilgt
house,
Engineering control centers Main propulsion spaces; boiler

(normally manned), rooms; evaporator rooms; steering
gear rooms; auxiliary machinery
spaces; pumprooms; generator
rooms; switchboard rooms; wind-
lass rooms.
Oil stowage compartments (for Fuel-oil, diesel-oil, lubricating-

use by ship). oil, and fog-oil compartments.
Oil stowage compartments Compartments carrying various types

(cargo). of oil as cargo.
Gasoline stowage compartments Gasoline tanks, cofferdams, trunks,

(use by ship). and pumprooms,
Gasoline stowage compartments Gasoline compartments for carrying

(cargo). gasoline as cargo.
Chemicals and dangerous mate- Chemicals, semisafe materials, and

rials (other than oil and gas- dangerous materials carried for
oline). ship's use or as cargo.
Living spaces.... Berthing and messing spaces; state-

rooms, washrooms, heads, brigs;
sickbays, hospital spaces; and
passageways.
Ammunition spaces, .... Magazines; handling rooms; turrets;

gun mounts; shell rooms; ready
service rooms; clipping rooms,
Miscellaneous spaces not covered Shops; offices; laundry; galley; pan-

by other letters. tries; unmanned engineering, elec-
trical, and electronic spaces.
Vertical access trunks. , Escape trunks or tubes.

Void compartments Cofferdam compartments (other than
gasoline); void wing compartments;
wiring trunks,
Water compartments , Drainage tanks; fresh water tanks;

peak tanks; reserve feed tanks.
147.26
Figure 2-26.—Compartment letters for ships built after March 1949.
28
An example of a compartment symbol ona and are the third part of the compartment
ship built prior to March 1949 is givenin figure number.
2-25. The fourth and last part of the compartment
number is the capital letter which identifies
SHIPS BUILT AFTER MARCH 1949 the assigned primary usage of the compart-
ment. A single capital letter is used, except that
For ships constructed after March 1949, the on dry and liquid cargo ships a double letter
compartment numbers consist of a deck num- designation is used to identify compartments
ber, frame number, relation to centerline of assigned to cargo carrying. The compartment
ship, and letter showing use of the compartment. letters for ships built after March 1949 are
These are separated by dashes. The A, B, C shown in figure 2-26. An example of a com-
divisional system is not used. partment symbol on a ship built after March
The main deck is always numbered 1. The 1949 is given in figure 2-27.
first deck or horizontal division below the main
deck is numbered 2; the second below is num-
bered 3; etc., consecutively for subsequent 3--75--4--M
lower division boundaries. Where a compart-
| Ammunition compartment
ment extends down to the bottom of the ship,
the number assigned the bottom compartments Second compartment outboard of
is used. The first horizontal division above the the centerline to port
main deck is numbered 01, the second above is
numbered 02, etc., consecutively, for subsequent Forward boundary is on or im-
upper divisions. The deck number becomes the mediately aft of frame 75
first part of the compartment number and indi-
Third deck
cates the vertical position within the ship.
The frame number at the foremost bulkhead
of the enclosing boundary of a compartment is its
frame location number. Where these forward
boundaries are between frames, the framenum- 147,27
ber forward is used. Fractional numbers are not Figure 2-27.—Example of compartment symbol
used. The frame number becomes the second on ship built after March 1949.
part of the compartment number.
Compartments located so that the centerline GEOMETRY OF THE SHIP
of the ship passes through them carry the num-
ber 0. Compartments located completely to Since a ship’s hull is a three-dimensional
starboard of the centerline are given odd num- object having length, breadth, and depth, and
bers and those completely to port of the center- since the hull has curved surfaces in each
line are given even numbers. Where two or
more compartments have the same deck and
frame number and are entirely to port or en-
tirely to starboard of the centerline, they have
consecutively higher odd or even numbers, as
the case may be, numbering from the centerline
outboard. In this case, the first compartment
outboard of the centerline to starboard is 1; the
second is 3, etc. Similarly, the first compart-
ment outboard of the centerline to port is 2;
the second 4, etc. When the centerline of the
ship passes through more than one compart-
ment, the compartment having that portion of
the forward bulkhead through which the center-
line of the ship passes carries the number 0,
and the. others carry the numbers 01, 02, 03, 23.191
etc., in any sequence found desirable. These Figure 2-28.—Transverse, horizontal, and ver-
numbers indicate the relation to the centerline, tical planes.
29
dimension, no single drawing of a ship can

give an accurate and complete representation
of the lines of the hull. In naval architecture,
a hull shape is shown by means of alines
drawing (sometimes referred to merely as the
lines of the ship). The lines drawing consists
of three views or projections—a body plan, a
half-breadth plan, and a sheer plan—which are
obtained by cutting the hull by transverse,
horizontal, and vertical planes (fig. 2-28). The
use of these three planes to produce the three
projections is illustrated in figure 2-29.
23.195
Figure 2-30.—Diagonal plane.
HALF-BREADTH PLAN
147.28
Figure 2-29.—Half-breadth plan, body plan, and
sheer plan.
In addition to using transverse, horizontal,
and vertical planes, ship designers frequently
use a set of planes known as diagonals. A
diagonal plane is illustrated in figure 2-30.
As a rule, three diagonals are used; these are AFT HALF STATIONS FORWARD HALF STATIONS
identified as diagonal A, diagonal B, and diag-

onal C. Diagonals are frequently shown as
the half- 23.192
projections on the body plan and on
breadth plan. Figure 2-31.—Transverse planes and body plan.
30
"we
8-0" WL
6-07 WL
eZ
19'- 4° OFF €
—< &
147.29
Figure 2-32.—Body plan of a YTB.
BODY PLAN resulting from transverse cuts between the

stern and the middle of the ship.
To visualize the projection known as the body As may be inferred, a station is a complete
plan, we must imagine the ship’s hull cut curve such as would be obtained if each trans-
transversely in several places, as shown in verse cut were projected completely, rather
part A of figure 2-31. The shape ofa transverse than as half a curve, onto the body plan. The
plane intersection of the hull is obtained at each stations are numbered from forward to aft,
cut; when the resulting curves are projected dividing the hull into equally spaced transverse
onto the body plan (part B of fig. 2-31) they show sections. The station where the forward end
the changing shape of transverse sections ofthe of the designer’s waterline* and the stem
hull. contour intersect is known as the forward
Since the hull is symmetrical about the perpendicular, or station O. The station at the
centerline of the ship, only one-half of each intersection of the stern contour and the de-
curve obtained by a transverse cut is shown on signer’s waterline is known as the after per-
the body plan. Each half curve is called a half pendicular. The station midway between the
station. The right-hand side of the body plan
shows the forward half stations—that is, the
half stations resulting from transverse cuts
between the bow and the middle of the ship.
The left-hand side of the body plan shows the 4 The waterline at which the ship is designed to float
aft half stations—that is, the half stations is known as the designer's waterline.
31
WATERLINES
_— a ee ee
———
ae DIAGONALS
23.194
Figure 2-33.—Horizontal planes and half-breadth plan.
forward and after perpendiculars is known as 6-foot waterline, an 8-foot waterline, a 10-foot
the middle perpendicular. waterline, and so forth.
An actual body plan for a YTB is shown in The waterlines are projected onto the half-
figure 2-32. Note the projection of the diagonals breadth plan, as shown in part B of figure 2-33.
on this body plan. Since the hull is symmetrical, only half of the
waterlines are shown in the half-breadth plan.
HALF-BREADTH PLAN Diagonals are frequently shown on the other half
of the half-breadth plan.
To visualize the half-breadth plan, we must
imagine the ship’s hull cut horizontally in SHEER PLAN
several places, as shown in part A of figure
2-33. The cuts are designated as waterlines, To visualize the sheer plan, we must imagine
although the ship could not possibly float at the ship’s hull cut vertically in several places,
many of these lines. The base plane which as shown in part A of figure 2-34. The resultant
serves as the point of origin for waterlines curves, known as buttocks or as bow and but-
is usually the horizontal plane that coincides tock lines, are projected onto the sheer plan,
with the top of the flat keel. Waterlines are as shown in part B of figure 2-34. The center-
designated according to their distance above line plane is designated as zero buttock. The
the base plane; for example, we may have a other buttocks are designated according to their
32
23.193
Figure 2-34,—Vertical planes and sheer plan.
distance from zero buttock. The spacing of of the forward and after quarters of the
the vertical cuts is chosen to show the contours ship.
33
CHAPTER 3
STABILITY
ANDBUO YANCY
This chapter deals with the principles of the water until the weight of the fluid displaced
stability, stability curves, the inclining experi- by her underwater volume is equal to the weight
ment, effects of weight shifts and weight changes, of the ship. At this point, the ship is in equilib-
effects of loose water, longitudinal stability and rium—that is, the forces of gravity (G) and
effects of trim, and causes of impaired stability. the forces of buoyancy (B) are equal, and the
The damage control aspects of stability are algebraic sum of all forces acting upon the ship
discussed in chapter 4 of this text. is equal to zero. This condition is shown in
part A of figure 3-2. If the underwater volume
PRINCIPLES OF STABILITY of the ship is not sufficient to displace an
amount of fluid equal to the weight of the ship,
A floating body is acted upon by forces of the ship will sink (part B of fig. 3-2) because
gravity and forces of buoyancy. The algebraic the forces of gravity are greater than the
sum of these forces must equal zero if equilib- forces of buoyancy.
rium is to exist. The depth to which a ship will sink when
Any object exists in one of three states of floated in water depends upon the density of
stability: stable, neutral, or unstable. We may the water, since the density affects the weight
illustrate these three states by placing three per unit volume of a fluid. Thus we may expect
cones on a table top, as shown in figure 3-1. a ship to have a deeper draft in fresh water
When cone A is tipped so that its base is off than in salt water, since fresh water is less
the horizontal plane, it tends, up to a certain dense (and therefore less buoyant) than salt
angle of inclination, to assume its original water.
position again. Cone A is thus an example of a Although gravitational forces act everywhere
stable body—that is, one which tries to attain upon the ship, it is not necessary to attempt to
its original position through a specified range consider these forces separately. Instead, we
of angles of inclination. may regard the total force of gravityasa single
Cone B is an example of neutral stability. resultant or composite force which acts verti-
When rotated, this cone may come to rest at cally downward through the ship’s center of
any point, reaching equilibrium at some angle of gravity (G). Similarly, the force of buoyancy
inclination. may be regarded as a Single resultant force
Cone C, balanced upon its apex, isan example which acts vertically upward through the center
of an unstable body. Following any slight in- of buoyancy (B) located at the geometric center
clination by an external force, the body will of the ship’s underwater body. When a ship is
come to rest in a new position where it will at rest in calm water, the center of gravity
be more stable. and the center of buoyancy lie on the same
From Archimedes’ law, we know that an vertical line.
object floating on or submerged in a fluid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the DISPLACEMENT
fluid it displaces. The weight (displacement)
of a ship depends upon the weight of all parts, Since weight (W) is equal to the displacement,
equipment, stores, and personnel. This total it is possible to measure the volume of the under-
weight represents the effect of gravitational water body (V) in cubic feet and multiply this
force. When a ship is floated, she sinks into volume by the weight of a cubic foot of sea
34
Chapter 3—STABILITY AND BUOYANCY
The volume of an underwater body fora given

draft line can be measured in the drafting room
by using graphic or mathematical means. This
is done for a series of drafts throughout the
probable range of displacements in which a ship
is likely to operate. The values obtained are
plotted on a grid on which feet of draft are mea-
sured vertically and tons of displacement hori-
zontally. A smooth line is faired through the
points plotted, providing a curve of displacement
versus draft, or a displacement curve as it is
147.30 generally called. The result is shown in figure
Figure 3-1.—Three states of stability. 3-4 for a cruiser.
To use the curve shown in figure 3-4 for
finding the displacement when the draft is given,
locate the value of the mean draft on the draft
scale at left and proceed horizontally across
WATERLINE the diagram to the curve. Then drop vertically
downward and read the displacement from the
scale. For example, if the mean draft is 24 feet,
the displacement found from the curve is ap-
proximately 14,700 tons.
KB VERSUS DRAFT
As the draft increases, the center of buoyancy

147,31 (B) rises with respect to the keel (K). Figure
Figure 3-2.—Interaction of force of gravity 3-5 shows how different drafts result in dif-
and force of buoyancy. ferent values of KB, the height of the center of
buoyancy from the keel (K). A series of values
water, in order to find what the ship weighs. for KB is obtained and these values are plotted
This relationship may be written as: on a curve to show KB versus draft. Figure 3-6
illustrates a typical KB curve.
(1) W= Vx To read KB when the draft is known, start
35 at the proper value of draft on the scale at the
left and proceed horizontally to the curve.
(2) V= 35W Then drop vertically downward to the baseline
(KB).
where
Thus, if a ship were floating at a mean draft
V = volume of displaced sea water, in of 19 feet, the KB found from the chart would
cubic feet be approximately 10.5 feet.
W = weight, in tons
35 = cubic feet of sea water per ton WATERLINE DISPLACEMENT

(When dealing with ships, it is cus- 28 FEET 17,900 TONS
tomary to use the long ton of 2240 14,800 TONS
pounds.) 20 FEET 11,800 TONS
(6 FEET 8,800 TONS
(2 FEET 5,900 TONS
It is also obvious, then, that displacement
will vary with draft. As the draft increases,
the displacement increases. This is indicated in
figuré 3-3 by a series of displacements shown
for successive draft lines on the midship section 8.45
of a cruiser. Figure 3-3.—Displacement data.
35
Sa a ld TE,
Ah oh 2s |
hala |pee]
So|el
i at
(FEET)
DRAFT
Si
ea
IN
rd
13: 14 16 ze Te} 19
DISPLACEMENT (TONS — IN THOUSANDS)

8.46
Figure 3-4.—Displacement curve of a cruiser.
RESERVE BUOYANCY distance between the force and the axis of ro-
tation. The magnitude of the force is expressed
The volume of the watertight portion of the in some unit of weight (pounds, tons, etc.) and
ship above the waterline is known as the ship’s the distance is expressed in some unit of length
reserve buoyancy. Freeboard, a rough measure (inches, feet, etc.); hence the unit of the moment
of the reserve buoyancy, is the distance in feet is the foot-pound, the foot-ton, or some similar
from the waterline to the main deck. Freeboard unit.
is calculated at the midship section. As indicated When two forces of equal magnitude act in
in figure 3-7, freeboard plus draft is equal to opposite and parallel directions and are sepa-
the depth of the hull in feet. rated by a perpendicular distance, they form a
When weight is added to a ship, draft and couple. The moment of a couple is found by
displacement increase in the same amount that multiplying the magnitude of one of the forces
freeboard and reserve buoyancy decrease. Re- by the perpendicular distance between the lines
serve buoyancy is an important factor in a of action of the two forces.
ship’s ability to survive flooding due todamage. When a disturbing force exerts an inclining
It also contributes to the seaworthinesss of the moment on a ship, causing the ship to heel over
ship in very rough weather. to some angle, there is a change in the shape
of the ship’s underwater body and a consequent
INCLINING MOMENTS relocation of the center of buoyancy. Because
of this shift in the location of B, B and G no
The moment of a force is the tendency of the longer act in the same vertical line. Instead
force to produce rotation or to move an object of acting as separate equal and opposite forces,
about an axis. The distance between the point B and G now form a couple.
at which the force is acting and the axis of ro- The newly formed couple produces either a
tation is called the moment arm or the lever righting moment or an upsetting moment, de-
arm of moment.* To find the valueofa moment, pending upon the relative locations of B and G.
we multiply the magnitude of the force by the The ship illustrated in figure 3-8 develops a
lThe significance of the distance between the force support, the see-saw balances. But if one person
and the axis of rotation may be seen if we consider moves closer to or farther away from the center,
a simple see-waw. If two persons of equal weight sit the person farthest away from the support moves
on opposite ends, equally distant from the center downward because the effect of his weight is greater.
36
RM = WxGZ
where
RM = righting moment ( in foot-tons)

W = displacement (in tons)
24 FOOT WATERLINE GZ = righting arm (in feet)
20 FOOT WATERLINE
16 FOOT WATERLINE For example, a ship which displaces 10,000
tons and has a 2-foot righting arm at a certain
angle of inclination has a righting moment of
10,000 tons times 2 feet, or 20,000 foot-tons.
BASE LINE This 20,000 foot-tons represents the moment
which in this instance tends to return the ship
8.50 to an upright position.
Figure 3-5.—Successive centers of buoyancy Figure 3-9 shows the development of an up-
(B) for different drafts. setting moment resulting from the inclination
of an unstable ship. In this case, it is apparent
that the high location of G and the new location
of B contribute to the development of an up-
setting moment rather than a righting moment.
THE METACENTER (M)
A ship’s metacenter is the intersection of

two successive lines of action of the force of
buoyancy as the ship heels through a very small
angle. Figure 3-10 shows two lines of buoyant
force. One of these represents the ship on an
even keel, the other is for a small angle of
heel. The point where they intersect is the
initial position of the metacenter. When the
angle of heel is greater than the angle used to
compute the metacenter, M moves off the cen-
terline and the path of movement is a curve.
However, it is the initial position of the met-
DRAFTS
MEAN
FEET—
OF
SCALE acenter that is most useful in the study of
stability. In the discussion which follows, the
12 i) \4
KB- FEET
8.51
Figure 3-6.—KB curve.
righting moment, the magnitude of which is

equal to the magnitude of one of the forces (B
or G). times the perpendicular distance (GZ)
which separates the lines of actionofthe forces.
The distance GZ is known as the righting arm Figure 3-7.—Reserve buoyancy, freeboard,
of the ship. Mathematically, draft, and depth of hull.
37
is exaggerated in the drawing), establishing a
es)
DIRECTION OF
metacenter at M. The ship’s righting
is one side of the triangle GZM. In this triangle
GZM, the angle of heel is at M. The side GM
arm GZ
RIGHTING MOMENT is perpendicular to the waterline at even keel,

ANGLE
and ZM is perpendicular to the waterline when
the ship is inclined.
It is evident that for any angle of heel not
greater than 7°, there will be a definite rela-
tionship between GM and GZ because GZ=GM
sin 6. Thus, GM acts as a measure of GZ, the
righting arm.
GM is also an indication of whether the ship
is stable or unstable at small angles of inclina-
tion. If M is above G, the metacentric height
FORCENORIGRAVITIY SSS is positive, the moments which develop when
the ship is inclined are righting moments, and
the ship is stable (part A of fig. 3-11). But if
8.52 M is below G, the metacentric heightis negative,
Figure 3-8.—Development of righting mo- the moments which develop are upsetting mo-
ment when a stable ship inclines. ments, and the ship is unstable (part B of fig.
3-11).
INFLUENCE OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT
FORCE OF BUOYANCY When the metacentric height of a ship is

DIRECTION OF large, the righting arms that develop at small
UPSETTING angles of heel are also large. Such a ship re-
MOMENT
sists roll and is said to be stiff. When the
ANGLE OF HEEL
IS EXAGGERATED
WG WATERLINE
UPRIGHT
8.53
Figure 3-9.—Development of upsetting mo-
ment when unstable ship inclines. WATERLINE
INCLINED
TOA VERY
initial position is referred to asM. Thedistance SMALL
ANGLE
from the center of buoyancy (B) to the meta-
lit
center (M) when the ship is on even keel is the
metacentric radius.
BUOYANT FORCE BUOYANT FORCE
METACENTRIC HEIGHT (GM) UPRIGHT INCLINED
The distance from the center of gravity (G)

to the metacenter is known as the ship’s met-
acentric height (GM). Figure 3-11 shows a 8.54
ship heeled through a small angle (the angle Figure 3-10.—The metacenter.
A M
damage. However, a smaller GM is sometimes
desirable for the slow, easy roll which makes for
/
i
more accurate gunfire. Thus the GM value for
a naval ship is the result of compromise.
ANGLE OF
ANGLE OF M < lac.
HEEL STABILITY CURVES
G Z
When a series of values for GZ at successive
angles of heel are plotted on a graph, the result
is a stability curve. The stability curve shown in
figure 3-12 is called a curve of static stability.
The word static indicates that it is not necessary
for the ship to be in motion for the curve to
apply; if the ship were momentarily stopped at
any angle during its roll, the value of GZ given
by the curve would still apply.2
To understand the stability curve, it is neces-
sary to consider the following facts:
i 1. The ship’s center of gravity does not

change position as the angle of heel is changed.
2. The ship’s center of buoyancy is always
at the center of the ship’s underwater hull.
3. The shape of the ship’s underwater hull
(rs changes as the angle of heel changes.
Putting these facts together, we see that the
position of G remains constant as the ship heels
through various angles, but the position of B
changes according to the angle of inclination.
Initial stability increases with increasing angle
of heel at an almost constant rate; but at large
angles the increase in GZ begins tolevel off and
gradually diminishes, becoming zero at very
large angles of heel.
EFFECT OF DRAFT ON RIGHTING ARM
A change in displacement will result in a

change of draft and freeboard; and B will shift
to the geometric center of the new underwater
body. At any angle of inclination, a change in
draft causes B to shift both horizontally and
vertically with respect to the waterline. The
8.55 horizontal shift in B changes the distance be-
Figure 3-11.—(A) Stable condition, G is below tween B and G, and thereby changes the length
M. (B) Unstable condition, G is above M. of the righting arm, GZ. Thus, when draft is
increased, the righting arms are reduced
metacentric height is small, the righting arms throughout the entire range of stability. Figure
are also small. Such a ship rolls slowly and is 3-13 shows how the righting arm is reduced
said to be tender. Some GM values for various
naval ships are: CLs, 3 to 5 feet; CAs, 4 to 6
feet; DDs, 3 to 4 feet; DEs, 3to 5 feet; and AKs, Design engineers usually use GM values as a measure
1 to 6 feet. of stability up to about 7 heel. For angles beyond 7°,
Large GM and large righting arms are de- a Stability curve is used.
sirable for resistance to the flooding effects of
39
= Ee ee ee a a eae ee ee
FEET
IN
ARM
RIGHTING
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF HEEL IN DEGREES
GZ = 14 FEET GZ=2.0 FEET GZ=1 FOOT
8.56
Figure 3-12.—Righting arms of a ship inclined at successively larger angles of heel.
FORCE OF BUOYANCY AT
OS
18 FOOT DRAFT AND 20°HEEL
20° _26 FOOT WATERLINE AT 20° ANGLE OF HEEL
18 FOOT WATERLINE AT 20° ANGLE OF HEEL
TE,R INE
TE; N
FORCE OF BUOYANCY AT Ruy Keegy
26 FOOT DRAFT AND 20°HEEL Even
KEE,
8.57
Figure 3-13.—Effect of draft on righting arm.
40
when the draft is increased from 18 feet to 26 this vertical line with each cross curve, the
feet, when the ship is inclined at anangle of 20° corresponding value of the righting arm on the
At smaller angles up to 30°, certain hull types vertical scale at the left can be read. Then this
show flat or slightly increasing righting arm value of the righting arm at the corresponding
values with an increase in displacement. angle of heel is plotted on the grid for the sta-
A reduction in the size of the righting arm bility curve. When a series of such values of the
usually means a decrease in stability. When the righting arms from 10°through 90° of heel have
reduction in GZ is caused by increased dis- been plotted, a smooth line is drawn through
placement, however, the total effect on stability them and the uncorrected Stability curve for the
is more difficult to evaluate. Since the righting ship at that particular displacement is obtained.
moment is equal to W times GZ, the righting The curve is not corrected for the actual height
moment will be increased by the gain in W at of the ship’s center of gravity, since the cross
the same time that it is decreased by the reduc- curves are based on an assumed height of G.
tion in GZ. The gain in the righting moment, However, the stability curve does embody the
caused by the gain in W, does not necessarily effect on the righting arm of the freeboard for
compensate for the reduction in GZ. a given position of the center of gravity.
In brief, there are several ways in which an Figure 3-15 shows an uncorrected stability
increase in displacement affects the stability of curve (A) for the ship operating at 11,500 tons
a ship. Although these effects occur at the same displacement, taken from the cross curves
time, it is best to consider them separately. shown in figure 3-14. This stability curve can-
The effects of increased displacement are: not be used in its present form, since the cross
curves are made up on the basis of an assumed
1. Righting arms (GZ) are decreased as a center of gravity. In actual operation, the ship’s
result of increased draft. condition of loading will affect its displacement
2. Righting moments (foot-tons) are de- and, therefore, the location of G. Tousea curve
creased as a result of decreased GZ (fora given taken from the cross curves, therefore, it is
displacement). necessary to correct the curve for the actual
3. Righting moments may be increased as a height of G above the keel (K)—that is, it is
result of the increased displacement (W), if necessary to use the distance KG. As far as the
(GZ x W) is increased. new center of gravity is concerned, when a
weight is added to a system of weights, the
CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY center of gravity can be found by taking moments
of the old system plus that of the new weight and
To facilitate stability calculations, the design dividing this total moment by the total final
activity inclines a lines drawing of the ship at a weight. Detailed information concerning changes
given angle, and then lays off on it a series of in the center of gravity of ashipcan be obtained
waterlines. These waterlines are chosen at from chapter 9880 of the Naval Ships Technical
evenly spaced drafts- throughout the probable Manual.
range of displacements. For each waterline the Assume that the cross curves are made up
value of the righting arm is calculated, using an on the basis of anassumed KG of 20 feet, and the
assumed center of gravity rather than the true actual KG, which includes the added effects of
center of gravity. A series of such calculations Free Surface, for the particular condition of
is made for various angles of heel—usually 10°, loading, is 24 feet. This means that the true G
20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 7C°, 80°, and 90°—and the is 4 feet higher thanthe assumed G, and that the
results are plotted on a grid to forma Series of righting arm (GZ) at each angle of inclination
curves known as the cross curves of stability will be smaller than the righting arm shown in
(fig. 3-14). Note that, as draft and displacement figure 3-15 (curve A) for the same angle. To
increase, the curves all slope downward, indi- find the new value of GZ for each angle of
cating increasingly smaller righting arms, inclination, the increase in KG (4 feet) is multi-
The cross curves are uSed inthe preparation plied by the sine of the angle of inclination, and
of stability curves. To take a stability curve the product is subtracted from the value of GZ
from the cross curves, a vertical line (Such as shown on the cross curves or onthe uncorrected
line MN in fig. 3-14) is drawn onthe cross curve stability curve. In order to facilitate the correc-
sheet at the displacement which corresponds to tion of the stability curves, a table showing the
the mean draft of the ship. At the intersection of necessary Sines of the angles of inclination is
41
INCLINING EXPERIMENT, U, S. S. — MIDDLETOWN nc en e s [Sheet ....18.cf ..42..]
CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY

Axis assumed ......20.._. feet above base line
Vessel considered water-tight to .FORECASTIE DECK Taken from Plan No. BuShips Nos <= es
Scale of Tons Displacement
11,000 12,000
i|
8.58
Figure 3-14.—Cross curves of stability.
included on the cross curves form (fig. 3- THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT

14).
The vertical location of the center of gravity
Next, the corrected values of GZ for the must be known in order to determine the stability
various angles of heel shown on the stability characteristics of a ship. Although the position
curve (A) in figure 3-15 should be found and of the center of gravity as estimated by calcula-
plotted on the same grid to make the corrected tion is sufficient for design purposes, an accu-
stability curve (B) shown in figure 3-15. rate determination is required to establish the
ship’s stability. Therefore, an inclining experi-
When the values from 10° through 80° are ment is performed to obtain a precise measure-
plotted on the grid and joined with a smooth ment of KG, the vertical height of G above the
curve, the corrected stability curve (B) shown keep (base line), when the ship is completed.
in figure 3-15 results. The corrected curve An inclining experiment consists of moving one
shows maximum stability to be at 40% it also or more large weights across the ship and
shows that an upsetting arm, rather than a measuring the angle of list produced. (See fig.
righting arm, generally exists at angles of heel 3-16). This angle of list, produced by the weight
in excess of 75°, movement and measured by means of a pendulum
42
loading in which the ship was inclined. This is

known as Condition A, or the ‘‘As-Inclined’’
condition. The ship may have been in any condi-
tion of loading at the time of the experiment,
and this may not have been in operating condi-
tion. In order to convert the data thus obtained
to practical use, KG must be determined for
various operating conditions. The standard load-
ing conditions as found in the Inclining Experi-
ment Data Booklets are as follows:
FEET
IN
ARM,
RIGHTING
Condition A—Light ship
Condition Al—Light, without permanent bal-
last
Condition B—Minimum operating condition#
Condition C—Optimum battle condition
Condition D—Full load
8.59
Figure 3-15.—(A) Uncorrected stability curve Other special conditions, including special
taken from cross curves. (B) Corrected sta- low stability operating conditions, conditions of
bility curve. light load with water ballast, and similar condi-
tions may be included.
and a horizontal batten or an inclinometer device Condition A—Light Condition assumes that
designed for this purpose, usually does not ex- the ship is complete and in all respects ready
ceed two degrees. The metacentric height is for sea, but with no load aboard—no fuel oil,
calculated from the formula stores, crew and effects, ammunition, water,
gasoline, JP-5, or water or oil in machinery.
wd Although not an operating condition, Condition A
GM W tan @ is the basic condition from which other condi-
tions are calculated.
where
After obtaining the displacement and locating
w = inclining weight, in tons the center of gravity for the ship in Condition A,
corresponding values may be computed for other
d = distance weight is moved athwartships, standard conditions of loading. The weights and
in feet vertical moments of all consumables to go
aboard are determined and, starting with the
We= displacement of ship, including weight w, displacement and KG for Condition A, a new
in tons displacement, KG, and GM are calculated for
each of the other conditions of loading. The GM
tan 6= tangent of angle of list
thus obtained is in each case corrected for the
The results of this experiment are calculated free surface assumed to exist inthe ship’s tanks
and tabulated in the Inclining Experiment Data for that particular condition of loading. (Free
Booklets, which consist of two parts. Part 1, surface is discussed later inthis chapter.)
Report of Inclining Experiment, contains the Having determined displacement and KG, it
observations and calculations that determine the is possible to draw a curve of stability for each
displacement and location of the center of gravity condition of load. Additional information con-
of the ship in the light condition. Part 2, Stability cerning inclining experiment data can be ob-
Data for surface ships and Stability and Equi- tained from chapters 9290 and 9880 of the Naval
librium Data for submarines, contains data Ships Technical Manual.
relative to the characteristics of the ship in
operating condition. These booklets are prepared 3This condition is listed only when ships have perma-
by the inclining activity, and Part 2 is issued to nent ballast.
the ships for their information. ror ships without underwater defense systems.
The KG obtained from the inclining experi-
ment is accurate for the particular condition of For ships with underwater defense systems.
43
a diagonal movement can be divided into com-

TAN 6=TANGENT OF ANGLE OF LIST = aoe
Ths ponents in each of the three directions, and one
component can be studied at a time without ref-
erence to the others. For example, if a weight
is moved from the main deck, starboard side,
aft, to a storeroom on the 4th deck, port side,
forward, this movement may be regarded as
taking place in three steps, as follows:
1. from main deck to 4th deck (down)
2. from starboard side to port side (across)
3. from stern to bow (forward)
VERTICAL WEIGHT SHIFT
If a weight is moved straight up a vertical

distance on a ship, the ship’s center of gravity
will move straight up on the centerline (fig.
3-17). The vertical rise in G (explained later
in the chapter) can be computed from the for-
mula mentioned previously.
Example: A ship is operating with a dis-
147.32 placement of 11,500 tons. Her ammunition,
Figure 3-16.—Measuring the angle of list pro- totaling 670 tons, is to be moved from the
duced in performing the inclining experiment. magazines to the main deck, a distance of 36
feet. Find the rise in G,
EFFECTS OF WEIGHT SHIFTS
GG, _=~i7500
670 x 36 |= 2-1 feet
If one weight inasystem of weights is moved,
the center of gravity of the whole system moves
along a path parallel to the path of the compo-
nent weight. The distance that the center of grav-
ity of the system moves may be calculatedfrom
the formula.
w RELOCATED
TO HERE
ae
MAIN DECK
where
w = component weight, in tons
s = distance component weight is moved, in

feet
W=weight of entire system, in tons
GG, = shift in center of gravity of system, in

feet
Weight movements in a ship can take place

in three possible directions—athwartships, fore
and aft, and vertically (perpendicular to the 147.33
decks). The most general type of movement is Figure 3-17.—Shift in G due to vertical weight
inclined with respect to all three of these. Such shift.
Since moving a weight which is already aboard GG, x sin @ vertically against angles of heel
will cause no change in displacement, there can horizontally, which results inasine curve. When
be no change in M, the metacenter. If M re- plotted, the curve isas illustrated in figure 3-19.
mains fixed, then the upward movement of the The sine curve may be superimposed on the
center of gravity results inaloss of metacentric original stability curve to show the effect on
height: stability characteristics of moving the weight up
in a ship. Inasmuch as displacement is un-
G iM = GM - GG, changed, the righting arms of the oldcurve need
be corrected for the change of G only, and no
where other variation occurs. Consequently, if GG, x
sin 9 is deducted from each GZ on old stability
G,M = new metacentric height (after weight curve, the result will be a correct righting arm
movement), in feet curve for the ship after the weight movement.
In figure 3-20 a sine curve has been super-
GM = old metacentric height (before weight imposed onan original stability curve. The dotted
movement), in feet area is that portion of the curve which was lost
due to moving the weight up, whereas the lined
GG, = rise in center of gravity, in feet area is the remaining or residual portion of the
curve. The residual maximum righting arm is
If the ammunition on the main deck is moved AB and occurs at an angle of about 37. The new
down to the 6th deck, the positions of G and Gy range of stability is from 0°to 53°.
will be reversed. The shift in G can be found The reduced stability of the new curve be-
from the same formula as before, the only dif- comes more evident if the intercepted distances
ference being that GG; now becomes a gain in between the old GZ curve and the sine curve are
metacentric height instead of a loss (fig. 3-18). transferred down to the base, thus forming a
If a weight is moved vertically downward, the new curve of static stability (fig. 3-21). Where
ship’s center of gravity, G, will move straight the old righting arm at 30° was AB, the new one
down on the centerline and the correction is addi- has a value of CB, which is plotted up from the
tive. In this case the sine curve is plotted below base to locate point D (CB = AD) andthusa point
the abscissa. The final stability curve is that is established at 30° on the new curve. A series
portion of the curve above the sine correction of points thus obtained by transferring inter-
curve. cepted distances down to the base line delineates
A vertical shift in the ship’s center of gravity the new curve, which may be analyzed as follows:
changes every righting arm throughout the entire
range of stability. If the ship is at any angle of GM is now the quantity represented by EF.
heel, such as @ in figure 3-18, the righting arm Maximum righting arm is now the quantity
is GZ with the center of gravity at G. But if the represented by HI.
center of gravity shifts to Gj as the result of a Angle at which maximum righting arm oc-
vertical weight shift upward, the righting arm curs is 37.
becomes Gj Z,, which is smaller than GZ by the Range of stability is from 0° to 53°.
amount of GR. In the right triangle GRG}, the
angle of heel is at Gj; hence the loss of the Total dynamic stability is represented by the
righting arm may be found from shaded area.
GR = GG, x sin @ HORIZONTAL WEIGHT SHIFT
This equation may be stated in words as: The When the ship is upright, G lies in the fore
loss of righting arm equals the rise inthe center and aft centerline, and all weights on board are
of gravity times the sine of the angle of heel. The balanced. Moving any weight horizontally will
sine of the angle of heel is a ratio which can be result in a shift in G in an athwartship direc-
found by consulting a table of sines. tion, parallel to the weight movement. B and G
If the loss of GZ is found for 10°, 20°, 30°, are no longer in the same vertical line and an
and so forth by multiplying GG, by the sine of upsetting moment exists at 0° inclination, which
the proper angle, a curve of loss of righting will cause the ship to heel until B moves under
arms can be obtained by plotting values of the new position of G. Incalm water the ship will
45
Op, G/yy
Al
Wy
147,34
Figure 3-18.—Loss of righting arm due to rise in center of gravity.
=
fa
<
Oo
Zu
co
ae
ZZ Gy=21
ca
fo)
WN
fa)
fo)
=]
ANGLES OF HEEL IN DEGREES
147.35
Figure 3-19.—Sine curve showing the loss of righting arm at various angles of heel.
46
; 3
q
ica
7, CURVE OF GG ,Xsin@
5
O
Zz
&
25
©
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
147.36
Figure 3-20.—Sine curve superimposed on original stability curve.
3
5 GG, x sin 9
a Pa TING SRM CURVE CURVE OF LOSS OF RIGHTING ARM
Baldi
Z
< a= -—
2 L)
O —-NEW RIGHTING GG1
rf 1 — I ARM CURVE
&
<
o
[a3
57.3 a
147.37
Figure 3-21.—Curve of static stability as corrected for loss of
stability due to a vertical weight shift.
remain at this angle and in a seaway it will Going back to our original problem, let us
roll about this angle of permanent list. This further assume that ship’s stores totaling 185
shift of G can be computed from the formula tons are shifted from port storerooms to star-
board storerooms, a horizontal distance of
wd 56 feet. Using the formula:
a een G,G,=—7o
S28 = 0,90 foot
where ]
G15 5 INTIAL MO Spe Te In figure 3-22 the righting arm has been re-
w= weight moved over, in tons duced from G,Z, to G2ZQ by this weight shift.
d = distance w moved, in feet G2Z2 is smaller than G1Z1. However, the dis-
w= displacement of ship, in tons tance GjT is equal to G1G2 x cos 4. Thus, the
47
147.38
Figure 3-22.—Loss of righting arm when center of gravity is
moved off the center line.
loss of righting arm involved in an athwartship superimposed on the stability curve to show the
movement of G is equal at any angle of heel to effect on stability of moving a weight athwart-
G1G2 x cos #. This variable distance (G1G2 x ship. The cosine curve has been placed on the
cos 6) is called the ship’s inclining arm; when original stability curve, corrected for the actual
this value is multiplied by the displacement, height of the center of gravity. The dotted area
W, the product is the ship’s inclining moment. (fig. 3-23) is that portion of the curve which was
The expression G;T = Gi1G2 x cos@ may be lost due to the weight shift, and the lined area
stated as: The inclining arm is equal to the is the remaining or residual portion of the curve.
athwartship shift in the center of gravity times The residual maximum righting arm is AB
the cosine of the angle of heel. The cosine of which develops at an angle of about 37°. The
the angle of heel is a ratio which can be found new range of stability is from 20° to 50°.
by consulting a table of cosines. If the inclining
arm is computed for 10, 20, 30°, etc. by The new curve of static stability can be
multiplying G1G2 by the cosine of the proper plotted on the base by transferring down the
angle, a curve of inclining arms can be obtained intercepted distances between the cosine curve
by plotting values of GjG2 x cos@ vertically and the old GZ curve. For example, in figure
against angles of heel horizontally, which re- 3-24 the old righting arm at 37° was AD, the
sults in a cosine curve. Note that the cosine loss of righting arm (inclining arm) at this
curve (fig. 3-23) is just the opposite of the sine angle is AC, leaving a residual GZ of CD. This
curve (fig. 3-20) but is otherwise identical in value has been plotted up from the base as AB
shape. to provide one point on the final curve. The
Just as the sine curve was superimposed residual stability may be analyzed on the new
on the GZ curve, so may the cosine curve be curve as follows:
48
1. Maximum righting arm AB. and stability. Regardless of where the weight
2. Angle of maximum righting arm at A, is added (or removed), when determining the
3. Range of stability 20° to 50°. various effects it should be considered first
4, Total dynamic stability is represented to be placed in the center of the ship, then
by the lined area. moved up (or down) to its final height, next
moved outboard to its final off-center location,
The ship will have a permanent list at 20° and finally shifted to its fore or aft position.
ch is the angle where B is under G, inclining Assume that a weight is added to a ship so
1 equals original righting arm, cosine curve that the list or trim is not changed, and G will
sses original GZ curve, and residual right- not shift. The first thing to do is find the new
arm is zero. In a seaway the ship will roll displacement, which is the old displacement
ut this angle of list. If it rolls farther to the plus the added weight:
ed side, a righting moment develops which
is to return it toward the angle of list. If New displacement = W+ w tons
olls back towards the upright, an upsetting
nent develops which tends to return it to- where
d the angle of list. The upsetting moment
ween 0° and the angle of list) is the differ- W = old displacement (tons)
e between the inclining and righting moments. w = added weight (tons)
GONAL WEIGHT SHIFT With the new value of displacement, enter the
curves of form and on the displacement curve
A weight may be shifted diagonally, so that find the corresponding draft, which is the new
noves up or down and athwartship at the mean draft. Figure 3-25 shows typical displace-
1e time, Or by moving one weight up or down ment and other curves generally referred to
another athwartship. A diagonal shift should as curves of form.
treated in two steps; first by finding the ef- If the change in draft is not over 1 foot, the
/on GM and stability of the vertical shift, procedure can be reversed. Find the tons-per-
second, by finding the effect of the hori- inch immersion for the old mean draft from
tal movement. The corrections are applied the curves of form, divide the added weight
Ireviously described. (in tons) by the tons-per-inch immersion in
order to get the bodily sinkage in inches, and
EFFECTS OF WEIGHT CHANGES add this bodily sinkage to the old mean draft
to get the new mean draft. Using the new mean
The additional removal of any weight in a draft, enter the curves of form and find the
1 may affect list, trim, draft, displacement, new displacement.
|Ms.
RIGHTING ARM CURVE
A INCLINING ARM CURVE

FEET
IN
ARM
INCLINING
30 40
147.39
Figure 3-23.—Cosine curve superimposed on original stability curve.
49
INCLINING ARM CURVE OLD RIGHTING ARM CURVE
NEW RIGHTING ARM CURVE

IN
FEET
a Pa
,*
RIGHTING
ARM
lll
30
vm
A 40
li
50
ire
60 70 80
IN
FEET
UPSETTING
ARM
147.40
Figure 3-24.—New curve of static stability after correction for horizontal weight movement.
VERTICAL WEIGHT CHANGES GGj = shift of G from formula GG, =—“2

(W+ w)
Assume that the weight added above is shifted
vertically on the ship’s centerline to its final If the final position of the added weight is
height above the keel. This movement will below the original position of G, then GG, is
minus; if it is above, then GQ] is plus.
cause G to shift up or down. To compute the
vertical shift of G use the formula To find the new metacentric height, enter
the curves of form with the new mean draft
GG) = WZ and find the height of the transverse meta-
(W+w center above the base line. This is KM. The
new metacentric height is determined by the
where formula,
GG, = shift of G up or down, in feet

G1M;= KM) — KGi
w = added weight, in tons where
Z = vertical distance w is added above
or below original location of G, in G,M,= new metacentric height (in feet)
feet KMj1= new KM
W = old displacement, in tons KG = new KG
(W+ w) = new displacement, in tons
With the new displacement (W + w), enter
the cross curves and pickout anew, uncorrected
This vertical shift must be added to or sub-
curve of stability. Correct this curve for the
tracted from the original height of the center
new height of the ship’s center of gravity above
of gravity above the keel.
the base line. This is accomplished by finding
To do this, the original height KG must be AG (which is KG1 minus KA) and subtracting
known: AG] x sin 6 from every vertical on the stability
curve, provided Gj is above A. If G1 is below
KG, = KG + GG} A, the values of AG; x sin 6 must be added to
the curve, as previously explained. The result-
where ing curve of righting arms is now correct for
the loss of freeboard due to the added weight
KG j = new height of G above keel (in feet) and for the final height of the ship’s center of
KG = old height of G above keel ( in feet) gravity resulting from weight addition.
50
147,41
No.
BuShips
2.20.2.
2.
..2020 —
celnail.
Eat ee
A
elreas
|
| eee
peels
|
|
PA
|
|
|
ih,
|
|
2S
|
&
\\
THEN
No.
Plan
from
Taken
_............-....-.-
|
|
|
|
| TRIM
OF
CHANGE
!
:
& form.
of
3-25.—Curv
Figure
=
Fi
i IMMERSION,
FOOT
ONE
FOR
DISPLACEMENT
TO
ADDITION
INCH
PER
AND
TONS
BUOYANCY,
OF
CENTER
z=
3
=
ewe
es ——Yy
LOO4 | =SNOL 001 HV imolans>
ih acl
.7.3..._)
...14O._.
P.
M.
of
aft
forward,
feet
Reference
No.
(Frame
is
used
frame
sheets
preceding
on stated.
should
line
base
latter
the
aft
be
and
forward
both
refereace
with
marks
draft
the
of
tu
locations
Nore.—If
differs
the
calculations,
for
line
marks
draft
base
from
MENT
CENTER
BOW,
BY
ADDITIONAL
DISPLACE-
OF FORWARD
MID.
OF
FLOTATION
PERPENDICULAR
RADII,
METACENTRIC
DISPLACEMENT,
OF
CURVES .TH a a fi OF FLOTATION
FORWARD
CENTER
3) 8,
yyeag Uwe
—1904 Jo O]8>S
Example: Add four gun mounts topside to a difference being that most of the operations
ship with the curves of form shown in figure and results will be found just the reverse of
3-25. Assume an initial KG of 24.5 feet. Assume those which relate to adding a weight.
that the gun mounts weigh 28 tons each and that
their center of gravity is located 48 feet above EFFECTS OF LOOSE WATER
the keel. What is the effect on stability?
When a tank or a compartment in a ship is
1. New displacement = W+ w= 11,500+ (4 x partially full of liquid that is free to move as
28) =11,612 tons. the ship heels, the surface of the liquid tends to
remain level. The surface of the free liquid is
2. New mean draft =19.7 feet (fig. 3-25). referred to as free surface. The tendency of the
liquid to remain level as the ship heels is re-
6G) =
“Fae
WZ
ferred to as free surface effect. The termloose
water is used to describe liquid that has a free
surface; it is not usedtodescribe water or other
w= 4x 28=112 tons
liquid that completely fills a tank or compart-
z=48 — 24.5 =23.5 feet ment and thus has no free surface.
Bell 2ix oor
GG, = “11,612 = 0.23 feet FREE SURFACE EFFECT
Free surface in a ship always causes a re-
4. KG, = 24.50 +0.23 = 24.73 feet. duction in GM with a consequent reduction of
stability, superimposed on any additional weight
5. New KM, = 28.4 feet (fig. 3-25).
which would be caused by flooding. The flow of
the liquid is an athwartship shift of weight which
6. New GyM;,=KMy — KG j= 28.4 — 24,7=
varies with the angle of inclination. Wherever
3.7 feet.
free surface exists, a free surface correction
must be applied to any stability calculation. This
7, The values for the angles (0°— 70°) are
effect may be considered to cause a reduction in
taken from the cross curves for 11,612
a sShip’s static stability curve in the amount of
tons displacement (fig. 3-14). KA is 20 feet.
Corrections are made for AG, x sin = ae sin@, due to a virtual rise inG
(24.73 — 20) sing= 4.73 sin@. The correc-
where
tions are applied to the curve (fig. 3-26)
as previously explained. Figure 3-26 i=the moment of inertia of the surface of
shows the curve of righting arms cor- water in the tank about a longitudinal axis
rected for weight addition. through the center of area of that surface
(or other liquid in ratio of its specific
HORIZONTAL WEIGHT CHANGES gravity to that of the liquid in which the
ship is floating)
In the previous example of weight addition,
Suppose the gun mounts are located with their V=existing volume of displacement of the
center of gravity 29 feet to starboard of the ship in cubic feet. For arectangular com-
centerline and the weight is moved athwartship partment, i may be found from
to its final off-center location. The shift in G
may be found by using the proper formula, mak- yl se
ing the required corrections, and applying the
+ Foe
corrections to the curve in figure 3-26. This where
gives a correct curve of righting arms. To
b= athwartship breadth of the free surface
obtain a curve of righting moments, the righting
(with the ship upright) in feet
arms are multiplied by the new displacement
(W+w) =11,612 tons, and plotted in figure 3-27. 1= fore-and-aft length of the free surface in
feet
WEIGHT REMOVAL
on is usual to assume all liquids are salt water, and
The results of a weight removal are com- thus neglect density, unless very accurate determina-
puted by using the previous procedure, the only tions are required.
To understand what is meant by a virtual tion if the compartment contained solids rather
rise in G, refer to figure 3-28. This figure than a liquid. As the ship heels, however,
shows a compartment in a ship partially filled the shift of a wedge of water along the path
with water, which has a free surface, fs, with 2129 causes the center of gravity of the ship
the ship upright. When the ship heels to any to shift from G to Gg. This reduces the righting
small angle, such as @, the free surface shifts arm, at this angle, from GZ to G2Z9_
to fjs,, remaining parallel to the waterline. To compute GGg2 and the loss of GZ for
The result of the inclination is the movement each angle of heel is a laborious and com-
of a wedge of water from fof; to sos1. Calling plicated task. However, an equivalent righting
g, the center of gravity of this wedge when arm, G3Z3 (which equals G2Z2), can be ob-
the ship was upright, and go its center of tained by extending the line of action of the
gravity with the ship inclined, it is evident force of gravity up to intersect the ship’s
that a small weight has been moved from centerline at point G3. Raising the ship’s
g 1 to go. center of gravity from G to Gg would have
Point G is the center of gravity of the ship the same effect on stability at this angle as
when upright, and G would remain at this posi- shifting it from G to G92,
@ MINUS @ EQUALS ®
® MINUS @ EQUALS ©)
UNCORRECTED GZ'S
FROM CROSS CURVES
EL ® SINE CURVE
Be
pat
ye CORRECTED FOR
ACTUAL KG,
_ —_—
FEET
IN
MOMENT
RIGHTING
147.42
Figure 3-26.—Curve of righting arms corrected for weight addition.
53
RIGHTING MOMENT NN
IS 19,700 FOOT TONS
RIGHTING
MOMENT
FOOT
IN
TONS RANGE OF STABILITY
IS FROM 4° TO 68°
ANGLE OF HEEL IN DEGREES MAXIMUM RIGHTING MOMENT

itDEVELOPS AT 38°
147.43
Figure 3-27.—Curve of righting moments.
The distance GgZg is the righting arm the The free surface effect is also independent of
ship would have if the center of gravity had the free surface location in the ship, whether
risen from G to G3, and this virtual rise of G it is high or low, forward or aft, on the center-
may be computed from the formula: line or off, as long as the boundaries remain
intact.
GG3= my The loss of metacentric height can obviously
Vv can be reduced by reducing the breadth of the
free surface, as by the installation of longitudinal
Referring to the formula, loss in GZ=—-x bulkheads. However, off-center flooding after
damage then becomes possible, causing the ship
sin §. This formula is accurate for small angles to take on a permanent list and usually bringing
of heel only, due to the pocketing effect as the about a greater loss in stability than if the
angle increases. In case several compartments bulkhead were not present.
or tanks have free surface, their surface mo- The loss of GZ due to free surfaceis always
ments of inertia are calculated individually lessened to some extent by pocketing. This is
and their sum used in the correction for free the contact of the liquid with the topof the com-
surface. The effect of a given area of loose partment or the exposure of the bottom surface
liquid at a given angle of heel is entirely in- of the compartment, either of which takes place
dependent of the depth of the liquid in the com- at some definite angle and reduces the breadth
partment, as is apparent in the formula, of the free surface area. To understand how
pocketing of the free surface reduces the free
i bel surface effect, study figure 3-29, Part A shows
= ae a compartment in which the free surface effect
is not influenced by the depth of the loose water.
The compartment shown in part B, however, con-
where the only factors are the dimensions of tains only a small amount of water; when the
the surface and the displacement of the ship. ship heels sufficiently to reduce the waterline
54
in the compartment from wl to wj1j, the breadth

of the free surface is reduced and the free sur-
ANGLE OF HEEL
EXAGGERATED face effect is thereby reduced. A similar re-
duction in free surface effect occurs in the al-
FOR CLARITY
most full compartment shown in part C, again

because of the reduction in the breadth of the
free surface. As figure 3-29 shows, the bene-
ficial effect of pocketing is greater at larger
angles of heel.
The effect of pocketing in reducing the over
all free surface effect is extremely variable
and not easily determined. In practice, there-
FORCE OF GRAVITY fore, it is usually ignored and tends to provide
a margin of safety when computing stability.
147.44 Most compartments of a ship contain some
Figure 3-28.—Diagram showing virtual
solid objects, such as machinery and stores
rise in G.
which would project through and above the sur-
face of any loose water. If these objects are
secured so that they do not float or move about,
and if they are not permeable, then the free
surface area and the free surface effect is re-
duced by their presence. The actual value of
the reduction (surface permeability effect) is
difficult to calculate and, like the value of
pocketing, if ignored when calculating stability
will provide a further margin of safety.
Swash bulkheads (nontight bulkheads pierced
PARTIALLY FUL by drain holes) are fitted in deep tanks and
double bottoms to hinder the flow of liquid in
its attempt to remain continuously parallel to
the waterline as the ship rolls. They diminish
the free surface effect if the roll is quick, but
they have no effect when the roll is slow. A
ship taking on a permanent list will incline
just as far as if the swash plate were not there.
When a fore-and -aft bulkhead separating two
adjacent compartments is holed (ruptured) so
that any flooding water present in one is free
to flow athwartship from one compartment to
the other, a casualty duplicating the effect of
a swash bulkhead has occurred. In this case,
it is incorrect to add the free surface effects
of the two compartments together; an entirely
new figure for the flooding effect must be com-
puted, regarding the two as one large compart-
ment.
In summary, the addition of a liquid weight
with a free surface has two effects on the me-
tacentric height of a ship. First, there is the
effect on GM and GZ of the weight addition
(considered as a solid) which influences the
vertical position of the ship’s center of gravity,
and the location of the transverse metacenter,
8.61 M. Secondly, there is a reduction in GM and GZ
Figure 3-29.—Pocketing of free surface. due to the free surface effect.
55
FREE COMMUNICATION EFFECT decrease in stability. Such free flow is known

as sluicing.
If one or more of the boundaries of an off-
center compartment are ruptured so that the SUMMARY OF EFFECTS OF LOOSE WATE .
sea may flow freely in and out with a minimum
of restriction as the ship rolls, a condition of The addition of loose water to a ship alters
partial flooding with free communication with the stability characteristics by means of three
the sea exists. The added weight of the flooding effects that must be considered separately:
water and the virtual rise in G due to the free (1) the effect of added weight; (2) the effect of
surface effect cause what is known as free free surface; and (3) the effect of free communi-
communication effect. With an off-center space cation.
flooded, a ship will assume a list which will Figure 3-30 shows the development of a
be further aggravated by the free surface effect. stability curve with corrections for added weight,
As the ship lists, more water will flow into free surface, and free communication. Curve
the compartment from the sea and will tend to A is the ship’s original stability curve before
level off at the height of the external waterline. flooding. Curve B represents the situation after
The additional weight causes the ship to sink flooding; this curve shows the effect of added
further allowing more water to enter, causing weight (increased stability) but it does not
more list until some final list is reached. The show the effects of free surface or of free
reduction of GM due to free communication communication. Curve C is curve B corrected
effect is approximately equal in magnitude to for free surface effect only. Curve D is curve
B corrected for both free surface effect and
ay2 free communication effect. Curve D, therefore,
Vv is the final stability curve; it incorporates
corrections for all three effects of loose water.
where
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY AND
a= area of the free surface in square EFFECTS OF TRIM
feet
y = perpendicular distance from the geo- The important phases of longitudinal in-
metric center of the free surface area to the clination are changes in trim and longitudinal
fore-and-aft centerline of the intact waterline stability. A ship pitches longitudinally in con-
plane in feet trast to rolling transversely and it trims for-
V = new volume of ship’s displacement and-aft, whereas it lists transversely. The
after flooding, in cubic feet. Thus reduction in difference in forward and after draft is defined
GM is additional to and separate from the free as trim.
surface effect.
CENTER OF FLOATATION
The approximate reduction in GZ may be
computed from When a ship trims, it inclines about an axis
through the geometric center of the waterline
ay2
(C4 = sin 6 plane. This point is known as the center of
V flotation. The position for the center of flota-
tion aft of the mid-perpendicular for various
This may be considered as a virtual rise in drafts may be found from a curve on the curves
G, superimposed upon the virtual rise in G due of form (fig. 3-25). When a center of flotation
to the free surface effect. curve is not available, or when precise cal-
If two partially filled tanks on opposite sides culations are not required, the mid-perpendicu-
of an intact ship are connected by an open pipe lar may be used in lieuofthe center of flotation.
at or near their bottoms allowing a free flow of
liquid between them, the effect on GM is the CHANGE OF TRIM
same as if both tanks were in free communica-
tion with the sea. Hence, valves in cross con- Change of trim may be defined as the change
nections between such tanks should never be in the difference between the drafts forward
left open without anticipating the accompanying and aft. If in changing the trim, the draft forward
56
RIGHTING
FEET
ARM,IN
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGEE*OF HEEL, INSDEGREES

8.64
Figure 3-30.—Stability curve corrected for effects of added weight,
free surface, and free communication.
becomes greater, then the change is said to be I’= the moment of inertia of the ship’s
by the bow. Conversely, if the draft aft becomes waterline plane about an athwartship
greater, the change of trim is by the stern. axis through the center of flotation
Changes of trim are produced by shifting V=the ship’s volume of displacement
weights forward or aft or by adding or subtract-
ing weights forward of or abaft of the center of The value of BM’ is very large—sometimes
flotation. more than a hundred times that of BM. The
values of BM’ for various drafts may be found
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY from the curves of form (fig. 3-25).
Longitudinal stability is the tendency of a MOMENT TO CHANGE TRIM ONE INCH

ship to resist a change intrim. For small angles
of inclination, the longitudinal metacentric height The measure of a ship’s ability to resist a
multiplied by the displacement is a measure of change of trim is the moment required to pro-
initial longitudinal stability. The longitudinal duce a change of trim of a definite amount, such
metacentric height is designated GM’ and is as one inch. The value of the moment to change
found from trim one inch is obtained from
GM’
xW
GM’ = KB +BM’ — KG MTI = "12 L
where
where
KB and KG are the same as for transverse GM’= longitudinal metacentric height (feet)
stability BM’ (the longitudinal metacentric
radius) is equal to W =displacement (tons)
oi
BM’=—-=
L =length between forward and after
where perpendiculars (feet)
57
For practical work, BM’ is usually substituted change of draft — 4 inchesfwd, 4inchesaft
for GM’ since they are both large and the dif-
ference between them is relatively small. When new draft fwd= 19 feet 5 inches
this is done, howver, MTI is called the approxi- new draft aft = 20 feet 7 inches
mate moment to change trim one inch. This
value may often be foundasa curve in the curves LONGITUDINAL WEIGHT ADDITION
of form (fig. 3-25). If not, the approximate
The addition of a weight either directly above
moment to change trim one inch may be calcu-
or below the center of flotation will cause an
lated from
increase in mean draft but will not changetrim.
BM’ x W All drafts will change by the same amount as
ae Le the mean draft. The reverse is true when a
weight is removed at the center of flotation.
CALCULATION OF CHANGE OF TRIM To determine the change in drafts forward
and aft due to adding a weight on the ship, the
The movement of weight aboard ship in a computation is in two steps. First, the weightis
fore-and-aft direction produces a trimming assumed to be added at the center of flotation.
moment. This moment is equal to the weight This increases the mean draft and all thedrafts
multiplied by the distance moved. The change by the same amount. The increase is equal to
of trim in inches may be calculated by dividing the weight added, divided by the tons-per-inch
the trimming moment by the moment to change immersion. With the ship at its new drafts, the
trim one inch: weight is assumed to be moved to its ultimate
location. Moving the weight fore and aft produces
wxt
change of trim= a trimming moment and therefore a change in
MTI
trim whichis calculated as previously described.
The direction of change of trim is the same
FLOODING EFFECT DIAGRAM
as that of weight movement.Ifwe are using mid-
ships as our axis of rotation, the change in draft From the flooding effect diagram of the
forward equals the change in draft aft. This ship’s Damage Control Book it is possible to
change of draft forward or aft is one-half the obtain the change in draft fore and aft due to
change of trim; for example, for a change of solid flooding of a compartment. The weight of
trim by the stern the after draft increases the water to flood specific compartments is given
same amount the forward draft decreases, that and trimming moment produced may be com-
is, one-half the change of trim. The reverse puted, as well as list in degrees which may be
holds true for a change of trim by the bow. caused by the additional weight. Additional in-
Example: If 50 tons of ammunition are moved formation on the flooding effect diagram can be
from approximately 150 feet forward of the obtained from Chapter 9880 of the Naval Ships
center of flotation to approximately 150 feet aft Technical Manual.
of the center of flotation (300 feet), what are the
new drafts? EFFECT OF TRIM ON TRANSVERSE
STABILITY
draft fwd= 19 feet 9 inches
draft aft= 20 feet 3 inches The curves of form prepared for a ship are
mean draft= 20 feet based on the design conditions, i.e., with no
trimming moment=50 x 300=15,000 foot-tons trim. For most types of ship, so long as trim
does not become excessive, the curves are still
moment to change trim one inch=1940 foot-
applicable, and may be used without adjustment.
tons, from the following calculation:
When a ship trims by the stern, the trans-
BM’ x W. 1150 x11,800 _ verse metacenter is slightly higher than indi-
MTI 12 L 12x 582 1940 foot-tons
cated by the KM curve, because both KB and
BM increase. The center of buoyancy rises be-
(BM’ from curve in figure 3-25) cause of the movement of a wedge of buoyancy
upward. The increased BM is the result of an
change of trim=
15,000 =8 inches by the stern enlarged waterplane as the ship trims by the
1940 stern.
58
Trim by bow usually means adecreased KM. ancy is lost. The immersion of buoyant volume
The center of buoyancy will rise slightly, but is necessary to the development of a righting
this is usually counteracted by the decreased arm as the ship rolls; if the hull is riddled it
BM caused by the lower moment of inertia of can no longer do this on the damaged side,
the trimmed waterplane. toward which it will roll. In effect, the riddling
of the above-water hull is analogous to losing a
CAUSES OF IMPAIRED STABILITY part of the freeboard, thus reducing stability.
When this happens, if the ship takes water
The stability of a ship may be impaired by aboard on the roll, the combined effects of high
Several causes, resulting from mistakes or from added weight and free surface operate to cut
enemy action. A summary of these causes and down the righting moment. Therefore, the under-
their effects follows: water hull and body should be plugged and
patched, and every effort should be made to re-
ADDITION OF TOPSIDE WEIGHT store the watertightness of external and internal
boundaries in the above-water body.
The addition of appreciable amounts of top-
side weight may be occasioned by unauthorized FLOODING
alterations; icing conditions; provisions, ammu-
nition, or stores not struck down; deck cargo; Flooding may take place because of under-
and other conditions of load. Whenever a weight water damage, shell or bomb burst belowdecks,
of considerable magnitude is added above the collision, topside hit near the waterline, fire-
ship’s existing center of gravity the effectsare: fighting water, ruptured poping, sprinkling of
magazines, counterflooding, or leakage. Regard-
1. Reduction of reserve buoyancy. less of how it takes place it can be classified
2. Reduction of GM and righting arms due to in three general categories, each of which can
raising G. be further broken down, as follows:
3. Reduction of GM and righting arms due
to loss of freeboard (change of waterplane). 1. with respect to boundaries
4. Reduction of righting arms if Gis pulled
away from the centerline. a. solid footing
5. Increase in righting moment due to in- b. partial flooding
creased displacement. c. partial flooding infree communication
with the sea
The net effect of added high weight is always
2. with respect to height in the ship
a reduction in stability. The reserve buoyancy
loss is added weight in tons. The new metacentric
a. center of gravity of the flooding water
height can be obtained from:
is above G
G,M, =KM, _ KG, b. center of gravity of the flooding water
is below G
Stability is determined by selecting a new
3. with respect to the ship’s centerline
stability curve from the cross curves and cor-
recting it for AG, sing and GjGp cos 6.
a. symmetrical flooding
b. off-center flooding
LOSS OF RESERVE BUOYANCY
Reserve buoyancy may be lost due toerrors, Solid Flooding

such as poor maintenance, failure to close fit-
tings properly, improper classification of fit- The term solid flooding designates the situ-
tings, and overloading the ship; or it maybe lost ation in which a compartment is completely
as a result of enemy action such as fragment or filled from deck to overhead. In order for this
missile holes in boundaries, blast whichcarries to occur the compartment must be vented as by
away boundaries or blows open or warps fittings, an air escape, an open scuttle or vent fitting, or
and flooding which overloads the ship. When the through fragment holes in the overhead. Solid
above-water body is holed, some reserve buoy- flooding water behaves exactly like an added
99
weight and has the effect of so many tons placed whether the weight is high in the ship or low,
exactly at the center of gravity of the flooding and whether it is symmetrical about the center-
water. It is more likely to occur below the line or is off-center. The effect of free surface
waterline, where it has the effect of any added will depend primarily upon the athwartship
low weight. Inasmuch as G is usually a little breadth of the free surface. Unless the free
above the waterline in warships, the net effect surface is relatively narrow and the weight is
of solid flooding below the waterline is most added low in the ship, the net effect of partial
frequently a gain in stability, unless a sizeable flooding in a compartment with intact boundaries
list or a serious loss of freeboard results ina is likely to be a very definite loss in overall
net reduction of stability. The reserve buoyancy stability.
consumed is the weight of flooding waterin tons,
Partial Flooding in Free Communication
and the new GM and stability characteristics
with the Sea
are found as previously explained.
Free communication can exist only in par-
Partial Flooding with Boundaries Intact tially flooded compartments in which it is
possible for the sea to flow in and out as the
The term partial flooding refers to a condi- ship rolls. Partial flooding with free communi-
tion in which the surface of the flooding water cation is most likely to occur when there is a
lies somewhere between the deck and the over- large hole that extends above and below the
head of a compartment. The boundaries of the waterline. It may also occur in a waterline
compartment remain watertight and the com- compartment when there is a large hole in the
partment remains partially but not completely shell below the waterline, if the compartment
filled. Partial flooding can be brought about by is vented as the ship rolls. Where free com-
leakage from other damaged compartments or munication does exist, the water level in the
through defective fittings, seepage, shipping compartment remains at sea level as the ship
water on the roll, downward drainage of water, rolls.
loose water from firefighting, sprinklers, rup- When a compartment is partially flooded and
tured piping, and other damage. in free communication with the sea, the ship’s
Partial flooding of a compartment that has stability is affected by (1) added weight, (2) free
intact flooding boundaries affects the stability surface effect, and (3) free communication ef-
of the ship because of (1) the effect of added fect. In general, net effect of partial flooding
weight, and (2) the effect of free surface. The with free communication is a decided loss in
effect of the added weight will depend upon stability.
60
CHAPTER 4
PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE DAMAGE CONTROL
Aboard ship, the overall damage and casualty a high state of material and personnel readiness
control function is composed of two separate but before damage is far more important for sur-
related phases: the engineering casualty control vival than are any damage control measures
phase and the damage control phase. The en- that can be taken after the ship has been dam-
gineering officer is responsible for both phases. aged. It has been said that 90 percent of the
The engineering casualty control phase is damage control needed to savea ship takes place
concerned with the prevention, minimization, and before the ship is damaged and only 10 percent
correction of the effects of operational and battle can be done after the damage has occurred. In
casualties to the machinery, electrical systems, spite of all precautions and all preparatory
and piping installations, to the end that all engi- measures, however, the survival of a ship some-
neering services may be maintained ina state of times depends upon prompt and effective damage
maximum reliability under all conditions of op- control measures taken after damage has occur-
eration. Engineering casualty control is handled red, It is essential, therefore, that all shipboard
almost entirely by personnel of the engineering personnel be trained in damage control proce-
department. dures.
The damage control phase, on the other hand, The maintenance of watertight integrity is a
involves practically every person aboard ship. vital part of any ship’s preparations to resist
The damage control phase is concerned with such damage. Each undamaged tank or compartment
things as the preservation of stability and water- aboard ship must be kept watertight if flooding
tight integrity, the control of fires, the control of is not to be progressive after damage. Water-
flooding, the repair of structural damage, and the tight integrity can be lost in a number of ways.
control of nuclear, biological, and chemical Failure to secure access closures and improper
contamination, Although under the control of the maintenance of watertight fittings and compart-
engineer officer, damage control is anall-hands ment boundaries, as well as external damage to
responsibility. ; the ship, can cause loss of watertight integrity,
This chapter presents some basic informa- a thorough system of tests and inspections is
tion on the principles of the damage control prescribed. The condition of watertight bounda-
phase of the damage and casualty control func- ries, compartments, and fittings is determined
tion. Information on engineering casualty control by visual observation and by various tests, in-
is not included here; any such information would cluding chalk tests and air tests. All defects
be relatively meaningless without a considerable discovered by any test or inspection must be
background knowledge of the normal operating remedied immediately.
characteristics of shipboard machinery and For most ships, a mandatory schedule of wa-
equipment. tertight integrity tests and inspections is pre-
pared. This schedule informs each ship of the
PREPARATIONS TO RESIST DAMAGE compartments subject to test and/or inspection,
specifying which type of test or inspection shall
Naval ships are designed to resist accidental be applied. Ships not provided with sucha sched-
and battle damage. Damage resistant features in- ule are nevertheless required to make inspec-
clude structural strength, watertight compart- tions of important watertight boundaries as re-
mentation, stability, and buoyancy. Maintaining quired by chapter 9290 of the of Naval Ships
these damage resistant features and maintaining Technical Manual,
61
DAMAGE CONTROL ORGANIZATION In damage control central, repair party re-

ports are carefully checked so that immediate
In order to ensure damage control training action can be taken to isolate damage and to
and to provide prompt control of casualties, a make emergency repairs in the most effective
damage control organization must be set up and manner. Graphic records of the damage are
kept active on all ships. made on various damage control diagrams and
As previously noted, the engineer officer is status boards, as the reports are received. For
responsible for damage control. The damage example, reports concerning flooding are mark-
control assistant (DCA), who is under the engi- ed up, as they come in, on a status board which
neer officer, is responsible for establishing and indicates liquid distribution before damage. With
maintaining an effective damage control organi- this information, the stability and buoyance of
zation. Specifically, the DCA is responsible for the ship can be estimated and the necessary
the prevention and control of damage, the train- corrective measures can be determined.
ing of ship’s personnel in damage control, and If damage control central is destroyed or is
the operation, care, and maintenance of certain for other reasons unable to retain control, the
auxiliary, machinery, piping, and drainage sys- repair stations, in designated order, take over
tems not assigned to other departments or divi- these same functions. Provisions are also made
sions. for passing the control of each repair station
Although naval ships may be large or small, down through the officers, petty officers, and
and although they differ in type, the basic prin- nonrated men, so that no group will ever be
ciples of the damage control organization are without a leader.
more or less standardized. Some organizations
are larger and more elaborate than others, but REPAIR PARTIES
they all function on the same basic principles.
A standard damage control organization, A standard damage control organization on
suitable for large ships but followed by all ships large ships includes the following repair sta-
as closely as practicable, includes damage con- tions:
trol central and repair stations. Damage control
central is integrated with propulsion and elec- Repair 1 (deck or topside repair).
trical control in a Central Control Station on Repair 2 (forward repair).
new large ships and is a separate Station on Repair 3 (after repair).
older and small ships. Repair parties are as- Repair 4 (amidship repair).
signed to specifically located repair stations. Repair 5 (propulsion repair).
Repair stations are further subdivided into unit Repair 6 (ordnance repair).
patrols to permit dispersal of personnel and a
wide coverage of the assigned areas. On carriers, there are two additional repair
stations—Repair 7 (gallery deck and island
DAMAGE CONTROL CENTRAL structure repair) and Repair 8 (electronics re-
pair party). Carriers also have special orga-
The primary purpose of damage control cen- nized teams such as Aviation Fuel Repair, Crash
tral is to collect and compare reports from the and Salvage, and Ornance Disposal. On small
various repair stations in order to determine ships, there are usually three repair stations—
the condition of the ship andthe corrective action Repair 2, Repair 3, and Repair 5.
to be taken. The commanding officer is kept The organization of repair stations is basic-
posted on the condition of the ship and on im- ally the same on all types of ships; however,
portant corrective measures taken. The damage more men are available for manning repair
control assistant, at his battle station indamage stations on large ships than on small ships. The
control central, is the nerve center and direct- number and the ratings of men assigned to a
ing force of the entire damage control organi- repair station, as specified in the battle bill,
zation. He is assisted in damage control central are determined by the location of the station,
by a stability officer, a casualty board operator, the portion of the ship assigned to that station,
and a damage analyst. In addition, representa- and the total number of men available.
tives of the various divisions of the engineering Each repair party has an officer in charge,
department are assigned to damage control who may in some cases be a chief petty officer.
central, The second in charge is usually a chief petty
62
Chapter 4—PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE DAMAGE CONTROL
officer who is qualified in damage control and The closures involved in setting the material
who is capable of taking over the supervision conditions of readiness are labeled as follows:
of the repair party. X-RAY, marked with a black X. These clo-
Many repair stations have unit patrol sta- sures are secured during conditions X-RAY,
tions at key locations in their assigned areas to YOKE, and ZEBRA,
supplement the repair station. Operating in- YOKE, marked with a black Y. These clo-
structions should be posted at each repair sta- sures are secured during conditions YOKE and
tion. In general, instructions should include the ZEBRA.
purpose of the repair station; the specific as- ZEBRA, marked with a red Z. These clo-
signments of space for which that station is sures are secured during condition ZEBRA.
responsible; instructions for assigning and sta- Once the material condition is set, no fitting
tioning personnel; methods and procedures for marked with a black X, a black Y, or ared Z
damage control communications; instructions may be opened without permission of the com-
for handling machinery and equipment located manding officer (through the damage control
in the area; procedures for nuclear, biological, assistant or the officer of the deck.) The re-
and chemical (NBC) defense; sequence and pro- pair party officer controls the opening and
cedure for passing control from one station to closing of all fittings in his assigned area during
another; a list of current damage control bills; general quarters.
and a list of all damage control equipment and Additional fitting markings for specific pur-
gear provided for the repair station. poses are modifications of the three basic con-
ditions, as follows:
CIRCLE X-RAY fittings, marked witha black
MATERIAL CONDITIONS OF READINESS
X in a black circle, are secured during condi-
tions X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA. CIRCLE
Material conditions of readiness refers to YOKE fittings, marked with a black Y ina black
the degree of access and system closure to circle, are secured during conditions YOKE and
limit the extent of damage tothe ship. Maximum ZEBRA. Both CIRCLE X-RAY and CIRCLE
closure is not maintained at all times because YOKE fittings may be opened without special
it would interfere with the normal operation of authority when going to or securing from gen-
the ship. For damage control purposes, naval eral quarters, when transferring ammunition,
ships have three material conditions of readi- or when operating vital systems during general
ness, each condition representing a different quarters; but the fittings must be secured when
degree of tightness and protection. The three not in use.
material conditions of readiness are called CIRCLE ZEBRA fittings, marked with a red
X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA. These titles, which Z in a red circle, are secured during condition
have no connection with the phonetic alphabet, ZEBRA. CIRCLE ZEBRA fittings may be opened
are used in all spoken and written communica- during prolonged periods of general quarters,
tions concerning material conditions. when the condition may be modified. Opening
Condition X-RAY, which provides the least these fittings enables personnel to prepare and
protection, is set when the ship is in no danger distribute battle rations, open limited sanitary
from attack, such as when it is at anchor ina facilities, ventilate battle stations, and provide
well protected harbor or secured at ahome base access from ready rooms to flight deck. When
during regular working hours. open, CIRCLE ZEBRA fittings must be guarded
Condition YOKE, which provides somewhat for immediate closure if necessary.
more protection than condition X-RAY, is set DOG ZEBRA fittings, marked with a red Z
and maintained at sea. It is also maintained in in a black D, are secured during condition
port during wartime and at other times in port ZEBRA and during darken ship condition. The
outside of regular working hours. DOG ZEBRA classification applies to weather
Condition ZEBRA is set before going to sea accesses not equipped with light switches or
or entering port, during wartime. It is also set light traps.
immediately, without further orders, when WILLIAM fittings, marked with a black W,
manning general quarters stations. Condition are kept open during all material conditions.
ZEBRA .is also set to localize and control fire This classification applies to vital sea suction
and flooding when not at general quarters sta- valves supplying main and auxiliary condensers,
tions. fire pumps, and spaces that are manned during
63
conditions X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA; it also corrective measures taken. The DCA must also
applies to vital valves that, if secured, would find out how detailed the information to the CO
impair the mobility and fire protection of the should be and when it is to be furnished. With
ship. These items are secured only as neces- these guidelines in mind, the DCA must sift all
sary to control damage or contamination and to information coming into damage control central
effect repairs to the units served. and pass along to the bridge only the type of
CIRCLE WILLIAM fittings, marked with a information that the CO wants to have.
black W in a black circle, are normally kept
open (as WILLIAM fittings are) but must be CORRECTIVE MEASURES
secured as defense against nuclear, biological,
or chemical attack. Measures for the control of damage may be
divided into two general categories: (1) over-
INVESTIGATION OF DAMAGE all ship survival measures, and (2) immediate
local measures.
The DCA must be given all available informa-
tion concerning the nature and extent of damage OVERALL SHIP SURVIVAL MEASURES
so that he will be able to analyze the damage
and decide upon appropriate measures of con- Overall ship survival measures are those
trol. The repair parties that are investigating actions initiated by damage control central for
the damage at the scene are normally in the the handling of list, trim, buoyance, stability,
best position to give dependable information on and hull strength. Operations in this category
the nature and extent of the damage. All re- have five general objectives: improving GM
pair party personnel should be trained to make and overall stability, correcting for off-center
prompt, accurate, and complete reports todam- weight, restoring lost freeboard and reserve
age control central. Items that should normally buoyancy, correcting for trim, and relieving
be reported to damage control central include: stress in longitudinal strength members.
1. Description of important things seen,
heard, or felt by personnel. Improving GM
2. Location and nature of fires, smoke, and and Overall Stability
toxic gases.
3. Location and nature of progressive flood- The measures used to improve GM and over-
ing. all stability in a damaged ship include (1)
4. Overall extent and nature of flooding. suppressing free surface, (2) jettisoning top-
5. Structural damage tolongitudinal strength side weights, (3) ballasting, (4) lowering liquid
members. or solid weights, and (5) restoring boundaries,
6. Location and nature of damage to vital
piping and electrical systems. Correcting for
7. Local progress made in controlling fire; Off-Center Weight
halting flooding; isolating damaged systems; and
rigging jury piping, casualty power, and emer- Off-center weight may occur as the result
gency communications. of unsymmetrical flooding or as the result of
8. Compartment-by-compartment informa- an athwartship movement of weight. Correcting
tion on flooding, including depth of liquid ineach for off-center weight may be accomplished by
flooded compartment. (1) pumping out off-center flooding water, (2)
9. Condition of boundaries (decks, bulkheads, pumping liquids across the ship, (3) counter-
and closures) surrounding each flooded compart- flooding, (4) jettisoning topside weights from
ment. the low side of the ship, (5) shifting solid
10. Local progress made in reclaiming com- weights athwartships, and (6) pumping liquids
partments by plugging, patching, shoring, and overboard from intact wing tanks on the low
removing loose water. side.
11. Areas in which damage is suspected but
Restoring Lost Freeboard
cannot be reached or verified.
and Reserve Buoyancy
The DCA must ascertain just what informa-
tion the commanding officer desires concern- Restoring lost freeboard and reserve buoy-
ing the extent of the damage incurred and the ancy requires the removal of large quantities
64
of weight. In general, the most practicable way 2. Control and extinguish fires.
of accomplishing this is to restore watertight 3. Establish secondary flooding boundaries
boundaries and to reclaim compartments by by selecting a second line of bulkheads and decks
pumping them out. Any corrective measure to which the flooding may be held if the first
which removes weight from the ship contributes flooding boundaries fail.
to the restoration of freeboard. 4. Advance flooding boundaries by moving
in toward the scene of the damage, plugging,
Correcting for Trim patching, shoring, and removing loose water.
5. Isolate damage to machinery, piping,
The methods used to correct for trim after and electrical systems.
damage include (1) pumping out flood water, (2) 6. Restore piping systems to service by
pumping liquids forward or aft, (3) counter- the use of patches, jumpers, clamps, couplings,
flooding the high end, (4) jettisoning topside etc.
weights from the low end, (5) shifting solid 7. Rig casualty power.
weights from the low end to the high end, and 8. Rig emergency communications and
(6) pumping liquids over the side from intact lighting.
tanks at the lowend. The first of these methods— 9. Rescue personnel and care for the wound-
that is, pumping out flood water—is in most ed.
cases the only truly effective means of correct- 10. Remove wreckage and debris.
ing a severe trim. 11. Cover or barricade dangerous areas.
The correction of trim is usually secondary 12. Ventilate compartments which are filled
to the correction of list, unless the trim is so with smoke or toxic gases.
great that there is danger of submerging the 13. Take measures to counteract the effects
weather deck at the low end. of nuclear, biological, and chemical contamina-
tion or weapons.
Relieving Stress in Immediate local measures for the control
Longitudinal Strength Members of damage are of vital importance. It is not
necessary for damage control central to decide
When a ship is partially flooded, the longi- on these measures; rather, they should be car-
tudinal strength members are subject to great ried out automatically and rapidly by repair
stress. In cases where damage has carried parties. However, damage control central should
away or buckled the strength members amid- be continuously and accurately advised of the
ships, the additional stress imposed by the progress made by each party so that the efforts
weight of the flooding water may be enough to of all repair parties may be coordinated to the
cause the ship to break up. The only effective best advantage.
way of relieving stress caused by flooding is
to remove the water. Other measures, such as
removing or shifting weight, may be helpful PRACTICAL DAMAGE CONTROL
but cannot be completely effective. In some in-
stances, damaged longitudinals may be strength-
ened by welding. Both the immediate local measures and the
overall ship survival measures have, of course,
IMMEDIATE LOCAL MEASURES the common aim of saving the ship and restoring
it to service. The following subsections deal
Immediate local measures are those actions with the practical methods used to achieve this
taken by repair parties at the scene ofthe dam- aim: controlling fires, controlling flooding, re-
age. In general, these measures include all pairing structural damage, and restoring vital
on-scene efforts to investigate the damage, to services.
report to damage control central, and to ac- It should be noted that controlling the effects
complish the following: of nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare
1. Establish flooding boundaries by select- weapons or agents may in some situations take
ing a line of intact bulkheads and decks to which precedence over other damage control mea-
the flooding may be held and by rapidly plugging, sures. Because of the complex nature of NBC
patching, and shoring to make these boundaries defense, this subject is treated separately in a
watertight and dependable. later section of this chapter.
65
CONTROL OF FIRES
Fire is a constant potential hazard aboard SCENE LEADER

ship. All possible measures must be taken to (INVESTIGATOR)
prevent its occurrence or to bring about its
rapid control and extinguishment. In many cases,
fire occurs in conjunction with other damage,
ACCESS MEN
as a result of enemy action, weather, or acci- (INVESTIGATORS)
dent. Unless fire is rapidly and effectively ex-
tinguished, it may cause more damage than the
initial casualty and it may, in fact, cause the
OBA MEN
loss of a ship even after other damage has been
repaired or minimized. co, SUPPLY CLOSURE DETAIL
Fires are classified according to the nature
of the combustible material. Class A fires are
8.80
those which involve ordinary combustible mate-
Figure 4-1.—Organization of small firefighting
rial such as wood, paper, mattresses, canvas,
party.
etc. Class B fires are those which involve the
burning of oils, greases, gasoline, and similar nature of the fire, decides what type of equip-
materials. Class C fires are those which occur ment should be used, and informs damage con-
in electrical equipment. Class D firesarethose trol central. Later developments may require
which involve certain metals such as magne- the use of different or additional equipment,
sium, potassium, powdered aluminum zinc, but the scene leader must decide what to use
sodium, titanium, zirconium and others. first.
Class A fires are extinguished by the use The number of hosemen assigned to a fire-
of water. Class B fires are extinguished chiefly fighting party varies in accordance with the
by smothering with foam, fog, steam, or purple number of men available and the size of the
K powder dry chemical agent (as appropriate firehose. At least three men are required for
for the particular fire). Class C fires are a 1 1/2-inch hose, and four or five men are
preferably extinguished by the use of carbon required for a 2 1/2-inch hose. The hosemen
dioxide. Because of the danger of electric shock, lead out the hose, remove kinks and sharp bends,
a solid stream of water must never be used and stand by the nozzles. Nozzlemen should
to extinguish a class C fire. Class D fires are wear oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA) while
presently extinguished by using large amounts fighting fires.
of water. Personnel safety is of prime concern The plugman stands by to operate the fire-
when fighting this class fire; toxic gasses, plug valve, when so ordered. He rigsandstands
possible hydrogen explosions, splattering of by jumper lines, assists on the hose lines, and
molten metal, and intense heat are prime char- clears the fireplug strainer when necessary.
acteristics of this type of fire. Presently, The accesS men open doors, hatches,
intensive research is being conducted on better scuttles, and other openings and clear routes
methods of attack and more suitable extinguish- as necessary to gain access to the fire. These
ing agents. men carry equipment to open jammed fittings
The organization of a firefighting party de- and locked doors. Once they have gained access
pends on the number of men available. Figure to the fire, they make a detailed investigation
4-1 shows the basic organization of a small of the fire area.
firefighting party, and figure 4-2 shows the The foam supply man sets up the foam equip-
basic organization of a large firefighting party. ment for operation and operates it as required.
At times it is necessary for one person to per- He obtains spare foam cans from racks and
form more than one of the indicated duties, and prepares them for use.
this fact is taken into consideration in organiz- The electrical kit man (or electrician) de-
ing firefighting parties. energizes all electrical equipment in the fire
One man in the firefighting party must be area, both to protect personnel and to prevent
designated as the group or scene leader (investi- explosions or flashbacks. When necessary, he
gator). His first duty istogettothe fire quickly; rigs power cables for portable tools, lights, and
he investigates the situation, determines the blowers.
66
SCENE LEADER
(INVESTIGATOR)
TALKER MESSENGER
FIREFIGHTING
PARTY
ATTACKING SUPPORTING STANDBY
ELECTRICIAN NOZZLEMAN
NOZZLEMAN AND KIT
HOSPITAL H OSEMEN
M
HOSEMEN
CORP SMAN
INVESTIGATORS AND KIT INVESTIGATORS
FOAM EQUIPMENT
PLUGMAN OPERATORS PLUGMAN
FOAM
CO, LIQUID
MEN HOSEME N FOAM LIQUID
co, MEN
OXYACETYLENE
ACCESS MEN CUTTING OUTFIT CLOSURE DETAIL
PUMPING EQUIPMENT
ALUMINIZED FIRE PROXIMITY SUIT

(OR ASBESTOS SUIT) MEN
VENTILATION LIGHTING
AND POWER MEN
DEWATERING EQUIPMENT
8.81
Figure 4-2.—Organization of large firefighting party.
The COs dry powder supply men take extin- cooling down nearby areas, and assists in fight-
guishers to the fire and operate them as neces- ing the fire as necessary.
sary. Hospital Corpsmen render first aid to the
The OBA men have their gear on and ready injured. The JZ talker establishes and main-
for immediate use throughout the firefighting tains communications with damage control cen-
operation. OBA tenders are in charge of tending tral, either directly or through the local repair
lines, when used, and keeping spare canisters party.
readily available. The OBA men assistin making Since no two fires are exactly alike, the
the investigation in situations where oxygen deployment of men and equipment is not always
breathing apparatus is necessary for entry. the same. In most situations, however, the fol-
The OBA men also work with hoses and per- lowing general rules are observed:
form other duties in spaces containing toxic 1. The attacking party, which is the first
gases. line of defense, must have a sufficient number
The closure detail secures all doors, hatches, of men. The attacking party makes the initial
and openings around the fire area to isolate investigation and moves in to contain the fire.
the fire area. This group secures all ventila- 2. The supporting party should not have any
tion closures and fans in the area of smoke and more men than are actually required to bring
heat, establishes secondary fire boundaries by up auxiliary equipment, assist with foam and
67
$e
COg supply, and fight the fire. Men at the fire ship sinking suddenly after it has stopped list-
who are not actually engaged in fighting the ing, trimming, and settling, except in cases
fire should be sent to the standby party. The where progressive flooding occurred.
standby party makes the closures necessary to The control of flooding requires that the
isolate the fire area, cools the surrounding amount of water entering the hull be restricted
areas, supplies foam and COg, and assists in or entirely stopped. The removal of flooding
fighting the fire when necessary. water cannot be accomplished until flooding
3. The firefighting party must be quiet and boundaries have been established. Pump capa-
orderly. There should be only two men talking city should never be wasted on compartments
at a fire: the leader of the firefighting party which cannot be quickly and effectively made
and the messenger or phone talker. tight. If a compartment fills rapidly, it is a
4. All orders issued at the scene must be sign that pumping capacity will be wasted until
clear, concise, and accurate. the openings have been plugged or patched. The
5. All reports to damage control central futility of merely circulating sea water should
must be clear, concise, and accurate. be obvious.
6. All possible safety precautions must be Once flooding boundaries have been estab-
observed. lished, the removal of the flooding water should
7. Precautions must be taken to see that the be undertaken on a systematic basis. Loose
fire does not spread. Fire boundaries must be water—that is, water with free surface—and
established, and men must be stationed in ad- water that is located high in the ship should be
jacent compartments to see that the fire does removed first. Compartments which are solidly
not spread. Even distant compartments may flooded and which are low in the ship are gen-
require checking, since fire can spread a great erally dewatered last, unless the flooding is
distance through ventilation ducts. sufficiently off-center to cause a serious list.
Figures 4-3 and 4-4 show members of a Compartments must always be dewatered ina
shipboard firefighting party in action. sequence that will contribute to the overall
stability of the ship. For example, a ship could
CONTROL OF FLOODING be capsized if low, solidly flooded compart-
ments were dewatered while water still remained
Flooding! may occur from a number of dif- in high, partially flooded compartments.
ferent causes. Underwater or waterline damage, In order to know which compartments should
ruptured water piping, the use of large quanti- be dewatered first, it is necessary to know the
ties of water for firefighting or counterflooding, effect of flooding on all ship’s compartments.
and the improper maintenance of boundaries This information is given in the flooding effect
are all possible causes of flooding aboard ship. diagram in the ship’s Damage Control Book.
It should be noted that ballasting fuel oil tanks The flooding effect diagram consists of aseries
with sea water after the oil has been removed of plan views of the ship at various levels,
is not considered a form of flooding; ballasting showing all watertight, oiltight, airtight, fume-
merely consists of replacing one liquid with tight, andfire-retarding subdivisions. Compart-
another in order to maintain the ship in a con- ments on the flooding effect diagram are colored
dition of maximum resistance to damage. in the following way:
If a ship suffers such extensive damage that 1. If flooding the compartment results ina
it never stops listing, trimming, and settling decrease in stability because of high weight,
in the water, the chances are that it will go free surface effect, or both, the compartment
down within a very few minutes. If, onthe other is colored pink.
hand, a ship stops listing, trimming, and settling 2. If flooding the compartment improves
shortly after the damage occurs, it is not likely stability even though free surface exists, the
to sink at all unless progressive flooding is compartment is colored green.
allowed to occur. Thus there is an excellent 3. If flooding the compartment improves
chance of saving any ship that does not sink stability when the compartment is solidly flooded
immediately. There is no case on record of a but impairs stability when a free surface exists,
the compartment is colored yellow.
4. If flooding the compartment has no very
lThe effects of various types of flooding on stability definite effect on stability, the compartment is
are discussed in chapter 3 of this text. left uncolored.
68
Vy)
ny
|
8.120
Figure 4-3.—Members of firefighting party cooling hatch.
The flooding effect diagram also shows the Facilities for dewatering compartments con-
weight of salt water (in tons) required to fill sist of the fixed drainage systems of the ship
the compartment; this is indicated by anumeral and portable equipment such as electric sub-
in the upper left-hand corner. In addition, the mersible pumps, P-500 pumps, P-250 pumps,
transverse moment of the weight (in foot-tons) and eductors. On a large combat ship, the
about the centerline of the ship is indicated for fixed drainage systems have a total pumping
all compartments which are not symmetrical capacity of about 12,200 gallons per minute—
about the centerline. less, it might be noted, than the amount of
69
8.122
Figure 4-4.—Members of firefighting party cooling
entrance to compartment.
water admitted by a hole 1 square foot in size faster if the water is discharged at the lowest
in an area located 15 feet below the waterline. practicable point and if the discharge hose is
Portable submersible pumps used aboard short and free from kinks. When it isnecessary
naval ships are centrifugal pumps driven by a to dewater against a high discharge head, two
water-jacketed, constant-speed a-c or d-c submersible pumps can be used in tandem, as
motor. When a submersible pump is being used shown in figure 4-5. The pump at the lower
to dewater a compartment, the pump is lowered level lifts water to the suction side of the pump
into the water and a discharge hose isled to the at the higher level.
nearest point of discharge. Since the delivery The P-500 portable pump, originally devel-
of the pump increases as the discharge head oped for firefighting, is alsoused for dewatering
decreases, dewatering can be accomplished flooded spaces. This pump is of the centrifugal
70
know how much water is coming in while water

is being pumped out.
REPAIR OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
The kinds of damage that may have to be

repaired while a ship is still in the battle area
include holes above and below the waterline;
cracks in steel plating; punctured, weakened,
or distorted bulkheads; warped or sprung doors
and hatches; weakened or ruptured beams, sup-
ports, and other strength members; ruptured or
weakened decks; ruptured or cracked piping;
severed electrical cables; broken or distorted
foundations under machinery; broken or pierced
machinery units; and a wide variety of miscel-
laneous wreckage that may interfere with the
functioning of the ship.
One of the most important things to remem-
ber in connection with the repair of structural
DISCHARGE damage is that a ship can sink just as easily
from a series of insignificant-looking small
holes as it can from one larger and more
dramatic-looking hole. A natural enough tend-
ency—and one which can lead to the sinking
of a ship—is to attack the large, obvious damage
first and to overlook the smaller holes through
interior bulkheads. Men sometimes waste hours
trying to patch large holes in already flooded
compartments, disregarding the smaller holes
through which progressive flooding is gradually
taking place. In many situations, it would be
11.359 better to concentrate on the smaller interior
Figure 4-5.—Tandem connections for holes; as a rule, the really large holes in the
submersible pumps. underwater hull cannot be repaired anyway until
the ship is drydocked.
type; it is driven by a water-cooled gasoline Holes in the hull at or just above the water-
engine of special design. The pump delivers line should be given immediate attention. Al-
500 gallons per minute at 100 pounds per square though holes in this location may appear to be
inch pressure, with a suction lift of 16 feet. relatively harmless, they are actually extremely
The capacity may be increased by decreasing hazardous. As the ship rolls or loses buoyancy,
the discharge pressure. the holes become submerged and admit water
The P-250 pump, which is similar to the at a level that is dangerously high above the
P-500 pump except for capacity, is scheduled ship’s center of gravity.
to replace the P-500 pump aboard ship. A P-250 The methods and materials used to repair
pump is shown in figure 4-6. holes above the waterline are also used, for
In order to estimate the number of pumps the most part, for the repair of underwater
required to handle a flooding situation, it is holes. The greatest difficulty encountered in
necessary to consider the amount and location repairing underwater damage is usually the
of the water to be removed, the capacity and inaccessibility of the damage. If an inboard
availability of the installed drainage systems, compartment is flooded, opening doors or
and the capacity of the available portable pumps. hatches to get to the damage would result in
It is alSo necessary to know whether the leaks further flooding of other compartments. In such
are completely plugged, partially plugged, or a case, it is usually necessary to send a man
not plugged at all—in short, it is necessary to wearing a shallow-water diving apparatus down
Thal
MANUAL
me POWER HEAD
PRIMING
PRESSURE [fm
™ IK
ag REGULATOR i
—_,...
Tuva,
oy
Sie] DISCHARGEfh
BeSTARTER]
3.164
Figure 4-6.—P-250 portable pump.
into the compartment. His repair work is likely triangular on the sides and rectangular on the
to be hampered by tangled wreckage in the water, butt end. A shole is a flat block which may be
by the absence of light to work by, and by the placed under the end of a shore for the purpose
difficulties of trying to keep buoyant repair of distributing the pressure. A strongback is a
materials submerged, piece used to distribute pressure or to serve
Shoring is often used aboard ship to support as an anchor for a patch.
ruptured decks, to strengthen weakened bulk- When to shore is a problem that cannot be
heads and decks, to build up temporary decks solved by the application of any one setof rules.
and bulkheads against the sea, to support hatches Sometimes the need for shoring is obvious, as
and doors, and to provide support for equip- in the case of damaged hatches; but sometimes
ment which has broken loose. dangerously weakened supports under guns or
The basic materials required for shoring machinery may not be so readily noticed. Al-
are shores, wedges, sholes, and strongbacks. though shoring is sometimes done when it is
A shore is a portable beam. A wedgeis a block, not really necessary, the best general rule to
72
follow is this: in case of doubt, it is always RESTORATION OF

better to shore than to gamble on the strength VITAL SERVICES
of an important deck, bulkhead, hatch, or other
member. Thus far we have considered practical dam-
Some examples of shoring are illustrated in age control operations from the point of view of
figure 4-7. combatting fires, getting rid of flooding water,
ie WELT |
ill! BARBETTE
SZ
—
jin
BULKHEAD
“lli"
=>
THIS IS THE SIMPLEST AND
STRONGEST SHORING STRUC-
TURE.
>
THE USUAL METHOD OF IN-
STALLING SHORES IS BY A
TRIANGULATION SYSTEM.
THE BASIC STRUCTURE IS

REPEATED AS OFTEN AS NECESSARY.
WHEN OBSTRUCTIONS PREVENT USE

OF THE TRIANGULATION SYSTEM
THIS METHOD MAY BE USED.
THIS 1S BAD
BULKHEAD
Nye! Sem
THIS SHORE IS UNDER
CROSS-AXIAL PRESSURE
AND MAY SNAP!
OBSTRUCTION
ADDITIONAL STRENGTH IS AFFORDED BY SHORES B

AND C. HORIZONTAL SHORE B IS SUPPORTED BY D
AND A, AND IS BRACED AGAINST A UNIT OF MACHINERY BY
MEANS OF E.
17.10
Figure 4-7.—Examples of shoring.
repairing structural damage, and in general 2. Evacuation and remanning of exposed sta-
restoring the ship to a stable and seaworthy tions, as ordered.
condition. To function as a fighting unit, how- 3. Decontamination of personnel.
ever, a ship must be more than stable and 4, Detection and prediction of contaminated
seaworthy—it must also be able to move. The areas,
restoration of vital services is therefore an 5. Ventilation of contaminated spaces, as
integral part of damage control, even though it soon as the ship is in a clean atmosphere.
must often be accomplished after fires and It is obvious that NBC defense is an enor-
flooding have been controlled. mously complex and wide-ranging subject, and
The restoration of vital services includes one in which policies and procedures are sub-
making repairs to machinery and piping systems ject to constant change. The present discussion
and reestablishing a source of electrical power. is limited to a few aspects of NBC defense that
The casualty power system, developed as a are of primary practical importance aboard
result of war experience, has proved to be one ship. More detailed information on all aspects
of the most important damage control devices. of NBC defense may be obtained from chapters
The casualty power system is a simple elec- 9770 and 9900 of the Naval Ships Technical
trical distribution system used to maintain a Manual and from Disaster Control (Ashore and
source of electrical supply for the most vital Afloat), NavPers 10899-B.
machinery. It is used to supply power only in
emergencies. The casualty power system is
discussed in chapter 20 of this text. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
DEFENSE AGAINST NBC ATTACK

There are three types of clothing that are
The basic guidelines for defensive and pro- useful in NBC defense: permeable, impregnated,
tective actions to be taken in the event of nu- protective clothing, foul weather clothing, and
clear, biological, or chemical (NBC) attack are ordinary work clothing.
set forth in the Nuclear, Biological, and Chemi- Permeable protective clothing is supplied to
cal Defense Bill contained in Shipboard Proce- ships in quantities sufficient to outfit 25 percent
dures, NWP 50 (effective edition). Aboard ship, or more of the ship’s compliment. Permeable
the engineer officer is responsible for main- clothing is olive green in color. A complete
taining this bill and ensuring that it is current outfit includes impregnated socks, gloves,
and ready for immediate execution. trousers with attached suspenders, and jumper
NBC defense measures may be divided into (parka) with attached hood. Permeable clothing
two phases: (1) preparatory measures taken in is treated with a chemical agent that neutralizes
anticipation of attack, and (2) active measures chemical agents; a chlorinated paraffin is used
taken immediately following an attack. as a binder. The presence of these chemicals
Preparatory measures to be taken before gives the permeable clothing a slight odor of
an attack include the following: chlorine and a slightly greasy or clammy feel.
1. Thorough indoctrination and training of It is believed that the impregnation treatment
ship’s force. should remain effective from 5 to 10 years (or
2. Removal of material that may constitute possibly longer) if the clothing is stowed in
contamination hazards. unopened containers in a dry place with cool or
3. Masking of personnel who maybe exposed warm temperatures and if it is protected from
(and of other personnel, as ordered). sunlight or daylight.
4. Establishment of ship closure, including Permeable protective clothing should not be
closing of CIRCLE WILLIAM fittings. worn longer than necessary, especially in hot
5. Donning of protective clothing by exposed weather; prolonged wearing may cause a rash
personnel, as ordered. to develop where the skin comes in contact with
6. Evasive action by the ship. the impregnated material.
7. Activation of water washdown systems. Foul weather clothing of stock issue serves
Active measures to be taken immediately to protect ordinary clothing and the skin against
following an attack include the following: penetration by liquid chemical agents and radio-
1. Evasive and self-protective action by active particles. It also reduces the amount of
personnel. vapor that penetrates to the skin. Foul weather
74
clothing, which includes a parka, trousers, It is obvious, then, that with contamination
rubber boots, and gloves, is easily decontami- which cannot be seen, smelled, felt, tasted, or
nated. heard, specialized methods of detection are
Ordinary work clothing (including long under- required. Mechanical, chemical, and electronic
wear, field socks, coverall, field boots, and devices are available or under development for
watch cap) is partially effective in preventing the detection of NBC contamination.
droplets of liquid chemical agents and vapors
from reaching the skin. However, ordinary work Detection of Nuclear Radiation
clothing is not as effective as the other types
of clothing in preventing contamination. Under The instruments used for detecting radio-
some conditions, personnel may wear two layers logical contamination are known as radiacs,
of ordinary work clothing to achieve greater the name being an abbreviation of radiation,
protection than can be obtained with one layer. detection, indication, and computation. Various
types of radiacs are used aboard ship and at
shore stations, since no single type of radiac
PROTECTIVE MASKS can make all the radiological measurements
that may be required.
The protective mask is a very important
The radiacs used aboard ship include (1)
item of protective equipment, since it protects
intensity meters for measuring gamma radia-
such vulnerable areas as the eyes, the face, and
tion; (2) intensity meters for measuring beta
the respiratory tract. The protective mask pro-
and gamma radiation; (3) survey meters for
vides protection against NBC contamination by
measuring alpha radiation; and (4) dosimeters
filtering the air before it is inhaled.
for measuring accumulated doses of radiation
In general, all protective masks operate on
received by individuals. These basic types of
the same principles. As the wearer inhales, air
radiacs are described briefly here. Specific
is drawn into a filtering system. This system
information on operating principles and detailed
consists of a mechanical filter which clears the
instructions for operating the instruments may
air of solid or liquid particles and a chemical
be obtained from the manufacturer’s technical
filling (usually activated charcoal) which absorbs
manual furnished with each instrument.
or neutralizes toxic and irritating vapors. The
purified air then passes to the region of the
GAMMA METERS.—Intensity meters for
mask, where it can be inhaled. Exhaled air is
measuring gamma radiation include both port-
expelled from the mask through an outlet valve
able instruments and fixed systems installed
which is so constructed that it opens only to
aboard ship. The intensity of gamma radiation
permit exhaled air to escape.
is measured in roentgens per hour (r/hr) or in
Protective masks do not afford protection
milliroentgens per hour (mr/hr). The roentgen
against ammonia or carbon monoxide, nor are
is a unit of measurement for expressing the
they effective in confined spaces where the
amount of gamma radiation or X-ray radiation.
oxygen content of the. atmosphere is too low
A milliroentgen is 1/1000 ofa roentgen. Radiacs
(less than about 16 percent) to sustain life.
used for measuring large amounts of gamma
When it is necessary to enter spaces where
radiation are called high-range intensity meters;
there is a deficiency of oxygen, the Navy oxygen
these instruments are usually calibrated in
breathing apparatus (OBA) is used. roentgens per hour. Radiacs designed for meas-
uring smaller amounts of gamma radiation are
DETECTION OF NBC CONTAMINATION called low-range intensity meters; they are
usually calibrated in milliroentgens per hour.
The very nature of NBC contamination makes Both high-range and low-range instruments are
detection and identification difficult. Nuclear likely to have several scales; a range selector
radiation cannot be seen, heard, felt, or other- switch allows selection of the appropriate scale
wise perceived through the senses. Biological for each monitoring survey.
agents are small in size and have no charac-
teristic color or odor to help in identification. BETA AND GAMMA METERS.-— Intensity
Although: some chemical agents do have a char- meters which measure gamma radiation and also
acteristic color and odor, recently developed detect or measure beta radiation are usually of
nerve agents are usually colorless and odorless. the Geiger-Mueller type. These instruments can
te
PRINCIPLES CF NAVAL ENGINEERING
measure gamma radiation alone or they can can be made to differentiate between gamma
measure combined gamma radiation and beta radiation and beta radiation. Laboratory tech-
radiation; an indirect measure of beta radiation niques are required for the development and
can be obtained by subtracting the gamma radia- reading of the film.
tion from the gamma-beta radiation.
Detection of Biological Agents
ALPHA SURVEY METERS.—Meters for
measuring alpha radiation are usually calibrated Basically, there are two possible approaches
to give a meter reading in counts per minute to the problem of detecting biological agents.
(c/m, or cpm). However, some alpha survey Physical detection is based on the measurement
meters give a reading in a unit called disinte- of particles within a specified size range (and
grations per minute (d/m). The two units are possibly the simultaneous measurement of other
not the same numerically. physical properties of the particles). Research
is currently being done with a view to develop-
DOSIMETERS.—There are two basic types ing effective methods of physical detection.
of dosimeters. Self-reading dosimeters can be Biological detection involves growing the or-
read by the person wearing the instrument. ganisms, examining them under a microscope,
Nonself-reading dosimeters cannot be read and subjecting them to a variety of biochemical
directly by the wearer but must be read with the and biological tests. Although positive identifi-
aid of special instruments. Some dosimeters cation can frequently be made by biological
are calibrated in roentgens, others in milli- detection methods, the procedure is difficult,
roentgens. Both self-reading and nonself-read- exacting, and relatively slow. By the time a
ing dosimeters measure exposure to radiation biological agent has been detected and identified
over a period of time—in other words, they in this fashion, personnel may well be showing
measure accumulated radiation exposure. symptoms of illness.
Self-reading dosimeters are provided in Biological detection may be divided into two
various ranges for use by personnel aboard ship. phases: the sampling phase and the laboratory
Some of these self-reading dosimeters indicate phase. The sampling phase may be a joint re-
accumulated gamma radiation from 0 to 200 mr; sponsibility of damage control personnel and of
others indicate doses from 0 to 100 r; others the medical department. The laboratory phase
from 0 to 200 r; andstillothersfrom 0 to 600 r. is obviously a medical department responsibil-
The dosimeter selected for any particular use ity.
will depend on the radiological situation existing
at the time. Self-reading dosimeters must be Detection of Chemical Agents
charged before they areused.A special charging
unit is furnished for shipboard use. Various detection devices have been devel-
High-range nonself-reading dosimeters of oped for the detection and identification of
the DT-60/PD type are furnished for use aboard chemical agents. Most of these devices indicate
ship. A dosimeter of this type consists of a the presence of chemical agents by color changes
special phosphor glass between lead filters, which are chemically produced. To date, no
encased in a bakelite housing. The dosimeter, single detector has been developed which is
which is small, lightweight, and rugged, is worn effective under all conditions for all chemical
on a chain around the neck. This dosimeter will agents. A number of devices, including air
measure accumulated doses of gamma radiation sampling kits, papers, crayons, silica gel tubes,
from 25 r to 600 r. A special instrument, the and indicator solutions, are in naval use. Some
CP-95/PD computer-indicator, is required to of these devices are also useful in establishing
read the DT-60/PD dosimeter. the completeness of decontamination and in es-
Film badge dosimeters are nonself-reading timating the hazards of operating in contami-
devices for measuring both gamma radiation nated areas.
and beta radiation in low or moderate ranges.
A film badge uses a special photographic film MONITORING AND SURVEYING
which is surrounded with moisture-proof and
light-proof paper and shielded with lead, cad- The monitoring and surveying of any area
mium, plastic, or other shielding material. By contaminated with NBC contamination is a vital
the use of different shielding materials, the badge part of NBC defense. In general, monitoring
76
and surveying are done for the purposes of monitoring operations must be given adequate
locating the hazards, isolating the contaminated instruction and training in the use of the avail-
areas, recording the results of the survey, and able radiacs.
reporting the findings through the appropriate 2. Standard measuring techniques must be
chain of command. used. A measurement of radiation is meaning-
Specifically, the purpose of a radiological less unless the distance between the source of
monitoring survey is to determine the location, radiation and the point of measurement is known,
type, and intensity of radiological contamination. For example, a radiac held 2 feet away from a
The type of monitoring survey made at any source of radiation will indicate only one-fourth
given time depends on the radiological situation as much radiation as the same instrument
and on the tactical situation. Gross or rapid would indicate if it were held 1 foot away from
surveys are made as soon as possible after a the same source. A radiac held 3 feet from the
nuclear weapon has been exploded, to get a source will indicate only one-ninth as much
general idea of the extent of contamination. radiation as when it is held 1 foot from the
Detailed surveys are made later, to obtain a source. As may be seen, therefore, the distance
more complete picture of the radiological situ- between the source of radiation and the radiac
ation. must be known before the radiac reading can
Aboard ship, two main types of radiological have any significance.
surveys would be required after a nuclear 3. All necessary information must be re-
attack. Ship surveys (first gross, then detailed) corded and reported. The information obtained
include surveys of all weather decks, interior by monitoring parties is forwarded to damage
spaces, machinery, circulating systems, equip- control central, where the measurements are
ment, and so forth. Personnel safety surveys plotted according to location and time. In order
(usually detailed) are concerned with protecting to develop an accurate overall picture of the
personnel from skin contamination and internal radiological condition of the ship, damage con-
contamination. Personnel safety surveys in- trol central must have precise and complete
clude the monitoring of skin, clothing, food, and information from all monitoring parties. Each
water, and the measurement of concentrations of monitoring party must record and report the
radioactive material in the air (aerosols). Both object or area monitored, the location of the
ship surveys and personnel safety surveys are object or area in relation to some fixed point,
made aboard ship by members of the damage the intensity and type of radiation, the distance
control organization. The medical department between the radiac and the source of radiation,
makes clinical tests, maintains dosage records, the time and date of the measurements, the name
and makes specific recommendations concern- of the man in charge of the monitoring party
ing the monitoring of food, water, air, etc.; but (or other identification of the party), and the
the actual surveys are made by damage control type and serial number of the instrument used.
personnel of the engineering department.
Detailed instructions for making monitoring CONTAMINATION MARKERS
surveys cannot be specified for all situations,
since a great many factors (type ship, distance A standard system for marking areas con-
from blast, extent of damage, tactical situa- taminated by nuclear, biological, or chemical
tion, etc.) must necessarily be considered be- contamination has been adopted by nations in-
fore monitoring procedures canbe decided upon. cluded in the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-
However, certain basic guidelines that apply to tion. These standard survey markers are illus-
monitoring situations may be stated as follows: trated in figure 4-8.
1. Monitors must be thoroughly trained be- NBC DECONTAMINATION

fore the need for monitoring arises. Learningto
operate radiacs takes time. Simulated practice— The basic purpose of decontamination is to
as, for example, walking through a drill using minimize NBC contamination through removal
a block of wood to represent a radiac—may teach or neutralization so that the mission of the ship
a man something about the general movements or activity can be carried out without endanger-
made by a monitoring team, but it will not ing the life or health of assigned personnel. The
prepare him for actually using the instruments. purpose of radiological decontamination is to
All personnel who may be required to perform remove contamination and shield personnel who
77
NATO COUNTRIES INCLUDING UNITED STATES
FRONT BACK
CHEMICAL a DATE AND TIME

OF DETECTION
NAME OF AGENT,
IF KNOWN
BIOLOGICAL = DATE AND TIME

OF DETECTION
NAME OF AGENT,
IF KNOWN
RADIOLOGICAL DOSE RATE

DATE AND TIME
OF READING
DATE AND TIME
4,4 OF BURST,
USE OF TREFOIL
1S OPTIONAL Ne
DOSE RATE
DATE AND TIME
OF READING
DATE AND TIME
OF BURST,
IF KNOWN
C3.178
Figure 4-8.—NBC contamination markers.
78
are required to work in contaminated areas. and from bow to stern. The washdown system
The purpose of biological decontamination is to consists of piping and a series of nozzles which
destroy the biological agents. The purpose of are specially designed to throw a large spray
chemical decontamination is to remove or neu- pattern on weather decks and other surfaces.
tralize the chemical agents so that they will no The washdown system is particularly effective
longer be a hazard to personnel. if it is activated before the ship is exposed to
Decontamination operations may be bothdif- contamination; a film of water covering the
ficult and dangerous, and personnel engaged in ship’s surfaces keeps the contaminating mate-
these operations must be thoroughly trained in rial from sticking to the surfaces. Figure 4-9
the proper techniques. Certain operations, such shows a water washdown system in operation.
as the decontamination of food and water, should Manual methods may be used to accomplish
be done only by experts qualified in such work. gross decontamination, but they are slower and
However, all members of a ship’s company less effective than the ship’s washdown system.
should receive adequate training in the elemen- Manual methods that may be used by ship’s
tary principles of decontamination so that they force include (1) firehosing the surfaces with
can perform emergency decontamination oper- salt water, and (2) scrubbing the surfaces with
ations. detergent, firehosing the surfaces, and flushing
After an attack, data from NBC surveys will the contaminating material over the side. Figure
be used to determine the extent and degree of 4-10 shows men performing gross decontami-
contamination. Contaminated personnel must be nation operations by manual scrubbing.
decontaminated as soon as possible. Before Steam is also a useful agent for gross de-
decontamination of installations, machinery, and contamination, particularly where it is neces-
gear is undertaken, appraisals of urgency must sary to remove greasy or oily films. Steam
be made in light of the tactical situation. decontamination is usually followed by hosing
with hot water and detergents.
Radiological Decontamination
DETAILED DECONTAMINATION.—As time
and facilities permit, detailed decontamination
Radiological decontamination neither neu-
is carried out. The main purpose of detailed
tralizes nor destroys the contamination; instead,
decontamination is to reduce the contamination
it merely removes the contamination from one
to such an extent that only a minimum of
particular area and transfers it to an area in
radiological hazard to personnel would persist.
which it presents less of a hazard. At sea,
Three basic methods of detailed decontami-
radioactive waste is disposed of directly over
nation may be used—surface decontamination,
the side. At shore installations, the problem is
aging and sealing, and disposal. Each of these
more difficult.
methods has a specific purpose; one method can
Several methods of radiological decontami-
often be used to supplement another. Surface
nation have been developed; they differ in effec-
decontamination reduces the contamination with-
tiveness in removing contamination, in appli-
cability to given surfaces, and in the speed with out destroying the utility of the object. In aging
and sealing, radioactivity is allowedto decrease
which they may be applied. Some methods are
by natural decay and any remaining contamina-
particularly suited for rapid gross decontami-
tion is then sealed ontothe surface. The disposal
nation; others are better suited for detailed
method merely consists of removing contami-
decontamination.
nated objects and materials to a place where
they can do little or no harm.
GROSS DECONTAMINATION.—The purpose
of gross decontamination is to reduce the radia-
Biological Decontamination
tion intensity as quickly as possible to a safe
level—or at least to a level which will be safe The methods available for biological decon-
for a limited period of time. In gross decontamination include scrubbing, flushing, heating,
tamination, speed is the major consideration. and the use of disinfectant sprays, disinfectant
Flushing with water, preferably water under vapors, and sterilizing gases. The method to be
high pressure, is the most practicable way of uSed in any particular case depends upon the
accomplishing gross decontamination. Aboard nature of the area or equipment to be decon-
ship, a water washdown system is used to wash taminated and upon the nature of the agent (if
down all the ship’s surfaces, from high to low this is known).
79
Figure 4-9.—Water washdown system in operation.
Chemical Decontamination emergency measure or as a means of disposing

of material which has been highly contaminated.
The major problem in chemical decontami- If this method is used, a very hot fire must be
nation is to decontaminate successfully after an used. Intense heat is necessary for destruction
attack by any of the blister or nerve agents. of chemical agents; moderate or low heat may
The general methods used in chemical decon- serve only to volatilize the agent and spread it
tamination include natural weathering, chemical by means of secondary aerosols. When a large
action, the use of heat, the use of sealing, and amount of highly contaminated material is being
physical removal. burned, downwind areas may contain a dangerous
Natural weathering relies on the effects of
sun, rain, and wind to dissipate, evaporate, or
decompose chemical agents. Weathering is by
far the simplest and most widely applicable
method of chemical decontamination; in some
cases, it offers the only practicable means of
neutralizing the effects of chemical agents,
particularly where large areas are contami-
nated.
Decontamination by chemical action involves
a chemical reaction between the chemical agent
and the chemical decontaminant. The reaction
usually results in the formation of a harmless
new compound or a compound which can be
removed more easily than the original agent.
Neutralization of chemical agents can result “«
f Obese
from chemical reactions of oxidation, chlorina- ed
tion, reduction, or hydrolysis.
Expendable objects or objects of little value 8.100
may be burned if they become contaminated. Figure 4-10.—Decontamination by manual
This procedure should not be used except as an scrubbing.
80
Chapter 4--PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE DAMAGE CONTROL
103.123
Figure 4-11.—Decontamination team hosing down a gun mount.
81
concentration of toxic vapors; personnel should It is extremely dangerous to assume that

be kept away from such areas. damage has been permanently controlledmerely
Hot air may be blown over a contaminated because fires have been put out, leaks plugged,
surface to decontaminate it. Steam, especially and compartments dewatered. Fires may flare
high pressure steam, is also a useful decon- up again, plugs may work out of holes, and
taminating agent; the steam hydrolyzes and compartments may spring new leaks. Constant
evaporates chemical agents and flushes them checking is required for quite some time after
from the surfaces. Chemical decontamination the damage appears to be controlled.
may also be accomplished by sealing off porous Doors, hatches, and other accesses should
surfaces to prevent the absorption of chemical be kept open only as long as necessary while
agents or to prevent volatilization of agents al- repairs are being made. Wartime records of
ready on the surface. naval ships show many cases of progressive
Decontamination can also be effected by flooding which were the direct result of failure
physically removing the toxic agents from the to close doors or hatches.
contaminated surfaces. This can be done by
No person should attempt to be a one-man
washing or flushing the surfaces with water,
damage control organization. All damage must
steam, or various solvents. Figure 4-11 shows
be reported to damage control central or toa
a decontamination party hosing downa gun mount
repair party before any individual action is
in order to physically remove toxic agents.
taken. The damage control organization is the
key to successful damage control. Separate,
uncoordinated actions by individual men may
DAMAGE CONTROL PRECAUTIONS
actually do more harm than good.
Many actions taken to control damage can
The urgent nature of damage control oper- have a definite effect on ship’s characteristics
ations can lead to a dangerous neglect of neces- such as watertight integrity, stability, and
sary safety precautions. Driven by the need to weight and moment. The dangers involved in
act rapidly, men sometimes take chances they pumping large quantities of water into the ship
would not even consider taking inless hazardous to combat fires should be obvious. Less obvious,
situations. This is unfortunate, since there are perhaps, is the fact that the repair of structural
few areas in which safety precautions are as damage may also affect the ship’s character-
important as they areindamage control. Failure istics. For example, the addition of high or off-
to observe safety precautions can lead—and, in center weight produces the same general effect
fact, has led—to the loss of ships. as high or off-center solid flooding.
Because damage control includes so many
While most repairs made in action would not
Operations and involves the use of so many
amount to much in terms of weight shifts or
items of equipment, it is not feasible to list all
additions, it is possible that a number of rela-
the detailed precautions that must be observed.
tively small changes could add up sufficiently
Some of the basic precautions that apply to
practically all damage control work are noted
to endanger an already damaged and unstable
ship. The only way to control this kind of hazard
briefly in the following paragraphs.
is by making sure that all damage control per-
No one should be allowed to take any action
sonnel report fully and accurately to damage
to control fires, flooding, or other damage until
control central. Ship stability problems are
the situation has been investigated and analyzed.
worked out in damage control central, but the
Although speed is essential for effective damage
information must come from repair personnel.
control, correct action is even more important.
The extent of damage must not be under- In all aspects of damage control, it is im-
estimated. It is always necessary to remember portant to make full use of all available devices
that hidden damage may be even more severe for the detection of hazards. Several types of
than visible damage. Very real dangers may instruments are available on most ships for
exist from damage which is not giving imme- detecting dangerous concentrations of explosive,
diate trouble. For example, small holes at or flammable, toxic, or asphyxiating gases. Per-
just above the waterline may appear to be rela- sonnel should be trained to use these devices
tively minor; but they have been known to sink before entering potentially hazardous compart-
a ship. ments or spaces.
82
PART II—BASIC ENGINEERING THEORY
Chapter 5 Fundamentals of Ship Propulsion and Steering
Chapter 6 Theory of Lubrication
Chapter 7 Principles of Measurement
Chapter 8 Introduction to Thermodynamics
We cannot proceed very far in the study of naval engineering without

realizing the need for basic theoretical knowledge in many areas. To
understand the functioning of the machinery and equipment discussed in
later parts of this text, we must know something of the principles of me-
chanics, the laws of motion, the structure of matter, the behavior of mole-
cules and atoms and subatomic particles, the properties and behavior of
solids and liquids and gases, and other principles and concepts derived
from the physical sciences.
Chapter 5 takes up the fundamentals of resistance, the development
and transmission of propulsive power, and the principles of steering. The
remaining three chapters of part II deal with basic scientific theory and
engineering principles that have wide—indeed, almost universal—applica-
tion in the field of naval engineering. Chapter 6 is concerned with lubri-
cation, a subject of vital importance in practically all machinery and
equipment. Chapter 7 takes up the principles of measurement and dis-
cusses basic types of measuring devices. Chapter 8 provides an introduc-
tion to some of the most fundamental concepts of energy and energy
transformations, thus establishing a theoretical basis for much of the
subsequent discussion of shipboard machinery and equipment. Theoretical
considerations of a more specialized nature are discussedin other chap-
ters throughout the text, as they are required for an understanding of the
particular machinery or equipment under discussion.
83
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pe
CHAPTER 5
FUNDAMENTALS OF SHIP PROPULSION AND STEERING
The ability to move through the water and the the result of fluid shear between adjacent layers
ability to control the direction of movement are of water. Under most conditions, frictional re-
among the most fundamental of all ship require- sistance constitutes a large part of the total re-
ments. Ship propulsion is achieved through the sistance.
conversion, transmission, and utilization of Wave-making resistance results from the
energy in a sequence of events that includes the generation and propagation of wave trains by the
development of power in a prime mover, the ship in motion, Figure 5-1 illustrates bow, stern,
transmission of power to the propellers, the de- and transverse waves generated bya ship in mo-
velopment of thrust on the working surfaces of tion. When the crests of the waves make an ob-
the propeller blades, and the transmission of lique angle with the line of the ship’s direction,
thrust to the ship’s structure in such a way as the waves are known as diverging waves. These
to move the ship through the water. Control of waves, once generated, travel clear of the ship
the direction of movement is achieved partially and give no further trouble. The transverse
by steering devices which receive their power waves, which have a crest line at a 90° angle to
from steering engines and partially by the ar- the ship’s direction, do not have visible, breaking
rangement, speed, and direction of rotation of crests. The transverse waves are actually the
the ship’s propellers, invisible part of the continuous wave train which
This chapter is concerned with basic prin- includes the visible divergent waves at the bow
ciples of ship propulsion and steering and with and stern. The wave-making resistance of the
the propellers, bearings, shafting, reduction ship is a resistance which must be allowed for
gears, rudders, and other devices required to in the design of ships, since the generation and
move the ship and to control its direction of propagation of wave trains requires the expend-
movement. The prime movers which are the iture of a definite amount of energy.
source of propulsive power are discussed in de- Eddy resistance occurs when the flow lines do
tail in other chapters of this text, andare there- not close in behind a moving hull, thus creating
fore mentioned only briefly in this chapter. a low pressure area inthe water behindthe stern
of the ship. Because of this low pressure area,
RESISTANCE energy is dissipated as the water eddies. Most
ships are designed to minimize the separation of
The movement of a ship through the water the flow lines from the ship, thus minimizing eddy
requires the expenditure of sufficient energy to resistance. Eddy resistance is relatively minor
overcome the resistance of the water and, toa in naval ships.
lesser extent, the resistance of the air. The Air resistance, although small, also requires
components of resistance may be considered as the expenditure of some energy. Air resistance
(1) skin or frictional resistance, (2) wave-making may be considered as frictional resistance and
resistance, (3) eddy resistance, and (4) air re- eddy resistance, with most of it being eddy re-
sistance. sistance.
Skin or frictional resistance occurs because
THE DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSMISSION
liquid particles in contact with the ship are car-
OF PROPULSIVE POWER
ried along with the ship, while liquid particles
a short distance away are moving at muchlower Figure 5-2 illustrates the general principles
velocities. Frictional resistance is therefore of ship propulsion and shows the functional
85
prime mover, the shaft, the propelling device,

and the thrust bearing. The various bearings
used to support the shaft andthe reduction gears
(in this installation) may be regarded as neces-
sary accessories.
= STERN =
= DIVERGENTS© The prime mover provides the mechanical
energy required to turn the shaft and drive the
propelling device. The steam turbines shown in
figure 5-2 constitute the prime mover of this
installation; in other installations the prime
mover may be a dieSel engine, a gas turbine
engine, or a turbine-driven generator.
The propulsion shaft provides a means of
transmitting mechanical energy from the prime
mover to the propelling device and transmitting
thrust from the propelling device to the thrust
bearing.
The propelling device imparts velocity toa
column of water and moves it in the direction
= TRANSVERSE opposite to the direction in which it is desired
WAVES to move the ship. A reactive force (thrust) is
| (NOTVISIBLE)” = BOW DIVERGENT
WAVES thereby developed against the velocity-imparting
device; and this thrust, when transmitted to the
ship’s structure, causes the ship to move through
the water. In essence, then, we may think of
147.45 propelling devices as pumps which are designed
Figure 5-1.—Bow, stern, and transverse waves. to move a column of water in order to build up
a reactive force sufficient to move the ship. The
relationships of the units required for the de- screw propeller is the propelling device used
velopment andtransmission of propulsive power. on practically all naval ships.
The geared-turbine installation is chosen for this The thrust bearing absorbs the axial thrust
example because it is the propulsion plant most that is developed on the propeller and trans-
commonly used innaval service today. The same mitted through the shaft. Since the thrust bearing
basic principles apply to all types of propulsion is firmly fixed inrelationtothe ship’s structure,
plants. any thrust developed on the propeller must be
The units directly involved in the development transmitted to the ship in such away as to move
and transmission of propulsive power are the the ship through the water.
THRUST
BEARING
MAIN LINE SHAFT HIGH

— SHAFT BEARINGS s/n) PRESSURE
MAIN TURBINE
— WATER
COLUMN
REDUCTION LOW
—- -—-———-— GEAR PRESSURE
TURBINE
STERN TUBE
PROPELLER BEARING
= >
DIRECTION OF HULL
REACTIVE FORCE
(THRUST)
47.42A
Figure 5-2.—Principles of ship propulsion.
Chapter 5—FUNDAMENTALS OF SHIP PROPULSION AND STEERING
The purpose of the bearings which support The amount of power which the propelling
the shaft is to absorb radial thrust andto main- machinery must develop in order to drive aship
tain the correct alignment of the shaft and the at a desired speed may be determined by direct
propeller. calculation or by calculations based on the meas-
The reduction gears shown in figure 5-2 are ured resistance of a model having a definite size
used to allow the turbines to operate at high ro- relationship to the ship.
tational speed while the propellers operate at When the latter method of calculating power
lower speeds, thus providing for most efficient requirements is used, ship models are towed at
operation of both turbines and propellers. various speeds in longtanks or basins. The most
The propellers, bearings, shafting, and re- elaborate facility for testing models in this way
duction gears which are directly or indirectly is the Navy’s David W. Taylor Model Basin at
involved in the development and transmission of Carderock, Maryland. The main basin is 2775
propulsive power are considered in more detail feet long, 51 feet wide, and 22 feet deep. A
following a general discussion of power require- powered carriage spanning this tank and riding
ments for naval ships. on machine rails is equipped to tow an attached
model directly below it. The carriage carries
POWER REQUIREMENTS instruments to measure and record the speed of
travel and the resistance of the model. From
The power output of a marine engine is ex- the resistance, the effective horsepower (EHP)
pressed in terms of horsepower. One horse- (among other things) may be calculated. Effective
power is equal to 550 foot-pounds of work per horsepower is the horsepower required to tow
second or 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute. the ship. Therefore,
Different types of engines are rated in different
kinds of horsepower. Steam reciprocating en- R 6080V
gines are rated interms of indicated horsepower T_ 60
HP'= 33,000
E -
(IHP); internal combustion engines are usually
rated in terms of brake horsepower (BHP); and
steam turbines are rated interms of shaft horse-
where
power (SHP).
Indicated horsepower is the power measured Ry = tow rope resistance, in pounds
in the cylinders of the engine. V = speed, in knots
Brake horsepower is the power measured at
the crankshaft coupling by means of a mechani- The speed in knots is multiplied by 6080 to
eal, hydraulic, or electric brake. convert it to feet per hour, and is divided by 60
Shaft horsepower is the power transmitted to convert this to feet per minute. We have then
through the shaft to the propeller. Shaft horse-
power can be measured with a torsionmeter; it
can also be determined by computation. Shaft 6080 RV
horsepower may vary from time to time within 60 6080 R,,V
the same plant; for example, a plant that de- oe 33,000 Se 60.33,000
velops 10,000 shaft horsepower at 100 rpm on
one occasion may develop 12,000 shaft horse-
power at the same rpm onanother occasion. The 608 RV 608 R,V
difference occurs because of variations in the
~ 6.33,000 98x 103
condition of the bottom, the draft ofthe ship, the
state of the sea, and other factors. Shaft horse-
= 3.0707 x 10-3 RV
power may be determined by the formula
2aNT = 0.0030707 RV
SHP =
33,000
where
The relationship between effective horse-
SHP = shaft horsepower power and shaft horsepower is called the pro-
N=rpm pulsive efficiency or the propulsive coefficient
T= torque (in foot-pounds) measured of the ship. It is equal tothe product of the pro-
with torsionmeter peller efficiency and the hull efficiency.
87
Variation of hull resistance at moderate impact which cause these factors to fluctuate
speeds of any well-designed ship is approxi- over a considerable range. It is to be expected,
mately proportional to the square of the speed, therefore, that peak loads in excess of the loads
The power required to propel a ship is propor- required in smooth seas will be imposed on the
tional to the product of the hull resistance and propulsion plant to maintain the ship’s rated
speed. Therefore, it follows that under steady speed. Thus, propulsion plants are designed with
running conditions, the power required to drive sufficient reserve power to handle the fluctuating
a ship is approximately proportional to the cube loads that must be expected.
of propeller speed. While this relationship is There is no simple relationship for determin-
not exact enough for actual design, it does serve ing the power required to reverse the propeller
as a useful guide for operating the propelling when the ship is moving ahead or the power re-
plant. quired to turn the propeller ahead when the ship
Since the power required to drive a ship is is moving astern. To meet Navy requirements,
approximately proportional to the cube of the a ship must be able to reverse from full speed
propeller speed, 50 percent of full power will ahead to full speed astern within a prescribed
drive a ship at about 79.4 percent of the maxi- period of time; the propulsion plant of any ship
mum speed attainable when full power is used must be designed to furnish sufficient power for
for propulsion, and only 12.5 percent of full power meeting the reversing specifications.
is needed for about 50 percent of maximum speed.
The relation of speed, torque, and horse- PROPELLERS
power to ship’s resistance and propeller speed
under steady running conditions can be expressed The propelling device most commonly used
in the following equations: for naval ships is the screw propeller, socalled
because it advances through the water in some-
S= ky x (rpm) what the same way that a screw advances through
wood or a bolt advances when it is screwed into
ic Ky x (pene a nut. With the screwpropeller, as witha screw,
the axial distance advanced with each complete
revolution is known as the pitch. The path of ad-
shp = a7k2_ x (com)2 vance of each propeller blade section is approx-
33,000 imately helicoidal.
There is, however, a difference between the
where
way a screw propeller advances and the way a
S =ship’s speed, in knots bolt advances in a nut. Since water is not a solid
medium, the propeller slips or skids; hence the
T = torque required to turn propeller, in actual distance advanced in one complete revo-
foot-pounds lution is less than the theoretical advance for one
complete revolution. The difference between the
shp = shaft horsepower theoretical and the actual advance per revolution
is called the slip. Slip is usually expressed as
rpm propeller revolutions per minute a ratio of the theoretical advance per revolution
(or, in other words, the pitch) andthe actual ad-
ky Ky = proportionality factors vance per revolution. Thus,
E-A
The proportionality factors depend on many Slip ratio =
E
conditions such as displacement, trim, condition
of hull and propeller with respect to fouling, where
depth of water, sea and wind conditions, and the
E = shaft rpm x pitch = engine distance per
position of the ship. Conditions that increase
minute
the resistance of the ship to motion cause kj to
be smaller and ko to be larger. A= actual distance advanced per minute
In a smooth sea, the proportionality factors
k, and kg can be considered as being reasonably Screw propellers may be broadly classified
constant. In rough seas, however, a ship is sub- as fixed pitch propellers or controllable pitch
jected to varying degrees of immersion and wave propellers. The pitch of a fixed pitch propeller
88
Chapter 5— FUNDAMENTALS OF SHIP PROPULSION AND STEERING
cannot be altered during operation; the pitch of

a controllable pitch propeller can be changed TIP
continuously, subject to bridge or engineroom LEADING

control. Most propellers in naval use are of the a EDGE
fixed pitch type, but some controllable pitch pro-
pellers are in service. TRAILING TRAILING EDGE
A screw propeller consists of a hub and sev- EDGE EDGE
eral (usually three or four) blades spaced at

equal angles about the axis. Where the blades
are integral with the hub, the propeller is known
as a solid propeller. Where the blades are sep-
arately cast and secured to the hub by means of
studs and nuts, the propeller is referred to as
a builtup propeller.
Solid propellers may be further classified as
having constant pitch or variable pitch. Ina con-
stant pitch propeller, the pitch of each radius is
the same. Onavariable pitch propeller, the pitch
at each radius may vary. Solid propellers of the 147.46
variable pitch type are the most commonly used Figure 5-3.—Propeller blade.
for naval ships.
Propellers are classified as being right-hand not precisely perpendicular to the long axis of
or left-hand propellers, depending upon the di- the shaft.
rection of rotation. When viewed from astern,
with the ship moving ahead, a right-hand pro- Blade Angle
peller rotates in a clockwise direction anda left-
hand propeller rotates in a counterclockwise The blade angle (or pitch angle) of a pro-
direction. The great majority of single-screw peller may be defined as the angle included be-
ships have right-hand propellers. Multiple- tween the blade and a line perpendicular to the
screw ships have right hand propellers to port. shaft centerline. If the blade angle were 0°, no
Reversing the direction of rotation of a propeller pressure would be developed on the blade face.
reverses the direction of thrust and consequently If the blade angle were 90°, the entire pressure
reverses the direction of the ship’s movement. would be exerted sidewise and none of it aft.
Some of the terms used in connection with Within certain limits, the amount of reactive
screw propellers are identified in figure 5-3. thrust developed by a blade is a function of the
The term face (or pressure face) identifies the blade angle.
after side of the blade, when the ship is moving
ahead. The term back (or suction back) identi- Blade Velocity
fies the surface opposite the face. As the pro-
peller rotates, the face of the blade increases The sternward velocity imparted tothe water
the pressure on the water near it and gives the by the rotation of the propeller blades is partially
water a positive astern movement. The back of a function of the speed at which the blades ro-
the blade creates a low pressure or suction area tate. In general, the higher the speed, the greater
just ahead of the blade. The overall thrust is de- the reactive thrust.
rived from the increased water velocity which However, every part of a rotating blade does
results from the total pressure differential thus not give equal velocity to the water unless the
created. blade is specially designed to do this. For ex-
The tip of the blade is the point most distant ample, consider the flat blade shown in figure
from the hub. The root of the blade is the area 5-4. Points A and Z move about the shaft center
where the blade arm joins the hub. The leading with equal angular velocity (rpm) but with dif-
edge is the edge which first cuts the water when ferent instantaneous linear velocities. Point Z
the ship is going ahead. The trailing edge (also must move farther than point A to complete one
called the following edge) is opposite the leading revolution; hence the linear velocity at point Z
edge. A rake angle exists when there is a rake must be greater than at point A, With the same
either forward or aft—that is, when the blade is pitch angle, therefore, point Z will exert more
89
the propeller. Within certain limits, the thrust

that can be developed increases as the diameter
and the total blade area increase. Since it is
impracticable to increase propeller diameter
beyond a certain point, propeller blade area is
usually made as great as possible by using as
many blades as are feasible under the circum-
stances. Three-bladed and four-bladed marine
propellers are commonly used.
Thrust Deduction
Because of the friction between the hull and

the water, water is carried forward with the hull
and is given a forward velocity. This movement
of adjacent water is called the wake. Since the
propeller revolves in this body of forward mov-
ing water, the sternward velocity given to the
propeller is less than if there were no wake.
Since the wake is traveling with the ship, the
speed of advance over the ground is greater than
the speed through the wake.
At the same time, a propeller draws water
from under the stern of the ship, thus creating a
suction which tends to keep the ship from going
147.47
ahead. The increase in resistance that occurs
Figure 5-4.—Linear velocity
because of this suction is known as thrust de-
and reactive thrust.
duction.
pressure on the water and so develop more re-
Number and Location
active thrust than point A. The higher the linear
of Propellers
velocity of any part of a blade, the greater will
be the reactive thrust. A single propeller is located on the ship’s
Real propeller blades are not flat but are de- centerline as far aft as possible to minimize the
signed with complex surfaces (approximately thrust deduction factor. Vertically, the propeller
helicoidal) to permit every infinitesimal areato must be located deep enough so that in still water
produce equal thrust. Since point Z hasa higher the blades do not draw in air but high enough so
linear velocity than point A, the thrust at point that it can benefit from the wake. The propeller
Z must be decreased by decreasing the pitch must not be located so high that it will be likely
angle at point Z, Point M, lying between points to break the surface in rough weather, since this
Z and A, would have (on a flat blade) a linear would lead to racing and perhaps a broken shaft.
velocity less than Z but greater than A. In a real A twin-screw ship has the propellers located
propeller, then, point M must be set at a pitch One on each side, well aft, with sufficient tip
angle which is greater than the pitch angle at clearance to limit thrust deduction.
point Z but less than the pitch angle at point A. A quadruple-screw ship has the outboard
Since the linear velocity of the parts of a blade propellers located forward of and above the in-
varies from root to tip, and Since it is desired board propellers, to avoid propeller stream in-
to have every infinitesimal area of the blade pro- terference.
duce equal thrust, it is apparent that areal pro-
peller must vary the pitchangle from root to tip. Controllable Pitch Propellers
Propeller Size As previously noted, controllable pitch pro-

pellers are in use on some naval ships. Con-
The size of a propeller—that is, the size of trollable pitch propellers give a ship excellent
the area swept by the blades—has a definite ef- maneuverability and allow the propellers to de-
fect on the total thrust that can be developed on velop maximum thrust at any given engine rpm.
90
A ship with controllable pitch propellers re- pneumatic brakes. The mechanically operated
quires much less distance for stopping than a actuating mechanism is usually controlled by
ship with fixed pitch propellers. The controllable simple mechanical or electrical switches.
pitch propellers are particularly useful for land-
ing ships because they make it possible for the Propeller Problems
ships to hover offshore and because they make
it easier for the ships to retract and turn away One of the major problems encountered with
from the beach. propellers is known as cavitation. Cavitation is
Controllable pitch propellers may be con- the formation of a vacuum around a propeller
trolled from the bridge or from the engineroom which is revolving at a speed above a certain
as shown in figure 5-5. Hydraulic or mechanical critical value (which varies, depending upon the
controls are used to apply a blade actuating force size, number, and shape of the propeller blades).
to the blades. The speed at which cavitation begins to occur
A hydraulic system as shown in figure 5-6, is different in different types of ships; the tur-
is the most widely used means of providing the bulence increases in proportion to the propeller
force required to change the pitch of acontroll- rpm. Specifically, a propeller rotating at a high
able pitch propeller. In this type of system, a speed will develop astream velocity that creates
valve positioning mechanism actuates an oil a low pressure. This low pressure is less than
control valve. The oil control valve permits the vaporization point of the water, and from
hydraulic oil, under pressure, to be introduced each blade tip there appears to develop a spiral
to either side of a piston (which is connected to of bubbles (fig. 5-7). The water boils at the low
the propeller blade) and at the sametime allows pressure points. As the vapor bubbles of cavita-
for the controlled discharge of hydraulic oil from tion move into regions where the pressure is
the other side of the piston. This action reposi- higher, the bubbles collapse rapidly and produce
tions the piston and thus changes the pitch of the a high-pitched noise.
propeller blades. The net result of cavitation is to produce:
Some controllable pitch propellers have me- (1) high level of underwater noise; (2) erosion
chanical means for providing the blade actuating of propeller blades; (3) vibration with subsequent
force necessary to change the pitch of the blades. blade failure from metallic fatigue; and (4)
In these designs, a worm screw and crosshead overall loss in propeller efficiency, requiring a
nut are used instead of the hydraulic devices for proportionate increase in power for a given
transmitting the actuating force to the connect- Speed.
ing rods. The torque required for rotating the In naval warfare, the movements of surface
worm screw is supplied either by an electric ships and submarines can be plotted by sonar
motor or by the main propulsion plant through bearings on propeller noise. Because ofthe high
P&S PILOT HOUSE PITCH

CONTROL SWITCHS
P&S, PILOT HOUSE

PROPULSION CONTROL INDICATORS
TRANSFER SWITCH
ENG. RMS. PITCH CONTROL
P.& S. SOLENOIDS
EMERGENCY
CONTROL ENG. RMS
PITCH INDICATORS
SHAFT
PORT PITCH CONTROL UNIT
P &S, PROPELLERS P&S STARBOARD PITCH

AND HUBS SERVO MOTORS BEE UON GE CONTROL UNIT
121.24
Figure 5-5.—General arrangement of pitch propeller control.
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71.23(147B)
Figure 5-7.—Cavitating propeller.
static water pressure at submarine operational BEARINGS

depths, cavitation sets in when a submarine is
operating at a much higher rpm than when near From the standpoint of mechanics, the term
the surface. For obvious reasons, a submarine bearing may be applied to anything which sup-
that is under attack will immediately dive deep ports a moving element of a machine. However,
so that it can use high propeller rpm with the this section is concerned only with those bearings
least amount of noise. which support or confine the motion of sliding,
rotating, and oscillating parts on revolving shafts
A certain amount of vibration is always or movable surfaces of naval machinery.
present aboard ship. Propeller vibration, how- In view of the fact that naval machinery is
ever, may also be caused by a fouled blade or constantly exposed to varying operating condi-
by seaweed. If a propeller strikes a submerged tions, bearing material must meet rigid stand-
object, the blades may be nicked. ards. A number of nonferrous alloys are used
as bearing metals. In general, these alloys are
Another propeller phenomen is the ‘‘singing”’ tin-base, lead-base, copper-base, or aluminum-
propeller. The usual cause of this noise is that base alloys. The term babbitt metal is often
the trailing edges of the blades have not been used for lead-base and tin-base alloys.
properly prepared before installation. The Bearings must be made of materials which
flutter caused by the flow around the edges may will withstand varying pressures and yet permit
induce a resonant vibration. A ‘‘singing’’ propel- the surfaces to move with minimum wear and
ler can be heard for a great distance. friction. In addition, bearings must be held in
93
position with very close tolerances permitting

freedom of movement and quiet operation. In
view of these requirements, good bearing mate-
rials must possess a combination of the follow-
ing characteristics for a given application.
1. The compressive strength of the bearing
alloy at maximum operating temperature must
be such as to withstand high loads without
cracking or deforming.
2. Bearing alloys must have high fatigue
i
resistance to prevent cracking and flaking under GUIDE BEARING
varying operating conditions. SOLID TYPE JOURNAL
BEARING (BUSHING) B
3. Bearing alloys must have high thermal
conductivity to prevent localized hot spots with
ALiu
resultant fatigue and seizure.
4. The bearing materials must be capable of
retaining an effective oil film.
5. The bearing materials must be highly re-
sistant to corrosion.
[sPuit_tye
Classification EUCURNAL
c
BEARING SPLIT-TYPE COMBINATION
JOURNAL AND THRUST BEARING
D
The reciprocating and rotating elements or
members, supported by bearings, may be subject
to external loads which can be resolved into
components having normal, radial, or axial
directions, or a combination of the two. Bearings
are generally classified as sliding surface
(friction) or rolling contact (antifriction) bear-
=
ings.
Sliding surface bearings may be defined
broadly as those bearings which have sliding 147.50
contact between their surfaces. In these bear- Figure 5-8.—Various types of friction bearings.
ings, one body slides or moves on the surface
of another and sliding friction is developed if than any other friction-type bearing. A good
the rubbing surfaces are not lubricated. Exam- example is the turbine bearing. Split bearings
ples of sliding surface bearings are thrust can be made adjustable to compensate for wear.
bearings and journal bearings (fig. 5-8), such Guide bearings (part B of fig. 5-8), as the
as the spring or line shaft bearings installed name implies, are used for guiding the longi-
aboard ship. tudinal motion of a shaft or other part. Perhaps
Journal bearings are extensively used aboard the best illustrations of guide bearings are the
ship. Journal bearings may be subdivided into valve guides in an internal combustion engine.
different styles or types, the most common of Thrust bearings are used to limit the motion
which are solid bearings, half bearings, two- of, or support a shaft or other rotating part
part or split bearings. A typical solid style longitudinally. Thrust bearings sometimes are
journal bearing application is the piston bearing combined functionally with journal bearings.
(part A of fig. 5-8), more commonly called a Antifriction-type, or rolling contact, bear-
bushing. An example of a solid bearing is a ings are so-called because their design takes
piston rod wristpin bushing such as found in advantage of the fact that less energy is required
compressors. Perhaps the most common ap- to overcome rolling friction than is required
plication of the half bearing in marine equip- to overcome sliding friction. These bearings
ment is the propeller shaft bearing. Since the may be defined broadly as bearings which have
load is exerted only in one direction, they ob- rolling contact between their surfaces. These
viously are less costly than a full bearing of bearings may be classified as roller bearings
any type. Split bearings are used more frequently or ball bearings according to shape of the rolling
94
elements. Both roller and ball bearings are type is formed by surfacing apart of the machine
made in different types, some being arranged frame with the bearing material, while the insert
to carry both radial and thrust loads, In these bearing is a plain bushing inserted into andheld
bearings, the balls or rollers generally are in place in the machine frame. The insert bear-
assembled between two rings or races, the ing may be either a solid or asplit bushing, and
contacting faces of which are shaped to fit the may consist of the bearing material alone or be
balls or rollers. enclosed in a case or shell. Inthe integral bear-
The basic difference between ball and roller ing there is no means of compensating for wear,
bearings is that a ball at any given instant and when the maximum allowable clearance is
carries the load on two tiny spots diametrically reached the bearing must be resurfaced. The
opposite while a roller carries the load on two insert solid bushing bearing, like the integral
narrow lines (fig. 5-9). Theoretically, the area type, has no means for adjustment due to wear,
of the spot or line of contact is infinitesimal. and must be replaced when maximum clearance
Practically, the area of contact depends on how is reached.
much the bearing material will distort under
The pivoted shoe is a more complicatedtype
the applied load. Obviously, rolling contact
of radial bearing. This bearing consists of a
bearings must be made of hard materials be-
shell containing a series of pivoted pads or
cause if the distortion under load is appreciable
shoes, faced with bearing material.
the resulting friction will defeat the purpose of
the bearings. Bearings with small, highly loaded The plain pivot or single disk type thrust
contact areas must be lubricated carefully if bearing consists of the end of a journal extend-
they are to have the antifriction properties they ing into a cup-shaped housing, the bottom of
are designed to provide. If improperly lubri- which holds the single disk of bearing material.
cated, the highly polished surfaces of the balls
The multi-disk type thrust bearing is simi-
and rollers soon will crack, check, or pit, and
lar to the plain pivot bearing except that several
failure of the complete bearing follows.
disks are placed between the end of the journal
Both sliding surface and rolling contact
and the housing. Alternate disks of bronze and
bearings may be further classified by their
steel are generally used. The lower disk is
function as follows: radial, thrust, and angular-
fastened in the bearing housing and the upper
contact (actually a combination of radial and
one to the journal, while the intermediate disks
thrust) bearings. Radial bearings, designed
are free.
primarily to carry a load in a direction per-
pendicular to the axis of rotation, are used to The multi-collar thrust bearing consists of
limit motion in a radial direction. Thrust bear- a journal with thrust collars integral with or
ings can carry only axial loads; that is, a force fastened to the shaft; these collars fit into re-
parallel to the axis of rotation, tending to cause cesses in the bearing housing which are faced
endwise motion of the shaft. Angular-contact with bearing metal. This type bearing is gen-
bearings can support both radial and thrust loads. erally used on horizontal shafts carrying light
The simplest forms of radial bearings are thrust loads.
the integral and the insert types. The integral
The pivoted shoe thrust bearing is similar to
the pivoted shoe radial bearing except that it has
a thrust collar fixed to the shaft which runs
against the pivoted shoes. This type bearing is
generally suitable for both directions of rotation.
Angular loading is generally taken by using
a radial bearing to restrain the radial load and
some form of thrust bearing to handle the load.
This may be accomplished by using two separate
bearings or a combination of a radial andthrust
SPOT CONTACT LINE CONTACT LINE CONTACT (radial thrust), A typical example is the multi-
eollar bearing which has its recesses entirely
77.66 surfaced with bearing material; the faces of the
Figure 5-9.—Load-carrying areas of ball and collars carry the thrust load and the cylindrical
roller bearings. edge surfaces handle the radial load.
95
Main Reduction Gear and

Propulsion Turbine Bearings
Reduction gear bearings of the babbitt-lined

split type are rigidly mounted and dowelled into
the bearing housings. These bearings are split
in halves, but the split is not always in a hori-
zontal plane. On many pinion and bull gear bear-
ings, the pressure is against the cap and not
always in a vertical direction. The bearing
shells are so secured in the housing that the
point of pressure on both ahead and astern oper-
ation is as nearly midway between the joint faces
as practicable.
Turbine bearings are pressure lubricated by
means of the same forced-feed system that lu-
bricates the reduction gear bearings.
Main Thrust Bearings
The main thrust bearing, which is usually

located in the reduction gear casing, serves to
absorb the axial thrust transmitted through the
shaft from the propeller.
Kingsbury or pivoted segmental shoe thrust
bearings of the type shown in figure 5-10 are 147,51X
commonly used for main thrust bearings. This Figure 5-10.—Kingsbury pivoted-shoe thrust
type of bearing consists of pivoted segments or bearing.
shoes (usually six) against which the thrust
collar revolves. Ahead or astern axial motion Main Line Shaft Bearings
of the shaft, to which the thrust collar is se-
cured, is thereby restrained by the action of the Bearings which support the propulsion line
thrust shoes against the thrust collar. These shafting and which are located inside the hull
bearings operate on the principle that a wedge- are called line shaft bearings, spring bearings,
shaped film of oil is more readily formed and or line bearings. These bearings are of the
maintained than a flat film and that it can there- ring-oiled, babbitt-faced, spherical-seated,
fore carry heavier loads for any given Size. shell type. Figure 5-12 illustrates the arrange-
In a segmental pivoted-shoe thrust bearing, ment of a line shaft bearing. The bearing is
upper leveling plates upon which the shoes rest designed to align itself to support the weight
and lower leveling plates equalize the thrust of the shafting. The spring bearings of all
load among the shoes (fig. 5-11). The base ring, modern naval ships are provided with both upper
which supports the lower leveling plates, holds and lower self-aligning bearing halves.
the plates in place and transmits the thrust on
the plates to the ship’s structure. Shoe supports Stern Tube and Strut Bearings
(hardened steel buttons or pivots) located be-
tween the shoes and the upper leveling plates The stern tube is a steel tube built into the
enable the shoe segments to assume the angle ship’s structure for the purpose of supporting
required to pivot the shoes against the upper and enclosing the propulsion shafting where it
leveling plates. Pins and dowels hold the upper pierces the hull of the ship. The section of the
and lower leveling plates in position, allowing shafting enclosed and supported by the stern
ample play between the base ring and the plates tube is called the stern tube shaft. The pro-
to ensure freedom of movement of the leveling peller shaft is supported at the stern by two
plates. The base ring is kept fromturning by its bearings, one at each end of the stern tube.
notched construction, which secures the ring to These bearings are called stern tube bearings.
its housing. A packing gland known as the stern tube gland
96
THRUST LEVELING
COLLAR PLATES
7——
a
A STATIONARY VIEW
COLLAR
“ere'ee
CCS NEREEEN SSCS EN

aad RN ecor NS08] SSRs | SSSS ey AS
aN eee SSS
LEVELING PLATES BASE RING JOINT IN BASE RING
C EXTENDED VIEW
38.86X
Figure 5-11.—Diagrammatic arrangement of Kingsbury thrust bearing.
is located at the inner end of the stern tube. The shells of both stern tube and strut bear-
This gland, which is shown in figure 5-13, seals ings are of bronze lined with a suitable bearing
the area between the shaft and the stern tube, wearing material. The shells are normally
but still allows the shaft to rotate. grooved longitudinally to receive strips of
The stuffing box of the stern tube gland is
flanged and bolted to the stern tube. The casting =~, BEARING OIL GROOVES DISTRIBUTE
THE OIL WITHIN THE BEARING
is divided into two annular compartments. The tip LINER
forward space is the stuffing box proper; the

Sty,
after space has a flushing connection for pro-
viding a positive flow of water through the stern
tube for lubricating, cooling, and flushing. The
flushing connection is supplied by the fire and OIL RINGS CARRY
OIL TO THE TOP
flushing system, A drain connection may be OF THE SHAFT
provided.
A strut bearing is shown in figure 5-14; The > 4, EXCESS OIL DRAINS
strut bearing has a composition bushing which is —s
=< i
A BACK TO THE RESERVOIR,
WHERE IT COOLS
split longitudinally into two halves. The outer ZIG, BEFORE RECIRCULATION
surface of the bushing is machined with steps to

bear on matching landings in the bore of the 47.39X
strut. One end is bolted to the strut. Figure 5-12.—Line shaft bearing.
97
laminated resin bonded composition or strips of

composition faced with rubber or synthetic rub-
WATER SERVICE
ber compounds as wearing materials. The lami-
nated strips are cut and installed in the bearing
shell so as to present the end grainto the shaft.
In naval craft other than major combatant ships,
resin bonded composition bearings or full molded
rubber faced bearings are used.
PROPULSION SHAFTING
NT seen Ne
yaig
DiaiaLreieea
ea
STUFFING BOX ep
. at
STERN TUBE The propulsion shafting, which ranges in
BEARING
SS BULKHEAD
diameter from 18 to 21 inches for small twin-
screw destroyers to approximately 30 inches for
47.40 large four-Screw carriers, is divided into four
Figure 5-13.—Stern tube stuffing box and gland. functional sections: the thrust shaft, the line
LENGTH OF BEARING AND NUMBER OF

STEPS TO SUIT INSTALLATION
We
SSS
Yd)
pane MING.
AZ
TEE Stimeaneth2,
Sei! Yrssssse Mb ssssssssbhbbssasssstlddlsraces
PYSeUTHEETT ETT TT EET TET EP TCT OK uf“
INCLINATION
ABOUT
TO FACILITATE REMOVAL,
1/16"PER FOOT
s
WANN
(i
Lees
Li
IN AAS
WiPRT
e
is ey
SP
CUED
Qe
eS;
PM LR AS,
DO
iS IV
LIA
NZ:
NZ
RUBBER
STRIPS
47.41
Figure 5-14.—Strut bearing. (A) Longitudinal cutaway view. (B) Cross-sectional view.
(C) Arrangement of rubber stripping in the bearing bushing.
98
shaft, the stern tube shaft, and the propeller water outboard couplings. These are intended
or tail shaft. These portions of the shafting may primarily to reduce underwater resistance. The
be seen in figure 5-15. coupling fairwaters are secured to boththe shaft
Segments of the line shaft and the thrust and coupling flanges and are filled with tallow
shaft are joined together with integral flange- to protect the coupling from corrosion.
type couplings. The stern tube shaft is joined to
the after end of the line shaft with an inboard REDUCTION GEARS
stern tube coupling which has a removable after-
Sleeve flange. The tail shaft is joined to the Reduction gears are used in many propulsion
stern tube shaft by a muff-type outboard coup- plants to allow both the prime mover and the
ling. propeller to operate at the most efficient speed.
On single-screw ships, the portion of the out- Reduction gears are also used in many kinds of
board shaft which turns in the stern tube bearing auxiliary machinery, where they serve the same
is normally covered with a shrunk-on composi- purpose. Some of the gear forms commonly used
tion sleeve. This is done to protect the shaft in shipboard machinery are shown in figure
from corrosion and to provide a suitable journal 5-16.
for the water-lubricated bearings. On multiple- Reduction gears are classified by the number
screw ships, these sleeves normally cover only of steps used to bring about speed reduction and
the bearing areas; on such ships, the exposed by the general arrangement of the gearing. A
shafting between the sleeves is covered with Single reduction gear consists of a small pinion
synthetic sheet rubber to protect the shafting gear which is driven by the turbine shaft and a
from sea water corrosion. large main gear (or bull gear) which is driven
On carriers and cruisers, the wet shafting— by the pinion. In this type of arrangement, the
that is, the shafting outboard in the sea—is ratio of speed reduction is proportional to the
composed of three sections: a tail shaft, an diameters of the pinion and the bull gear. Ina
intermediate or dropout section, and a stern 2 to 1 single reduction gear, for example, the
tube section. Integral flanged ends of these sec- diameter of the driven gear is twice that of the
tions are usually used for joining the sections driving pinion. In a 10to1 single reduction gear,
together. the diameter of the driven gear is ten times
Circular steel or composition shields known that of the pinion.
as fairwaters are secured to the bearing bush- All main reduction gearing in current com-
ings of the stern tube and strut bearings and to batant ships makes use of double helical gears
both the forward and the after ends of the under- (sometimes referred to as herringbone gears).
STERN TUBE FLANGE

BULL GEAR SHAFT
SHAFT COUPLING COUPLING
(THRUST SHAFT)
FAIRWATER AFTER STERN TUBE FWD STERN TUBE
_ SLEEVES BEARING BEARING FLANGE PORT MAIN REDUCTION
STRUT BEARING FAIRNATER | grep STERN TUBE SKIN OF SHIP
COUPLING | GEAR
BULKHEAD GLAND MAIN THRUST
LAND SPRING SPRING aye
PROPELLER STRUT Ta \ OUTBOARD SLEEVE ul stan TUBE BEARING BEARING
SHAFT \ FLANGE
COUPLING STERN TUBE
ice
PROPELLER SHAFT
HUB CAP
AD yu e r casSP RROES ETE |

ke i
es
(hy!
oe
i
reo
ait AFTER ENGINE ROOM
LINE SHAFTING
47.42B
Figure 5-15,—Propulsion shafting, twin-screw ship.
99
low speed pinion which in turn drives the bull

(second reduction) gear mounted on the pro-
peller shaft. If we suppose a 20 to 1 speed re-
NY
duction is desired, this could be accomplished
Mi
/,
by having a ratio of 2to 1 between the high speed
pinion and the first reduction gear andaratio of
10 to 1 between the low speed pinion on the first
if
reduction gear shaft and the second reduction
Ks \\yy
yp
gear on the propeller shaft.
A typical double reduction gear installation
for a DD 692 class destroyer is shown in figure
5-17, In this type of installation, the cruising
turbine is connected to the high pressure turbine
through a single reduction gear. The cruising
turbine rotor carries with it a pinion which
drives the cruising gear, coupled to the high
pressure turbine shaft. The cruising turbine
rotor and pinion are supported by three bear-
ings, one at the forward end of the turbine and
one on each side of the pinion in the cruising
reduction gear case.
The high pressure turbine and the low pres-
sure turbine are connected tothe propeller shaft
through a locked train double reduction gear of
EXTERNAL SPUR GEAR
the type shown in figure 5-18. First reduction
pinions are connected by flexible couplings to
the turbines. Each of the first reduction pinions
drives two first reduction gears. Attached to
each of the first reduction gears by a quill shaft
and flexible couplings (fig. 5-19) is a second
reduction pinion (low speed pinion). These four
pinions drive the second reduction gear (bull
gear) which is attached to the propeller shaft.
Locked train reduction gears have the advan-
tage of being more compact than other types, for
any given power rating. For this reason, all high
powered modern combatant ships have locked
BEVEL GEAR
train reduction gears. Another type of reduction
gearing, known as nested gearing, is illustrated
in figure 5-20. Nested gearing is used on most
0.22 auxiliary ships but is not used on combatant
Figure 5-16.—Gear forms used in shipboard ships. As may be seen, the nested gearing is
machinery. relatively simple; it employs no quill shafts
and uses a minimum number of bearings and
Double helical gears have smoother action and flexible couplings.
less tooth shock than single reduction gears.
Since the double helical gears have two sets of FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS
teeth at complementary angles, end thrust (such
as is developed in single helical gears) is pre- Propulsion turbine shafts are connected to
vented. the reduction gears by flexible couplings which
In the double reduction gears used on most are designed to take care of very Slight mis-
ships, a high speed pinion which is connected to alignment between the two units. Most flexible
the turbine shaft by a flexible coupling drives an couplings are of the gear type shown in figure
intermediate (first reduction) gear. The first 5-21. The coupling consists of two shaft rings
reduction gear is connected by a shaft to the having internal gear teeth and an internal
100
CRUISING TURBINE
SINGLE REDUCTION LOW PRESSURE

GEAR TURBINE
HIGH PRESSURE
TURBINE
QUILL SHAFT
ist. REDUCTION Ist. REDUCTION

GEAR GEAR
2nd. REDUCTION
GEAR
JACKING
GEAR ENCASED
MAIN SHAFT COUPLING
47.30
Figure 5-17.—Turbines and locked train double reduction gearing of DD 692 class destroyer.
floating member (or distance piece) which has Cruising turbine couplings which transmit
external teeth around the periphery at eachend. lower powers may use external floating mem-
The shaft rings are bolted to flanges on the two bers with internal teeth. With this design, the
shafts to be connected; the floating member is shaft rings become spur gears with external
placed so that its teeth engage with those of the teeth on the ends of the pinion shaft and turbine
shaft rings. shaft. Figure 5-22 shows a flexible coupling of
101
LOW ae
PRESSURE
iaekeIst LOW PRESSURE 2ND
REDUCTIO : REDUCTION PINIONS
MAIN (BULL)
GEAR
LOW PRESSURE Ist

REDUCTION PINION
HIGH PRESSURE Ist

REDUCTION PINION
VON
HIGH PRESSURE 2Nnb
HIGH PRESSURE Ist REDUCTION PINIONS
REDUCTION GEARS
47.27
Figure 5-18.—Locked train double reduction gearing.
1ST REDUCTION GEAR
2ND REDUCTION PINION
wy Via
5 KK \\
FLEXIBLE poet
COUPLING BEARINGS
47.32X
Figure 5-19.—Quill shaft assembly.
102
%
Ee Re
2ND REDUCTION 2ND REDUCTION
PINION 7) PINION
ist reouction Wn
UN / A eee
PINION Ni CU, INION
Se
WW /
1ST REDUCTION \ Hj 1ST REDUCTION
GEAR LT) GEAR
2ND REDUCTION 2ND REDUCTION
PINION PINION
<
ae
or X_N REDUCTION
OR MAIN GEAR
1ST REDUCTION GEAR 1,P. PINION 1ST REDUCTION GEAR L.P. PINION
H.P. PINION
2ND
REDUCTION
PINION
1ST REDUCTION GEAR 1ST REDUCTION GEAR

49,.29X
Figure 5-20,—Nested reduction gearing.
this type which is used on destroyers. The CARE OF REDUCTION GEARS,

coupling is installed between the cruising turbine SHAFTING AND BEARINGS
reduction gear and the high pressure turbine.
In this coupling, the floating member is atrans- The main reduction gear is one of the largest
versely Split sleeve having internal teeth which and most expensive units of machinery found in
mesh completely with the external teeth of the the engineering department. Main reduction
spur gears mounted on the connected shaft ends. gears that are installed properly and operated
103
each bearing has a needle valve to control the

amount of oil delivered to the bearing. Onnewer
ships, the quantity of oil to each bearing is con-
trolled by an orifice in the supply line. The
needle valve setting or the orifice opening must
be in accordance with the manufacturer’s in-
structions or the supply of oil will be affected.
Too small a quantity of oil will cause the bear-
ing to run hot. If too much oil is delivered to
the bearing, the excessive pressure may cause
the oil to leak at the oil seal rings. Too much
oil may also cause a bearing to overheat.
Lube oil must reach the bearing at the proper
temperature. If the oil is too cold, one of the
FLOATING
SECTION A-A MEMBER effects is insufficient oil flow for cooling pur-
poses. If the oil supply is too hot, some lubri-
47.31X cating capacity is lost.
Figure 5-21.—Gear-type flexible coupling. For most main reduction gears, the normal
temperature of oil leaving the lube oil cooler
properly will give years of satisfactory service. should be between 120°F and 130°F, For full
However, a serious casualty to main reduction power operation, the temperature of the oil
gears, will either put the ship out of commis- leaving the bearings should be between 140°F
sion or force it to operate at reduced speed. and 160°F. The maximum TEMPERATURE RISE
Extensive repairs to the main reduction gear of oil passing through any gear or bearing, under
can be very expensive because they usually any operating conditions, should not exceed 50°F;
have to be made at a shipyard. and the final temperature of the oil leaving the
Some things are essential for the proper gear or bearing should not exceed 180°F. This
operation of reduction gears. Proper lubrica- temperature rise and limitation may be deter-
tion includes supplying the required amount of mined by installed thermometers or resistance
oil to the gears and bearings, plus keeping the temperature elements.
oil clean and at the proper temperature. Locking Cleanliness of lubricating oil cannot be over-
and unlocking the shaft must be done in ac- stressed. Oil must be free from impurities, such
cordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, as water, grit, metal, and dirt. Particular care
Abnormal noises and vibrations must be inves- must be taken to clean out metal flakes and dirt
tigated and corrective action taken. Gears must when new gears are wearing in or when gears
be inspected in accordance with the current have been opened for inspection. Lint or dirt, if
instructions issued by NavShips, the type com- left in the system may clog the oil spray noz-
mander, or other proper authority. Preventive zles, The spray nozzles must be kept openat all
and corrective maintenance must be conducted times. Spray nozzles must never be altered with-
in accordance with the 3-M System. out the authorization of the Naval Ship Systems
Command.
PROPER LUBRICATION.—Lubrication of The lube oil strainers perform Satisfactorily
reduction gears and bearings is of the utmost under normal operating conditions, but they can-
importance. The correct quantity and quality of not trap particles of metal and dirt which are
lubricating oil must, at all times, be available fine enough to pass through the mesh. These fine
in the main sump. The oil must be CLEAN; and particles can become embedded in the bearing
it must be supplied to the gears and bearings at metal and cause wear on the bearings and
the pressure and temperature specified by the journals. These fine abrasive particles passing
manufacturer. through the gear teeth act like a lapping com-
In order to accomplish proper lubrication of pound and remove metal from the teeth.
gears and bearings, several conditions must be
met. The lube oil service pump must deliver the LOCKING AND UNLOCKING THE MAIN
proper discharge pressure. All relief valves in SHAFT.—In an emergency, or in the event of a
the lube oil system must be set to function at casualty to the main propulsion machinery of a
their designed pressure. On most older ships, turbine-driven ship, it may be necessary to stop
104
OIL OUTLET ojL OUTLET

HUB GEAR BOLT KEY SLEEVE
HUB GEAR
oa
egies Le
ee Te A
OIL (Pa MZ Zo SUR SSCS
INLET
H. P. TURBINE
SHAFT ee:
if
SETSCREW al CRUISING HOLES FOR JACKING

(USE COUPLING BOLT) SECTION A-A
LOCK NUT GEAR SHAFT
47.33
Figure 5-22.—Flexible coupling between cruising gear andhighpressure turbine.
and lock a propeller shaft to prevent damage to tioned at the turbines to check for unusual
the machinery. When the shaft is stopped, en- noises and vibration. When the turning gear is
gaging the turning gear and then applying the disengaged, the astern throttle should be slowly
brake is the most expeditious means of locking closed, the torque produced by the propeller
a propeller shaft while under way. passing through the water will start the shaft
By carrying out actual drills, engineroom rotating. If, when the propeller starts to turn,
personnel should be trained to safely lock and vibration indicates a bowed rotor, the ship’s
unlock the main shaft. Each steaming watch speed should be reduced to the point where little
should have sufficient trained personnel avail- or no vibration of the turbine is noticeable and
able to stop and lock the main shaft. this speed should be maintained until the rotor
CAUTION: During drills the shaft should not is straightened. If operation at such a slow
be locked more than 5 minutes, if possible. The speed is not practicable, the turbines should be
ahead throttle should NEVER be opened when the slowed by use of the astern throttle, tothe point
turning gear is engaged. The torque produced by of least vibration but with the turbines still
the ahead engines is in the same directionas the operating in the ahead direction. When the tur-
torque of the locked shaft; to open the ahead bines are slowed to the point of little or no
throttle would result in damage to the turning vibration, the shaft should be operated at that
gear. speed and the ahead throttle should be opened
The maximum safe operating speed of aship slightly to permit some steam flow through the
with a locked shaft can be found inthe manufac- affected turbine. The heat from the steam will
turer’s technical manual. Additional information warm the shaft and aid in straightening it. Low-
on the safe maximum speed that your ship can ering the main condenser vacuum will add addi-
steam with a locked shaft can be found in Nav- tional heat to the turbines; this will increase the
Ships Technical Manual, chapter 9410. If the exhaust pressure and temperature.
shaft has been locked for 5 minutes or more, the As the vibration decreases, the astern
turbine rotors may have become bowed, and throttle can be closed gradually, allowing the
special precautions are recommended. Before speed of the shaft to increase. The shaft speed
the shaft is allowed to turn, men should be sta- should be increased slowly and a check for
105
vibration should be maintained. The turbine is The bearing may be wiped only a small amount
not ready for normal operation until vibration and the shaft may be operated at a reduced speed
has disappeared at all possible speeds. until the tactical situation allows sufficient time
to inspect the bearing.
NOISES AND VIBRATION.—On steam- The most common causes of vibration ina
turbine driven ships, noises may occur at low main reduction gear installation are: faulty
speeds or when maneuvering, or when passing alignment, bent shafting, damaged propellers,
through shallow water. Generally, these noises and improper balance.
do not result from any defect in the propulsion A gradual increase in the vibration ina main
machinery and will not occur during normal reduction gear that has been operating satisfac-
operation. A rumbling sound which occurs at torily for a long period of time can usually be
low shaft rpm is generally due to the low pres- traced to a cause outside of the reduction gears.
sure turbine gearing floating through its back- The turbine rotors, rather than the gears, are
lash. This condition has also been experienced more likely to be out of balance.
with cruising reduction gears. The rumbling and When reduction gears are built, the gears
thumping noises which may occur during maneu- are carefully balanced (both statically and dy-
vering or during operation in shallow water, are namically). A small amount of unbalance in the
caused by vibrations initiated by the propeller. gears will cause unuSual noise, vibration, and
These noises referred toare characteristic only abnormal wear of bearings.
of some ships and should be regarded as normal When the ship has been damaged, vibration of
sounds for these units. These sounds will dis- the main reduction gear installation may result
appear with a change of propeller rpm or when from misalignment of the turbine, the main
the other causes mentioned are no longer shafting, the main shaft bearings, or the main
present. These noises can usually be noticed in reduction gear foundation. When vibration occurs
destroyers when the ship is backing, especially within the main reduction gears, damage to the
in choppy seas or in ground swells. propeller should be one of the first things to be
A properly operating reduction gear has a considered. The vulnerable position of the pro-
definite sound which an experienced watch- pellers makes them more liable to damage than
stander can easily learn to recognize. At dif- other parts of the plant. Bent or broken pro-
ferent speeds and under various operating peller blades will transmit vibration tothe main
conditions, the operator should be familiar with reduction gears. Propellers can also become
the normal operating sound of the reduction fouled with line or cable which will cause the
gears on his ship. gears to vibrate. No reduction gear vibration
If any abnormal sounds occur, an investiga- is too trivial to overlook. A complete investiga-
tion should be made immediately. In making an tion should be made, preferably by a shipyard.
investigation, much will depend on how the oper-
ator interprets the sound or noise. MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION. —Under
The lube oil temperature and pressure may normal conditions, major repairs and major
or may not help an operator determine the items of maintenance on main reduction gears
reasons for the abnormal sounds. A badly wiped should be accomplished by a shipyard. When
bearing may be indicated by a rapid rise in oil a ship is deployed overseas and at other times
temperature for the individual bearing. Acertain when Shipyard facilities are not available, emer-
sound or noise may indicate misalignment or gency repairs should be accomplished, if pos-
improper meshing of the gears. [If unusual sible, by a repair ship or an advanced base.
sounds are caused by misalignment of gears or Inspections, checks, and minor repairs should
foreign matter passing through the gear teeth, be accomplished by ship’s force.
the shaft should be stopped and a thorough in- Under normal conditions, the main reduction
vestigation should be made before the gears are gear bearings and gears will operate for an in-
operated again. definite period. If abnormal conditions occur,
For a wiped bearing, or any other bearing the shipyard will normally perform the repairs.
casualty that has caused a very high tempera- Spares are carried aboard sufficient to replace
ture, this procedure should be followed: If the 50 percent of the number of bearings installed
temperature of the lube oil leaving any bearing in the main reduction gear. Usually each bearing
has exceeded the permissible limits, slow or is interchangeable for the starboard or port in-
stop the unit and inspect the bearing for wear. stallation. The manufacturer’s technical manual
106
must be checked to determine interchangeability quate lubrication, will smooth out rough and
of gear bearings. uneven places on the gear teeth. This initial
Special tools and equipment needed to lift wearing-in is referred to as NORMAL WEAR
main reduction gear covers, to handle the quill or RUNNING IN. As long as operating condi-
shaft when removing bearings from it, and to tions remain normal, no further wear will occur.
take required readings and measurements, are Small shallow pits starting near the pitch
normally carried aboard. The special tools and line, will frequently form during the initial stage
equipment should always be aboard in case of operation; this process is called INITIAL
emergency repairs have to be made by repair PITTING. Often the pits (about the size of a
ships or bases not requiredto carry these items. pinhead or even smaller) can be Seen only under
The manufacturer’s technical manual is the a magnifying glass. These pits are not detri-
best source of information concerning repairs mental and usually disappear in the course of
and maintenance of any specific reduction gear normal wear.
installation. Chapters 9420, 9430, and 9440 of Pitting which is progressive and continues
NavShips Technical Manual gives the inspection at an increasing rate is knownas DESTRUCTIVE
requirements for reduction gears, shafting, PITTING. The pits are fairly large and are rel-
bearings, and propellers. atively deep. Destructive pitting is not likely to
The inspections mentioned here are the mini- occur under proper operating conditions, but
mum requirements only. Where defects are sus- could be caused by excessive loading, too soft
pected, or operating conditions so indicate, in- material, or improper lubrication. It is usually
spections should be made at more frequent found that this type of pitting is dueto misalign-
intervals. ment or to improper lubrication.
To open any inspection plates or other fit- The condition in which groups of scratches
tings of the main reduction gears, permission appear on the teeth (from the bottom to the top
should first be obtained from the engineer of- of the tooth) is termed abrasion, or scratching.
ficer. Before replacing an inspection plate, It may be caused by inadequate lubrication, or
connection, or cover which permits access to by the presence of foreign matter in the lubri-
the gear casing, a careful inspection shall be cating oil. When abrasion or scratching is noted,
made by an officer of the engineering department the lubricating system and the gear spray fix-
to ensure that no foreign matter has entered or tures should immediately be examined. If it is
remains in the casing or oil lines. Ifthe work is found that dirty oil is responsible, the system
being done by a repair activity, an officer from must be thoroughly cleaned andthe whole charge
the repair activity must also inspect the gear of oil centrifuged.
casing. An entry of the inspections andthe name The term ‘‘scoring’’ denotes a general rough-
of the officer or officers must be made in the ening of the whole tooth surface. Scoring marks
Engineering Log. The inspections required on are deeper and more pronounced than scratching
the main engine reduction gears are shown on and they cover an area of the tooth, instead of
the Maintenance Index Page, figure 5-23. occurring haphazardly, as inscratching or abra-
The importance of proper gear tooth contact sion. Small areas of scoring may occur in the
cannot be overemphasized. Any abnormal con- same position on all teeth. Scoring, with proper
dition which may be revealed by operational alignment and operation, usually results from
sounds or by inspections should be corrected inadequate lubrication, and is intensified by the
as soon as possible. Any abnormal condition use of dirty oil. If these conditions are not cor-
which is not corrected will cause excessive wear rected, continued operation will result in a gen-
which may result in general disintegration of the eral disintegration of the tooth surfaces.
tooth surfaces. Under normal conditions all alignment in-
If proper tooth contact is obtained when the spections and checks, plus the necessary re-
gears are installed, little wear of teeth will pairs, are accomplished by naval shipyards.
occur. Excessive wear cannot take place without Incorrect alignment will be indicated by ab-
metallic contact. Proper clearances and ade- normal vibration, unusual noise, and wear of the
quate lubrication will prevent most gear tooth flexible couplings or main reduction gears. When
trouble. misalignment is indicated, a detailed inspection
If proper contact is obtained when the gears should be made by shipyard personnel.
are installed, the initial wearing, which takes Two sets of readings are required to get an
place under conditions of normal load and ade- accurate check of the propulsion shafting. One
107
System, Subsystem, or Component Reference Publications
Reduction Gears
Bureau Cord . ; Related

Maintenance
ZZZFGE5 | 35 |5025) Q) 1. Inspect the reduction gear including

spray nozzles.
. Measure main shaft thrust clearance.
. Inspect and clean oil sump and

reduction gear casing.
Inspect flexible couplings. Measure

clearances.
. Sound and tighten foundation bolts.
98.171
Figure 5-23.—Maintenance Index Page.
108
set of readings is taken with the ship in drydock nozzles. It is not advisable to open gear cases,
and another set of readings is taken with the bearings, and thrusts immediately BEFORE full
ship waterborne—under normal loading condi- power trials.
tions. The main shaft is disconnected, marked, In addition to the inspections which may be
and turned so that a set of readings can be taken directed by proper authority, open the inspection
in four different positions. Four readings are plates, and examine the tooth contact and the con-
taken (top, bottom, and both sides). The align- dition of the teeth to note changes that may have
ment of the shaft can be determined by studying occurred during the full power trials. Running
the different readings taken. The naval shipyard for a few hours at high power will show any pos-
will decide whether or not corrections in align- sible condition of improper contact or abnormal
ment are necessary. wear that would not have shown up in months of
operation at lower power. Check the clearance
NOTE: During shipyard overhauls, the following of the main thrust bearing.
inspections should be made:
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
a. Inspect condition and clearance of thrust
shoes to ensure proper position of gears. Blow The following precautions must be observed
out thrusts with dry air after the inspection. by personnel operating or working with propul-
Record the readings. Inspect the thrust collar, sion equipment.
nut, and locking device.
b. If turbine coupling inspection has indicated 1. If there is churning or emulsification of
undue wear, check alignment between pinions and oil and water in the gear case, the gear must be
turbines. slowed down or stopped until the defect is rem-
c. Clean oil sump. edied.
2. If the supply of oil to the gear fails, the
When conditions warrant or if trouble is sus- gears should be stopped until the cause can be
pected, a work request may be submitted toa located and remedied.
naval shipyard to perform a ‘‘seven year”’ in- 3. When bearings have been overheated,
spection of the main reduction gears. This gears Should not be operated, except inextreme
inspection includes clearances and condition of emergencies, until bearings have been examined
bearings and journals; alignment checks and and defects remedied.
readings; and any other tests, inspections, or 4. If excessive flaking of metal from the
maintenance work that may be considered neces- gear teeth occurs, the gears should not be ad-
sary. justed, except in an emergency, until the cause
Naval Ship Systems Command authorization has been determined.
is not necessary for lifting reduction gear 5. Unusual noises should be investigated at
covers. Covers should be lifted when trouble is once, and the gears should be operated cautiously
suspected. An open gear case is a Serious hazard until the cause for the noise has been discovered
to the main plant, therefore, careful considera- and remedied.
tion of the dangers of uncovering a gear case 6. No inspection plate, connection, fitting, or
must be balanced against the reasons for sus- cover which permits access to the gear casing
pecting internal trouble, before deciding to lift should be removed without specific authoriza-
the gear case. The seven-year interval may be tion by the engineer officer.
extended by the type commander if conditions 7, The immediate vicinity of an inspection
indicate that a longer period between inspec- plate should be kept free from paint and dirt.
tions is desirable. 8. When gear cases are open, precautions
The correction of any defects disclosed by should be taken to prevent the entry of foreign
regular tests and inspections, and the observ- matter. The openings should never be left un-
ance of the manufacturers’ instructions, should attended unless satisfactory temporary closures
ensure that the gears are ready for full power have been installed.
at all times. 9. Lifting devices should be inspected care-
In addition to inspections which may be fully before being used and should not be over-
directed by proper authority, open the inspec- loaded.
tion plates, examine the tooth contact, the con- 10. When ships are anchored in localities
dition of teeth, and the operation of the spray where there are strong currents or tides,
109
precautions should be taken to lock the main

shaft.
11. Where the rotation of the propellers may
result in injury to a diver over the side, or in
damage to the equipment, propeller shafts should
be locked.
12. When a ship is being towed, the propellers
should be locked, unless it is permissible and
advantageous to allow the shafts to trail withthe
movement of the ship.
13. When a shaft is allowed to turn or trail,
the lubrication system must be in operation. In
addition, a careful watch should be kept on the
temperature within the low pressure turbine
casing to see that windage temperatures cannot
be built up to a dangerous degree. This can be
controlled either by the speed of the ship or by
maintaining vacuum in the main condenser.
14. The main propeller shaft must be brought
to a complete stop before the clutch of the turn-
ing gear is engaged. (If the shaft is turning,
considerable damage to the turning gear will
result.)
15. When the turning gear is engaged, the
brake must be set quickly and securely to pre-
vent the shaft turning and damaging the turning
gear.
YOKE OR
QUADRANT E SEMIBALANCED
UNBALANCED
147.52
3.99 Figure 5-25.—Balanced, semibalanced, and
Figure 5-24.—Rudder assembly. unbalanced rudders.
110
Chapter 5—-FUNDAMENTALS OF SHIP PROPULSION AND STEERING
16. When a main shaft is to be unlocked, pre- STEERING

cautions must be taken to disengage the jacking
gear clutch before releasing the brake. If the As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the
brake is released first, the main shaft may direction of movement of a Ship is controlled
begin to rotate and cause injury to the turning partly by steering devices which receive their
gear and to personnel. power from steering engines and partially by
the arrangement, speed, and direction of rota-
17. In an emergency, where the ship is steam-
tion of the ship’s propellers.
ing at a high speed, the main shaft can be stopped
The steering device is called a rudder. The
and held stationary by the astern turbine until
rudder is a more or less rectangular metal
the ship has slowed down to a speed at which
blade (usually hollow on large ships) which is
the main shaft can be safely locked.
supported by a rudder stock. The rudder stock
18. Where there is a limiting maximum safe enters the ship through a rudder post and a
speed at which a ship can steam with a locked watertight fitting, as shown in figure 5-24. A
propeller shaft, this speed should be known and yoke or quadrant, secured to the head of the
should not be exceeded. rudder stock, transmits the motion imparted by
the steering mechanism.
19. Before the turning gear is engaged and
Basically, a ship’s rudder is used to attain
started, a check should be made to See that
and maintain a desired heading. The force
the turning gear is properly lubricated. Some
necessary to accomplish this is developed by
ships have a valve in the oil supply line leading
dynamic pressure against the flat surface of the
to the turning gear. The operator should see
rudder. The magnitude of this force and the
that a lube oil service pump is in operation and
direction and degree to which it is applied pro-
that the proper oil pressure is being supplied to
duces the rudder effect which controls stern
the turning gear before the motor is started.
movement and thus controls the ship’s heading.
20. It should be definitely determined that In order tofunction most effectively, a rudder
the turning gear has been disengaged before the should be located aft of and quite close to the
main engines are turned over. propeller. Many modern ships have twin rud-
ders, each set directly behind a propeller to
21. While working on or inspecting open main
receive the full thrust of water. This arrange-
reduction gears, the person or persons per-
ment tends to make a ship highly maneuverable.
forming the work should not have any article
Three types of rudders are in general use—
about their person which may accidentally fall
the unbalanced rudder, the semibalanced rudder,
into the gear case.
and the balanced rudder. These three types are
22. Tools, lights, mirrors, etc. used for illustrated in figure 5-25. Other types of rud-
working on or inspecting gears, bearings, etc. ders are also in naval use. For example, some
should be lashed and secured to prevent acci- ships have a triple-blade rudder which provides
dental dropping into the gear case. an increased effective rudder area.
iLalal
CHAPTER 6
THEORY OF LUBRICATION
Lubrication reduces friction between moving friction, which must be overcome to keep the
parts by substituting fluid friction for solid fric- body in motion.
tion. Without lubrication, it is difficulttomovea There are three types of kinetic friction:
hundred-pound weight across a rough surface; sliding friction, rolling friction, and fluid fric-
with lubrication, and with proper attentiontothe tion. Sliding friction exists when the surface of
design of bearing surfaces, it is possible to move one solid body is moved across the surface of
a million-pound load with a motor that is small another solid body. Rolling friction exists when
enough to be held in the hand. By reducing a curved body such as a cylinder or a sphere
friction, thereby reducing the amount of energy rolls upon aflat or curved surface. Fluidfriction
that is dissipated as heat, lubrication reduces is the resistance to motion exhibited by a fluid.
the amount of energy required to perform me- Fluid friction exists because of the cohesion
chanical actions and also reduces the amount between particles of the fluid and the adhesion
of energy that is dissipated as heat. of fluid particles to the object or medium which
Lubrication is a matter of vital importance is tending to move the fluid. If a paddle is used
throughout the shipboard engineering plant. Mov- to stir a fluid, for example, the cohesive forces
ing surfaces must be steadily supplied with the between the molecules of the fluid tend to hold
proper kinds of lubricants, lubricants must be the molecules together and thus prevent motion
maintained at specified standards of purity, and of the fluid. At the same time, the adhesive forces
designed pressures and temperatures must be of the molecules of the fluid cause the fluid to
maintained in the lubrication systems. Without adhere to the paddle and thus create friction be-
adequate lubrication, a good many units of ship- tween the paddle and the fluid. Cohesion is the
board machinery would quite literally grind to molecular attraction between particles that tends
a screeching halt. to hold a substance or a body together; adhesion
The lubrication requirements of shipboard is the molecular attraction between particles that
machinery are met in various ways, depending tends to cause unlike surfaces to sticktogether.
upon the nature of the machinery. This chapter From the point of view of lubrication, adhesion
deals with lubrication in general—with basic is the property of a lubricant that causes it to
principles of lubrication, with lubricants used stick (or adhere) to the parts being lubricated;
aboard ship, and with the shipboard devices used cohesion is the property which holds the lubri-
to maintain lubricating oils in the required con- cant together and enables it to resist breakdown
dition of purity. The separate lubrication sys- under pressure.
tems that are installed for many shipboard units Cohesion and adhesion are possessed by dif-
are discussed in other chapters of this text. ferent materials in widely varying degrees. In
general, solid bodies are highly cohesive but
FRICTION
only slightly adhesive. Most fluids are quite
The friction that exists between a body at highly adhesive but only slightly cohesive; how-
rest and the surface upon which it rests is called ever, the adhesive and cohesive properties of
static friction. The friction that exists between fluids vary considerably.
moving bodies (or between one moving body and
FLUID LUBRICATION
a stationary surface) is called kinetic friction.
Static friction, which must be overcome to put Fluid lubrication is based on the actual sep-
any body in motion, is greater than kinetic aration of surfaces so that no metal-to-metal
112
Chapter 6—~THEORY OF LUBRICATION
a EE a Es era ee Sa re
contact occurs. As long as the lubricant film surface of the rotating journal and one of which
remains unbroken, Sliding friction and rolling clings to the stationary lining of the bearing.
friction are replaced by fluid friction. Between these two boundary films are one or
In any process involving friction, some power more fluid films (indicated as II, III, and IV in
is consumed and some heat is produced. Over- part A of fig. 6-1). The number of fluid films
coming sliding friction consumes the greatest shown in the illustration is arbitrarily selected
amount of power and produces the greatest for purposes of explanation.
amount of heat. Overcoming rolling friction con- When the rotating journal is set in motion
sumes less power and produces less heat. Over- (part B of fig. 6-1), the relationship of the journal
coming fluid friction consumes the least power to the bearing lining is such that a wedge of oil
and produces the least amount of heat. is formed. The oil films II, II, and IV begin to
slide between the two boundary films, thus con-
LANGMUIR THEORY tinuously preventing contact between the two
metal surfaces. The principle is again illustrated
A presently accepted theory of lubricationis in part C of figure 6-1, wherethe position of the
based on the Langmuir theory of the action of oil wedge W is shown with respect tothe position
fluid films of oil between two surfaces, one or of the journalas it starts and continues in motion.
both of which are in motion. Theoretically, there The views shown in part C of figure 6-1 rep-
are three or more layers or films of oil existing resent a journal or shaft rotating in a solid
between two lubricated bearing surfaces. Two of bearing. The clearances are exaggerated in the
the films are boundary films (indicated as I and drawing in order to illustrate the formation of
V in part A of fig. 6-1), one of which clings to the the oil film. The shaded portion represents the
clearance filled with oil. The film is in the
process of being squeezed out while the journal
is at rest, as shown in the stationary view. As
the journal slowly starts to turn and the speed
increases, oil adhering to the surfaces of the
journal is carried into the film, increasing the
film thickness and tending to lift the journal as
shown in the starting view. As the speed
increases, the journal takes the position shown in
the running view. Changes in temperature, with
consequent changes in oil viscosity, cause
changes in the film thickness and in the position
of the journal.
If conditions are correct, the two surfaces are
effectively separated, except for a possible mo-
mentary contact at the time the motion is started.
FACTORS AFFECTING LUBRICATION
A number of factors determine the efficacy

of oil film lubrication, including such things as
pressure, temperature, viscosity, speed, align-
ment, condition of the bearing surfaces, running
clearances between the bearing surfaces, start-
ing torque, and the nature and purity of the lubri-
STATIONARY
VIEW. cant. Many of these factors are interrelated and
interdependent. For example, the viscosity of
47.78 any given oil is affected by temperature and the
Figure 6-1.—Oil film lubrication. (A) Stationary temperature is affected by running speed; hence
position, showing several oilfilms; (B) surface the viscosity is partially dependent upon the run-
set in motion, showing principle of oil wedge; ning speed.
(C) principle of (A) and (B) shown in a journal A lubricant must be able tosticktothe bear-
bearing. ing surfaces and support the load at operating
113
a
I
speeds. More adhesiveness is required to make of oils reinforced with oxidation and corrosion
a lubricant adhere to bearing surfaces at high inhibitors and anti-foam additives. The com-
speeds than at lowspéeds. At low speeds, greater pounded oils, which are mineral oils to which
cohesiveness is required to keep the lubricant such products as rape Seed, tallow, or lard oil
from being squeezed out from between the bear- are added, are stillused indeck machinery and in
ing surfaces. the few remaining steam plants that utilize recip-
Large clearances between bearing surfaces rocating steam engines.
require high viscosity and cohesiveness in the A great many special lubricating oils are
lubricant to ensure maintenance of the lubricat- available for a wide variety of services. These
ing oil film. The larger the clearance, the greater are listed in the Federal Supply Catalog. Among
must be the resistance of the lubricant to being the more important specialty oils are those used
pounded out, with consequent destruction of the for lubricating refrigerant compressors. These
lubricating oil film. oils must havea very lowpour point and be main-
High unit load on a bearing requires high vis- tained with a high degree of freedom from mois-
cosity of the lubricant. A lubricant subjected to ture.
high loading must be sufficiently cohesive to hold The principal synthetic lubricants currently
together and maintain the oil film. in naval use are (1) a phosphate ester type of
fire-resistant hydraulic fluid, used chiefly in the
LUBRICANTS deck-edge elevators of carriers (CVAs); and (2)
a water-base glycol hydraulic fluid used chiefly
Although there is a growing use of synthetic in the catapult retracting gear.
lubricants, the principal source of the oils and
greases used in the Navy is still petroleum. By Classification of
various refining processes, lubricating stocks Lubricating Oils
are extracted from crude petroleum and blended
into a multiplicity of products to meet all lubri- The Navy identifies lubricating oils by sym-
cation requirements. Various compounds orad- bols. Each identification number consists of four
ditives are used in some lubricants (both oils digits (and, insome cases, appended letters). The
and greases) to provide specific properties re- first digit indicates the class of oil according to
quired for specific applications. type and use; the last three digits indicate the
viscosity of the oil. The viscosity digits are ac-
Types of Lubricating Oils tually the number of seconds required for 60 mil-
liliters of the oil to flow through a standard
Lubricating oils approved for shipboard use orifice at a specified temperature. The symbol
are limited to those grades and types deemed es- 3080, for example, indicates that the oilisin the
sential to provide proper lubrication under all 3000 series and that a 60-ml sample flows
anticipated operating conditions. through a standard orifice in 80 seconds when the
For diesel engines, it is necessary to use a oil is at a specified temperature (210F, in this
detergent-dispersant type of additive oil in order instance). To take another example, the symbol
to keep the engines clean. In addition, these lu- 2135 TH indicates that the oil is in the 2000 se-
bricating oils must be fortified with oxidation in- ries and that a 60-ml sample flows through
hibitors and corrosion inhibitors to allow long a standard orifice in 135 seconds when the oil is
periods between oil changes and to prevent cor- at a specified temperature (130° F, inthis case).
rosion of bearing materials. The letters H, T, TH, or TEP addedto a basic
For steam turbines, it is necessary to have symbol number indicate that the oil contains ad-
an oil of high initial film strength. This oil is ditives for special purposes.
then fortified with anti-foaming additives and
additives that inhibit oxidation and corrosion. In Lubricating Oil Characteristics
addition, it isnecessaryto use extreme pressure
(EP) additives to enable the oil to carry the ex- Lubricating oils used by the Navy are tested
tremely high loading to which it is subjected in for a number of characteristics, including vis-
the reduction gears. cosity, pour point, flash point, fire point, auto-
For the hydraulic systems in which petro- ignition point, neutralization number, demul-
leum lubricants are used, and for general sibility, and precipitation number. Standard test
lubrication use, the Navy usesa viscosity series methods are used for making all tests.
114
Chapter 6—THEORY OF LUBRICATION
The viscosity of an oil is its tendency to re- precipitate by centrifuging. The volume of the
sist flow. An oil of high viscosity flows very separated solids equals the precipitation num-
slowly. Raising the temperature of anoillowers ber. An oil with a high precipitation number is
its viscosity; lowering the temperature in- not suitable for certain applications because it
creases the viscosity. The measurement of vis- may leave deposits inan engine or plug up valves
cosity is discussed in chapter 7 of this text. and pumps.
The viscosity index of an oil is anumber in-
dicating the effect of temperature changes on Lubricating Greases
viscosity. A low viscosity index signifies a rel-
atively large change of viscosity with changes Some lubricating greases are simple mix-
of temperature. An oil which becomes thin at tures of soaps and lubricating oils. Others are
high temperatures and thickat lowtemperatures more exotic liquids such as silicones and
is Said to have a low viscosity index; a high vis- di-basic acid esters, thickened with metals or
cosity index signifies that the viscosity changes inert materials to provide adequate lubrication.
relatively little with changes of temperature. Requirements for oxidation inhibition, corrosion
The pour point of an oil is the lowest tem- prevention, and extreme pressure performance
perature at which the oil will barely flow from are met by incorporating special additives.
a container. The pour point is closely related to Lubricating greases are supplied in three
the viscosity of the oil. In general, an oil of high grades: soft, medium, and hard. The soft greases
viscosity will have a higher pour point than an are used for high speeds and low pressures; the
oil of low viscosity. medium greases are uSed for medium speeds and
The flash point of an oil is the temperature medium pressures; the hard greases are uSed for
at which enough vapor is given off to flash when slow speeds and high pressures.
a flame or spark is applied under standard test
conditions. CARE OF LUBRICATING OIL
The fire point (higher than the flash point) of
an oil is the temperature at which the oil will Lubricating oils may be kept in service for
continue to burn when it is ignited. long periods of time, provided the purity of the
The auto-ignition point of an oil is the tem- oils is maintained at the required standard. The
perature at which the flammable vapors given sons fact is that lubricating oil does not wear
off from the oil will burn without the application out,~ although it can become unfit for use when
of a spark or flame. it is robbed of its lubricating properties by the
The neutralization number ofan oil is a meas- presence of water, sand, sludge, fine metallic
ure of the acid content; it isdefinedas the num- particles, acid, and other contaminants.
ber of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) Proper care of lubricating oil requires, then,
required to neutralize one gram of the oil. All that the oil be kept as free from contamination
petroleum products oxidize in the presence of as possible and that, once contaminated, the oil
air and heat, and the products of oxidation in- must be purified before it can be used again.
clude organic acids. The acids, if present in
PREVENTING CONTAMINATION
sufficient concentration, have harmful effects
on alloy bearings at high temperatures. The Strainers or filters are used in many lubri-
presence of acids also may result in the forma- cating systems to prevent the passage of grit,
tion of sludge and emulsions too stable to be scale, dirt, and other foreign matter. Duplex
broken down. An increase inacidity isan indica- strainers are uSed in lubricating systems in
tion that lubricating oil is deteriorating. which an uninterrupted flow of lubricating oil
The demulsibility of an oil is the ability of must be maintained; the flow may be diverted
the oil to separate cleanly from any water pres- from one strainer basket to the other while one
ent. Demulsibility is an important characteris- is being cleaned. Filters may be installed di-
tic of lubricating oils used in forced-feed lubri- rectly in pressure lubricating systems or they
cation systems. may be installed as bypass filters.
The precipitation number of an oilisa meas-
ure of the amount of solids classified as asphalts
The additive content of an oil may be exhausted as
or carbon residue contained in the oil. Thepre- the additive combats the special conditions for which
cipitation number is reached by diluting a known it was included in the oil; butthisis a gradual process
quantity of oil with naphtha and separating the and is never catastrophic.
115
The use of strainers and filters does not remove impurities from lubricating oil and set-
solve the problem of water contamination of lu- tling tanks are provided to permit used oil to
bricating oil. Even a very Small amount of water stand while water and other impurities settle out.
in lubricating oil can be extremely damaging to
machinery, piping, valves, and other equipment. Centrifugal Purifiers
Water in lubricating oil can cause widespread
pitting and corrosion; also, by increasing the A centrifugal purifier is essentially a bowl
frictional resistance, water can cause the oil or hollow cylindrical container which is rotated
film to break down prematurely. Every effort at high speed while contaminated oil is forced
must be made to prevent the entry of water into through and rotated with the container. The cen-
any lubricating system. trifugal force imposed on the oil by the high
rotational speed of the container causes the sus-
REMOVING CONTAMINATION pended foreign matter to separate from the oil.
Materials that are soluble in each other can-
In spite of all efforts, a certain amount of not be separated by centrifugal force. For ex-
contamination of lubricating oil is to be expected. ample, salt cannot be removed from sea water
Aboard ship, centrifugal purifiers are used to by centrifugal force because the salt and water
COVER CLAMP HOOK INLET ARM

Ct»
LARGE SPRING 4 p REGULATING TUBE
COVER CLAMP SPRING COVER TOP
LONG COVER CLAMP Nt COVER TOP SCREW
INLET ARM SEAL RING COVER CLAMP NUT

SPRING GUIDE
FRAME COVER
BALL CHECK SPRING
BALL CHECK VALVE HOPPER

VALVE STOP SCREW
SEAL RING
SHORT COVER CLAMP
SEAL RING
BRAKE
BOWL
CLUTCH BLOCK
SPACER
FRICTION RING STUD
WORM WHEEL
FRICTION HUB coe BEARING
OIL FILLER CAP
FRAME
BOWL SPINDLE
BOTTOM SCREW
75, 231
Figure 6-2.—Disk-type centrifugal purifier.
116
Chapter 6—THEORY OF LUBRICATION
DIRTY OIL Js A disk-type centrifugal purifier is shown in

bf REGULATING TUBE figure 6-2. The bowl is mounted on the upper
end of the vertical bowl spindle, which is driven
i by a worm wheel and friction clutch assembly.
TUBULAR SHAFT
A radial thrust bearing is provided at the lower
aes
OVERFLOW
end of the bowl spindle to carry the weight of the

bowl spindle and to absorb any thrust created
TOP DISK
by the driving action.
WATER
= Contaminated oil enters the top of the revolv-
ing bowl through the regulating tube. The oil then
passes down the inside of the tubular shaft and
DISCHARGE RING DISTRIBUTING
PLUG
out at the bottom of the stack of disks. As the
BOWL TOP dirty oil flows up through the distribution holes in
the disks, the high centrifugal force exerted by
DISK
the revolving bowl causes the dirt, sludge, and
BOWL SHELL —_______» water to move outward and the purified oil to
move inward toward the tubular shaft. The disks
DRAIN
divide the space within the bowl into many sepa-
rate narrow passages. The liquid confined within
75.233 each passage is restricted sothat it can only flow
Figure 6-3.—Path of contaminated oil through along that passage. This arrangement prevents
disk-type purifier bowl (DeLAVAL). excessive agitation of the liquid as it passes
through the bowl and creates shallow settling
are in solution. However, water can be separated distances between the disks. The path of contam-
from lubricating oil because water and oil do not inated oil passing through a disk-type purifier
form a solution when mixed. For separation to is shown in figure 6-3.
take place by centrifugal force, there must be a Most of the dirt and sludge remains in the
difference in the specific gravity of oil and the bowl and collects ina more or less uniform layer
specific gravity of water. on the inside vertical surface of the bowl shell.
When a mixture of oil, water, and sediment Any water that may be present, together with
is allowed to stand undisturbed, gravity tends to some dirt and sludge, is discharged through the
cause the formation of an upper layer of oil, an discharge ring at the top of the bowl. The puri-
intermediate layer of water, and a lower layer fied oil flows inward and upward through the
of sediment, The layers form because of differ- disks, discharging from the neck of the top disk.
ences in the specific gravities of the various sub- A tubular-type centrifugal purifier is shown
stances. If the oil, water, and sediment mixture in figure 6-4. This type of purifier consists es-
is placed in a rapidly revolving centrifugal pu- sentially of a hollow rotor or bowl which rotates
rifier, the effect of gravity is negligible incom- at high speeds. The rotor has an opening in the
parison with the effect of centrifugal force. Cen- bottom through which the dirty lubricating oil
trifugal force, acting at right angles to the axis enters; two sets of openings at the top allow the
of rotation of the container, forces the sediment oil and water (or the oil alone) todischarge. (See
into an outer layer, the water into an intermediate insert, fig. 6-4.) The bowl or hollow rotor of the
layer, and the oil into an innermost layer. Cen- purifier is connected by a coupling unit to
trifugal purifiers are so designed that the sepa- a spindle which is suspended from a ball bearing
rated water is discharged as waste andthe oil is assembly. The bowl is belt-driven by an electric
discharged for use. The solids remain inthe ro- motor mounted on the frame ofthe purifier.
tating unit and are cleaned out after each purifi- The lower end of the bowl extends into a flex-
cation operation. ibly mounted guide bushing. The assembly, of
Two types of centrifugal purifiers are used which the bushing is a part, restrains movement
aboard ship. The main difference between the of the bottom of the bowl but allows enough move-
two types is in the design of the rotating units. ment so that the bowl can center itself about its
In the disk-type purifier, the rotating element axis of rotation when the purifier is in operation.
is a bowl-like container which encases a stack Inside the bowl is a device which consists of three
of disks. In the tubular-type purifier, the rotat- flat plates equally spaced radially. This device
ing element is a hollow tubular rotor. is commonly referred to as the three-wing device
117
|" Bet GUARD
BELT
MOTOR PULLEY
SPINDLE
COUPLING NUT
FUNNEL COVER
, ee—— PURIFIED
OIL OUTLET
FUNNEL BODY UPPER COVER
WATER OUTLET LOWER COVER
BOWL
laiFRAME
ig
|
pt
ee OlL
F4
at INLET
CLARIFIER-
Figure 6-4.—Tubular-type centrifugal purifier. 75.234
or as the three-wing. The three-wing rotates while water and other impurities settle out. Lu-
with the bowl and forces the liquid inthe bowl to bricating oil piping is generally arranged to per-
rotate at the same Speed as the bowl. The liquid mit two methods of purification: batch purifica-
to be centrifuged is fed into the bottom of the bowl tion and continuous purification,
through the feed nozzle, under pressure, sothat In the batch process, the lubricating oil is
the liquid jets into the bowl in a stream. transferred from the sump to a Settling tank by
The process of Separation is basically the means of a purifier or a transfer pump. In the
same in the tubular-type purifier as inthe disk- settling tank, the oil is heated to approximately
type purifier. In both types, the separated oil as- 160° F and allowed to settle for several hours.
sumes the innermost position and the separated Water and other impurities are removed from
water moves outward. Both liquids are dis- the settling tanks. The oil is then centrifuged and
charged separately from the bowl, andthe solids returned to the sump from which it was taken.
separated from the liquid are retained in the In the continuous purification process, the
bowl. centrifugal purifier takes suction from a sump
tank and, after purifying the oil, discharges it
Settling Tanks
back to the same sump. The continuous method
Lubrication systems aboard ship include setof purification is used while a ship is un-
tling tanks in which used oil is allowed to stand derway.
118
CHAPTER 7
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement is, in a very real sense, the and of the world around us is by the measure-
language of engineers. The shipboard engineer- ment of various quantities. Because we live in
ing plant contains an enormous number of gages a world in which practically everything seems
and instruments that tell operating personnel to be in some way measured or counted, we
whether the plant is running properly or whether often tend to assume that measurement is
some abnormal condition—excessive speed, high basically simple. In reality, however, it maybe
pressure, low pressure, high temperature, low quite difficult to develop an appropriate mode of
water level—requires corrective action. The measurement even after we have recognized the
gages and instruments also provide essential need; and, without an appropriate mode of
information for the hourly, daily, and weekly measurement, we may even fail to recognize
entries for station operating logs and for other the significance of the phenomena we observe.
engineering records and reports. Thus the development of scientific and engineer-
This chapter describes some of the basic ing principles has been, and undoubtedly will
types of gages and instruments uSed in ship- continue to be, inextricably tied to the concept
board engineering plants for the measurement of of measurement.
important variables such as temperature, pres- Many of our views on the nature of things
sure, fluid flow, liquid level, and rotational are profoundly influenced by the procedures we
speed. Because of the wide variety of gages and devise for measurement. It is interesting to
instruments used in connection with shipboard note how often in the history of science the
engineering equipment, no attempt is made to application of a new instrument or the refine-
cover all types that might possibly be encoun- ment of a measuring technique has led to new
tered; instead, basic principles of measurement ideas about the universe or about the nature of
and commonly used types of gages are empha- the thing being measured.! Until approximately
sized. Unusual or highly specialized measuring the middle of the seventeenth century, it was
devices, or ones that have particular application commonly believed that water rose in a suction
to some one type of machinery or equipment pump because ‘‘nature abhors a vacuum,’’2
aboard ship, are in general discussed in the The concept of a ‘‘sea of air’’ surrounding the
chapters of this text that deal with the particu-
lar equipment; where an unusual type of meas-
uring device is discussed in this chapter, it is
included chiefly as a means of bringing out tas Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) stated, "Nothing
some interesting or important aspect of mea- tends so much to the advancement of knowledge as the
application of a new instrument.'' (Quoted in Harvard
surement. Detailed information on most gages
Case Histories in Experimental Science, James Bryant
and instruments used aboard Ship can be obtained Conant, general editor, and LeonardK., Nash, associate
from manufacturers’ technical manuals and editor, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1957. Vol. 1, page
other instructional materials furnished with 119.)
shipboard engineering equipment.
>The explanation that "nature abhors a vacuum"! per-
sisted for quite some time in spite of the observed
THE CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT fact that water would not rise more than about 32
feet in the suction pumps of the time and in spite of
One of the primary ways in which we extend Galileo's observation that "Evidently nature's horror
our knowledge and understanding of the universe of a vacuum does not extend beyond 32 feet."'
119
si
Re TR
earth and exerting pressure upon it was very not be unreasonable to say that the thermometer
closely related to Torricelli’s experiments with had to be invented before we could arrive at an
a column of mercury in a glasstube. The notion understanding of the nature of heat, the relation-
that the air above us exerts a pressure was ship between heat and mechanics, and the prin-
not fully accepted until after Pascal had arranged ciple of the conservation of energy.
an experiment to test the hypothesis. Pascal
suggested using Torricelli’s new instrument, SYSTEMS, UNITS, AND STANDARDS
the barometer, at the base of a mountain and OF MEASUREMENT
then again at the top of the mountain. If the air
exerts a pressure, Pascal reasoned, the mer- Practically all units of measurement are
cury should stand higher in the glass column derived from a few basic quantities or funda-
at the base of the mountain than it should at the mental dimensions, as they are sometimes
top. The experiment was performed by Pascal’s called. In all commonly used systems of mea-
brother-in-law in 1648, and the prediction was surement, length and time are taken as two of
confirmed. Further experimentation and mea- the fundamental dimensions. A third is MASS in
surement by Robert Boyle and others led to the some systems and force (or weight) in others.
development of many important concepts con- In all systems, temperature is the fourth funda-
cerning the nature of air and other gases, and mental dimension.
led eventually to an understanding of the relation- The first three fundamental dimensions—
ship between the volume and the pressure of length, time, and either mass or force—are
a gas (Boyle’s law). sometimes called mechanical quantities or di-
Perhaps an even more striking example of mensions, All other important mechanical quan-
the effects of measurement upon our basic con- tities can be defined in terms of these three
cepts of the nature of things is to be found in fundamentals. Temperature, the fourth funda-
the study of heat. Quantitative studies of heat mental dimension, is in a different category
were not possible before the invention of the because it is not amechanical quantity. By using
thermometer.3 It was not until the middle of the three mechanical fundamental quantities and
the nineteenth century that the concept of heat the quantity of temperature, practically all
as a form of energy, rather thanas an invisible, quantities of any importance may be derived.
weightless fluid called ‘‘caloric,’’ was firmly It is often said that there are twosystems of
established. The persistence of the caloric measurement—a metric system and a British
theory to such a late date was due partly to system. Actually, however, there are several
faulty interpretations of experimental results; metric systems and several British systems.
but these faulty interpretations were at least in A more meaningful classification of systems of
part the result of difficulties of measurement. measurement can be made by saying that some
The downfall of the caloric theory was necessary systems are gravitational and others are abso-
before we could conceive of heat as energy, lute. In gravitational systems, the units of force
rather than as a nebulous kind of matter, and are defined in terms of the effects of the force
before we could understand the relationship of gravity upon a Standard sample of matter at
between heat and work.? In summary, it would a specified location on the surface of the earth.
In absolute systems, the units of force are de-
fined in terms that are completely independent
of the effects of the force of gravity. Thus a
3yoseph Black (1728-1799), commenting
on the discov- metric system could be either gravitational or
ery that heat tends to flow from hotter to colder bodies absolute, and a British system could be either
until a state of thermal equilibrium is reached, stated: gravitational or absolute, depending upon the
"No previous acquaintance with the peculiar relation of
terms in which force is defined inthe particular
each body to heat could have assured us of this, and we
owe the discovery entirely to the thermometer."' system.
(From Black's Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry, MASS AND WEIGHT
assembled from notes and published in 1803 by John
Robinson. Quoted in Harvard Case Histories in Ex- To understand what is meant by gravitational
perimental Science, op. cit., vol. 1, page 128.) and absolute systems of measurement, it is nec-
4 The relationship between heat and workis, of course, essary to have a clear understanding of the
basic to the entire field of engineering. Chapter 8 of difference between mass and weight. Mass, a
this text deals with this topic in considerable detail. measure of the total quantity of matter in an
120
Chapter 7—PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
object or body, is completely independent of the By definition, 1 newton is the force required to
force of gravity, so the mass of any given ob- accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram at the rate of 1
ject is always the same, no matter where it is meter per second per second. In other words,
located on the surface of the earth; indeed, the the unit of force is defined in such a way that
body would have the same mass even if it were unit force gives unit acceleration to unit mass.
located at the center of the earth, on the moon, ~The same thing holds true inthe other metric
in outer space, or anywhere else, Weight, on absolute system shown in table 7-1. In the
the other hand, is a measure of the force of metric absolute centimeter-gram-second (CGS)
attraction between the mass of the earth and system of measurement, the gram is the unit
the mass of another body or object. Since the of mass, the centimeter is the unit of length,
force of attraction between the earth and another the second is the unit of time, and centimeters
body is not identical in all places, the weight of per second (cm/sec2) is the unit of accelera-
a body depends upon the location of the body tion. In this system, the unit of force is called
with respect to the earth. a dyne. By definition, 1 dyne is the force re-
The relationship between mass and weight quired to accelerate a mass of 1 gram at the
can be understood from the equation rate of 1 centimeter per second per second.
Again, force is defined in such a way that unit
w= mg force gives unit acceleration to unit mass,
The same applies to the British absolute
where foot-pound-second (FPS) system of measure-
ment, where the pound is the unit of mass, the
w= weight foot is the unit of length, the second is the unit
m= mass of time, and feet per second per second is the
g = acceleration due to gravity unit of acceleration. In this system, the unit of
force is called a poundal. By definition, 1
The value for acceleration due to gravity poundal is the amount of force required to give
(normally represented by the letter g) is almost a mass of 1 pound an acceleration of 1 foot per
constant for bodies at or near the surface of the second per second. Again, force is defined in
earth. This value is approximately 32 feet per such a way that unit force gives unit accelera-
second per second in British systems of meas- tion to unit mass,
urement, 9.8 meters per second per second in Now let’s look at a British gravitational
one metric system, and 980 centimeters per system—the foot-pound-second (FPS) gravita-
second per second in another metric system. tional system that we use in the United States
More precise values of g, including variations for most everyday measurements. The foot is
that occur with changes in latitude and changes the unit of length, the pound is the unit of mass,
in elevation, may be obtained from physics and the second is the unit of time, and feet per
engineering textbooks and handbooks. second per second is the unit of acceleration.
In this system, the unit of force is called the
BASIC MECHANICAL UNITS pound, (Actually, it should be called the pound-
force; but this usage is rarely followed.) In
Table 7-1 shows the basic mechanical quan- this system. a force of 1 pound acting upon a
tities of length, mass or force, and time, to- mass of 1 pound produces an acceleration of 32
gether with a number of derived units, used in feet per second per second. Note that unit
several systems of measurement. By examin- force does not produce unit acceleration when
ing some of the units, we may see how force acting on unit mass; rather, unit force produces
is defined and thus see why each system is unit acceleration when acting on unit weight.
called ‘‘absolute’’ or ‘‘gravitational,’’ as the Since force is defined in gravitational terms,
case may be. rather than in absolute terms, we say that this
In the metric absolute meter-kilogram- is a gravitational system of measurement.
second (MKS) system of measurement, the unit The gravitational system that is usually
of mass is the kilogram, the unit of length is called the British Engineering System alsouses
the meter, the unit of time is the second, and the pound (or, more precisely, the pound-force)
the unit of acceleration is meters per second as the unit of force. But this system has its
per second. (This is sometimes written as own unit of mass: the slug. By definition, 1
m/sec2.) The unit of force is called a Newton. slug is the quantity of mass that is accelerated
121
147,183
Table 7-1.—Units of measurement in Several Common Systems.
MKS Metric CGS Metric British FPS British Engineer- British FPS
Absolute Absolute Absolute ing Gravitational Gravitational
System System System System System
Length meter (m) centimeter (cm) foot (ft) foot (ft) foot (ft)
Area square meter square centimeter square foot square foot square foot
(m?) (cm?) (ft?) (ft?) (ft?)
Volume cubic meter (m3) cubic centimeter cubic foot cubic foot al cubic foot
or liter (1) (cm3 or cc) or (£t3) (£3) (£t3)
milliliter (ml)
Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g) pound (lb) slug pound (lb)
ma
Force (Weight) newton dyne poundal (pdl) pound (lb) or pound (lb) or
(n, new, or nt) pound-force (lbf) pound-force (lbf)
Time second (sec) second (sec) second (sec) second (sec) second (sec)
Velocity m/sec cm/sec ft/sec ft/sec ft/sec
Acceleration m/sec2 em/sec2 ft/sec2 ft/sec2 ft/sec2
Pressure nt/m2 dynes /em2 pdl/ft2 Ib/ft2 or lbf/ft2 Ib/ft2 or lbf /ft2
Energy joule erg foot-poundal foot-pound (ft-lb) foot-pound (ft-lb)

(ft-pdl) or foot-pound- or foot-pound-force
force (ft-lbf) (ft-1bf)
Power watt ergs per second ft-pdl/sec ft-lb/sec or ft-lb/sec or

(erg /sec) ft-lbf/sec ft-lbf/sec
at the rate of 1 foot per second per second when used to express quite different ideas. Another
acted on by a force of 1 pound. In other words, source of confusion is the way in which the
1 slug equals 32 pounds, 2 slugs equals 64 pounds, various systems of measurement are used. In
and so forth. By using the slug as the unit of everyday life we use the British gravitational
mass, the British engineering system sets up FPS system. In scientific work we use one of
consistent units of measurement in which unit the metric systems. In engineering and other
force acting upon unit mass produces unit ac- technical fields we use a British system ora
celeration. Note, however, that this is still a metric system, depending upon the field in-
gravitational system rather than an absolute volved. The only way to avoid total confusion in
system, the use of measurement terms is to make sure
By this time it should be obvious that the that you understand the precise meaning of each
relationships expressed in one system of mea- term, as it relates to the particular system
surement do not necessarily hold when a dif- being used.
ferent system is used. When using anyparticular The units shown in table 7-1 are only a few
system, it is essential to understand the precise of the units that may be derived ineach system.
meaning of all terms uSed in that system. This For example, the unit of pressure shown for
is not always a simple matter, since there are both of the British gravitational systems is
an enormous number of possible combinations pounds per square foot (1b/ft2, or psf). How-
of units and in many cases the same word is ever, the unit pounds per square inch (1b/in2,
122
or psi) is equally acceptable and is very com- vary by multiples of 10. This makes computa-
monly used. Similar conversions can be made tions very simple. Another handy thing about
for any of the other units, as long as the basic the metric systems is that the prefixes for the
relationships of the system are accurately main- names of the units tell you the relative size of
tained. the units. Take the prefix kilo-, for example.
When converting values from a metric sys- Kilo-indicates 1000; so a kilogram is 1000
tem to a British system (or vice versa) it is grams, a kilometer is 1000 meters, and so forth.
necessary to understand the units used in each Or take the prefix milli-, for another example;
system. Most of us know quite a bit about the it indicates a thousandth. So 1 millimeter is 1
units commonly used in British systems, but thousandth of a meter, 1 milligram is 1 thou-
less about the units used in metric systems. sandth of a gram, and so forth. Perhaps the
A description of the basic structure of the metric best way to become familiar with the units in
systems follows. the metric systems is to associate the more
All metric systems of measurement are commonly used prefixes with the positive and
decimal systems—that is, the size of the units negative powers of 10, as shown in table 7-2.
Table 7-2. —Metric System Prefixes and Corresponding

Positive and Negative Powers of 10.
METRIC SYSTEM PREFIXES POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE POWERS OF 10
DEKA- or DECA 102) t=orrn0
HEC TO-
oe ie
KILO- 10° = 1000
MEGA- 10° 6 = 1,000,000
=e)
10m == SON ier 4/40)
ED a,
CENTI- 102 = 0.01 (or 1/100)
as,
MILLI- 10° = 0.001 (or 1/1000)
MICRO- 10°© = 0.000001

(or 1/1, 000, 000)
123
8
Table 7-3 gives some selected values for Bureau of Weights and Measures is in France.
mechanical units in British systems of mea- Each major country has its own bureauor office
surement. Table 7-4 gives some selected values charged with the responsibility of maintaining
for mechanical units in metric systems of the required measurement standards, including
measurement. Table 7-5 gives some British- the basic standards of length, mass, and time.
metric and metric-British equivalents. The ex- In the United States, the National Bureau of
amples given in these tables are chosen pri- Standards (NBS) is responsible for maintaining
marily to help you develop an understanding of basic standards and for prescribing precise
the relative sizes of the mechanical units. More measuring techniques.
complete tables are available in many physics
and engineering textbooks and handbooks. Length
Until quite recently, the international stand-

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT
ard of length was a platinum-iridium alloy bar
kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
The importance of having preciseand uniform Measures in France. By definition, the stand-
standards of measurement is recognized by all ard meter was the distance betweentwo parallel
the major countries of the world, and inter- lines marked on this bar, measured at 0°C.
national conferences on weights and measures Copies of this international standard were main-
are held from time to time. The International tained by other countries; the United States
Table 7-3. —Selected Values of Mechanical Units

in British Systems of Measurement.
TY PE OF MECHANICAL UNIT SELECTED VALUES
LENGTH 12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft)

3 ft = 1 yard (yd)
5280 ft = 1 mile (mi)
1760 yd 1 mi
144 square inches 1 square foot

(sq in. or in. 2) (sq ft or ft 2)
oft? =
1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot

(cu in. or in. 3) (cu ft or ft?)
a7 ft? = 1yd®
16 ounces (02) = 1 pound (1b)

2000 lb = lton
VELOCITY 60 miles per hour = 88 feet per second

(ft/sec) (mi/hr or mph)
124
Table 7-4. —Selected Values of Mechanical Units in

Metric Systems of Measurement.
TYPE OF MECHANICAL UNIT SELECTED VALUES
LENGTH 10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)

10 cm = 1 decimeter (dm)
10dm = 1 meter (m)
100 cm = 1 meter
1000 mm = 1 meter
10m = 1dekameter (dkm)
100 m = 1 hectometer (hm)
1000 m = 1 kilometer (km)
AREA 100 square millimeters (mm?) = lcm

100cm2 = idm
100dm2 = 1m?
VOLUME
1000 cubic millimeters (mm3) = lcm
1000cm® == 1dm
1000dm® = 1m°
1 milliliter (ml) = 1 oan

1000 ml = 1 liter (1)
100 centiliters (cl) = 1 liter
10 deciliters (dl) = lliter
MASS 1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g)

100 centigrams (cg) = 1gram
1000 grams 1 kilogram (kg)
standard meter bar was -maintained at the the orange-red light of krypton-86, and 1 inch
National Bureau of Standards in Washington, is equal to 41,929.399 wavelengths. A device
IDSs called an optical interferometer is used to de-
Note that the standard of length was the termine the number of the wavelengths of the
meter even for countries that were not on the orange-red light of krypton-86 in an unknown
metric system. The yard was defined in terms length.
of the meter, 1 yard being equalto0.9144 meter.
In 1960, the standard of length was changed Mass
by international agreement to an atomic con-
stant: the wavelength of the orange-red light The standard of mass is the mass ofa cylin-
emitted by individual atoms of krypton-86 ina der of platinum-iridium alloy defined as having
tube filled with krypton gas in which an elec- a mass of 1kilogram. The international standard
trical discharge is maintained. By definition, 1 kilogram mass is kept at the International
meter is equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. The
125
Table 7-5. —Selected British-Metric and Metric-British Conversions.
TYPE OF
MECHANICAL BRITISH-METRIC CONVERSIONS METRIC-BRITISH CONVERSIONS
UNIT
LENGTH linch = 2.540 centimeters 1 centimeter = 0. 3937 inch

1 foot = 0.3048 meter 1 meter = 39.37 inches
1 yard = 0.9144 meter 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers
1 mile = 1609. 3 meters
AREA 1in.? = 6.452 cm? 100 mm?= 0. 15499 in. 2

1t? = 929 cm? 100 cm? = 15.499 in.”
1 yd” = 0.8361 m2 100 m@ = 119.6 yd”
1 mi? = 2.59 km? 1km?= 0.386 mi2
VOLUME 3 3 3
lin.® = 16.387cm 1000 mm? = 0.06102 in.?
1ft 3 = 0.0283 m° 1000 cm® = 61.02 in.°
Lyd? = 0: 7646 m- ee SS Gauge
23) int = 3. 7853 liters lliter = 1.0567 liquid quarts
WEIGHT 1 grain = 0.0648 gram lgram = 15.4324 grains

1 ounce = 23. 3495 grams lgram = 0.03527 ounce
1 pound = 453.592 grams lgram = 0.002205 pound
1 pound = 0. 4536 kilograms 1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds
United States standard kilogram mass is kept When the national standard is compared on
at the National Bureau of Standards. a precision balance with high precision copies,
The standard of mass is kept in a vault. Not the copies are found to be accurate to within
more than once a year, the standard is removed one part in 100 million.
from the vault and used for checking the values
of smaller standards. The United States stand- Time
ard kilogram mass has been taken to France
twice in the last seven years for comparison Before 1960, the standard of time was the
with the international standard. Every precau- mean solar second—that is, 1/86,400 of a mean
tion is taken to keep the kilogram standard mass solar day, as determined by successive ap-
in perfect condition, free of nicks, scratches, pearances of the sun overhead, averaged over a
and corrosion. The standard is always handled year. In 1960, the standard of time was changed
with forceps; it is never touched by human to the tropical year 1900, which is the time it
hands. took the sun to move from a designated point
126
back to the same point in the year 1900. used to define a fairly large temperature in-
By definition, 1 second was equal to terval which was then subdivided into the uni-
1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year 1900. form smaller intervals called degrees. The two
The subdivision of the tropical year 1900 into most familizr temperature scales constructed
smaller time intervals was accomplished by in this manner are the Ceisius scale and the
means of laboratory-type pendulum clocks, Fahrenheit scale.
together with observation of natural phenomena
The Celsius scale is often called the centi-
such as the nightly movement of the stars and
grade scale in the United States and Great
the moon.
Britain. By international agreement, however,
Although the standard of time was changed
the name was changed from centigrade to Cel-
to the tropical year 1900 in 1960, the same
sius in honor of the eighteenth-century Swedish
General Conference of Weights and Measures
astronomer, Anders Celsius. The symbol for
that approved this change also urged that work
a degree on this scale (no matter whether it is
go forward on the development of an atomic
called Celsius or centigrade) is °C. The Cel-
clock. In1967, the General Conference of Weights
sius scale takes 0° C as the freezing point and
and Measures adopted as the basic standard
100° C as the boiling point of pure water at
of time the time required for the transition
atmospheric pressure. The Fahrenheit scale
between two energy states of the cesium-133
takes 32° F as the freezing point and 212° F
atom. In accordance with this standard, 1 second
as the boiling point of pure water at atmospheric
is defined as 9,192,631,770 cycles of this parti-
pressure. The interval between freezing point
cular transition in the cesium-133 atom.
and boiling point is divided into 100 degrees
The United States standard of time is main-
on the Celsius scale and divided into 180 degrees
tained by a cesium clock which is kept at the
on the Fahrenheit scale,
National Bureau of Standards laboratories in
Boulder, Colorado. The time signals that are Since the actual value of the interval between
broadcast by four radio stations operated by freezing point and boiling point is identical, it
the National Bureau of Standards are based on is apparent that numerical readings on Celsius
this cesium clock. and Fahrenheit thermometers have no absolute
Significance and that the size of the degree is
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE arbitrarily chosen for each scale. The relation-
ship between degrees Celsius and degrees
Temperature is measured by bringing a Fahrenheit is given by the formulas
measuring system (such as a thermometer) into
contact with the system in which we need to
oR "C+ 32
measure the temperature. We then measure
some property of the measuring system--the
expansion of a liquid, the pressure of a gas, °C l| (°F = 32)
electromotive force, electrical resistance, or alo
olan
some other mechanical, electrical, or optical
property that has a definite and known relation- Many people have trouble remembering these
ship with temperature. Thus we infer the tem- formulas, with the result that they either get
perature of the measured system by the mea- them mixed up or have to look them up ina
surement of some property of the measuring book every time a conversion is necessary. If
system, you concentrate on trying toremember the basic
But the measurement of a property other relationships given by these formulas, you may
than temperature will take us only so far in find it easier to make conversions. The essen-
utilizing the measurement of temperature. For tial points to remember are these:
convenience in cOmparing temperatures and in
1. Celsius degrees are larger than Fahren-
noting changes in temperature, we must be able
heit degrees. One Celsius degree is equal to1.8
to assign a numerical value toany given tem-
Fahrenheit degrees, and each Fahrenheit degree
perature. Forthis we needtemperature scales.
is only 5/9 of a Celsius degree.
Until 1954, temperature scales were con-
structed around the boiling point and the freezing 2. The zero point on the Celsius scale re-
point of pure water at atmospheric pressure. presents exactly the same temperature as the
These two fixed and reproducible points were 32-degree point on the Fahrenheit scale.
127
Se eee ie en e+ terre ee or
3. The temperatures 100° C and 212° F Although the triple point of water is con-
are identical. sidered the basic or fundamental reference for
In some scientific and engineering work, the International Practical Temperature Scale,
particularly where heat calculations are five other fixed points are used to help define
involved, an absolute temperature scale is used. the scale. These are the freezing point of gold,
The zero point on an absolute temperature scale the freezing point of silver, the boiling point of
is the point called absolute zero. Absolute zero sulfur, the boiling point of water, andthe boiling
is determined theoretically, rather than by point of oxygen.
actual measurement. Since the pressure of a Figure 7-1 is a comparison of the Kelvin
gas at constant volume is directly proportional (International-Practical), Celsius, Fahrenheit,
to the temperature, it is logical to assume that and Rankine (Fahrenheit-Absolute) temperature
the pressure of a gas is a valid measure of scales. All of the temperature points listed
its temperature. On this assumption, the lowest above absolute zero are considered as fixed
possible temperature (absolute zero) is defined points on the Kelvin scale except for the freez-
as the temperature at which the pressure of a ing point of water. The other scales, as pre-
gas would be zero. viously mentioned, are based on the freezing
Two absolute temperature scales have been and boiling points of water.
in use for many years. The rankine absolute
scale is an extension of the Fahrenheit scale; TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES
it is sometimes called the Fahrenheit absolute
Since temperature is one of the basic en-
scale. Degrees on the Rankine scale are the
gineering variables, temperature measurement
same size as degrees on the Fahrenheit scale,
is essential to the proper operation of a ship-
but the zero point on the Rankine scale is at
board engineering plant. The temperature of
-459.67 ° Fahrenheit. In other words, absolute
steam, water, fuel oil, lubricating oil, and other
zero is zero on the Rankine scale and -459.67
vital fluids must be measured at frequent in-
degrees on the Fahrenheit scale.
tervals and the results of this measurement
A second absolute scale, the kelvin, is more
must in many cases be entered in engineering
widely used than the Rankine. The Kelvin scale
records and logs.
was originally conceived as an extension of the
Devices usedfor measuring temperature may
Celsius scale, with degrees of the same size
be classified in various ways. In this discussion
but with the zero point shifted to absolute zero,
we will consider the two major categories of
Absolute zero on the Celsius scale is -273.15° C,
(1) expansion thermometers, and (2) pyrometers.
In 1954, a new international absolute scale
was developed. The new scale was based upon Expansion Thermometers
one fixed point, rather than two. The one fixed
Expansion thermometers operate on the
point was the triple point of water--that is,
principle that the expansion of solids, liquids,
the point at which all three phases of water
and gases has a known relationship to tempera-
(solid, liquid, and vapor) can exist together in
ture changes. The types of expansion thermome-
equilibrium. The triple point of water, which
ters discussed here are (1) liquid-in-glass
is 0.01° C above the freezing point of water,
thermometers, (2) bimetallic expansion ther-
was chosen because it can be reproduced with
mometers, and (3) filled-system expansion
much greater accuracy than either the freezing
thermometers.
point or the boiling point. On this new scale,
the triple point was given the value 273.16 K.
LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS.—
Note that neither the word ‘‘degrees’’ nor the
Liquid-in-glass thermometers are probably the
symbol © is used; instead, the unit is called
oldest, the simplest, and the most widely used
a ‘‘kelvin’’ and the symbol is K rather than
devices for measuring temperature. A liquid-
make
in-glass thermometer (fig. 7-2) consists of a
In 1960, when the triple point of water was bulb and a very fine bore capillary tube con-
finally adopted as the fundamental reference taining mercury, mercury-thallium, alcohol,
for this temperature scale, the scale was given toluol, or some other liquid which expands
the nameof International Practical Temperature uniformly as the temperature rises and con-
Scale. However, you will often see this scale tracts uniformly as the temperature falls. The
referred to as the Kelvin scale. selection of liquid is based on the temperature
128
(K) (°C) (°F) (°R)
1336.2 1063.0 2405.07

FREEZING POINT OF GOLD -
2221.07
FREEZING POINT OF SILVER— NWESGHe) SEOs
BOILING POINT OF SULFUR—-

——— — +t. 717.
Weds atte; mn : ait
BOILING POINT OF WATER-— us le373.15 1, 671.67
491.708
TRIPLE POINT OF WATER
FREEZING POINT OF WATER
BOILING POINT OF OXYGEN—~——
ABSOLUTE ---ZERO — — — — — —— -
CONVERSION FACTORS
TEMP F + 40= 1,8 (TEMP C+40) KELVIN CELSIUS FAHRENHEIT RANKINE
TEMP F = 1,8 (TEMP C) + 32 (INTERNATIONAL— (FAHRENHEI T—
TEMP C = (TEMP F -32)/ 1.8 PRACTICAL) ABSOLUTE)
TEMP K= TEMP C + 273.15
33.11(147B)
Figure 7-1.—Comparison of Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine temperature.
range in which the thermometer is to be used. affect the reading. The space above the liquid
Mercury (or mercury-thallium) is commonly in this type of thermometer may be a vacuum
used because it is a liquid over a wide range or it may be filled with an inert gas such as
of temperatures (—60° to 1200°F) and because nitrogen, argon, or carbon dioxide.
it has anearly constant coefficient of expansion.
Almost all liquid-in-glass thermometers are The capillary bore may be either round or
sealed so that atmospheric pressure will not elliptical. In any case, it is very small so that
a relatively small expansion or contraction of
the liquid will cause a relatively large change
in the position of the liquid inthe capillary tube.
5Not all liquids are suitable for use inthermometers. Although the capillary bore itself is very small
Water, for example, would be an almost impossible in diameter, the walls of the capillary tube are
choice as a thermometric liquid at ordinary temper-
quite thick. Most liquid-in-glass thermometers
atures because its coefficient of expansion varies
enormously at temperatures near 0° C. Inthe temper-
are made with an expansion chamber at the top
ature range between 0° C and 4° C, water expands of the bore to provide a margin of safety for
when cooled and contracts when heated; thus it actually the instrument if it should accidentally be over-
has a negative coefficient of expansion in this range. heated.
129
Liquid-in-glass thermometers may have ship for the 5-inch scale liquid-in-glass ther-
graduations etched directly on the glass stem mometers.
or the graduations may be carried onaseparate Most liquid-in-glass thermometers used
strip of material which is placed behind the aboard ship are provided with wells or separable
stem. Many thermometers used in shipboard sockets. The well is installed in the piping sys-
engineering plants have the graduations marked tem or equipment where the temperature is to
on a separate strip, since this type is in general be measured, and the thermometer glass bulb
easier to read than the type which has the and part of the glass stem are fitted into a thin
graduations marked directly on the stem. metal protection tube, packed with a heat-
Liquid-in-glass thermometers are made in transfer material, and fastened in place in the
various designs. The stem may be straight or well. The well is made of metals that will
it may be angled in various ways, depending withstand the temperatures, pressures, and
upon the requirements of service. The thermom- fluid velocities without damage; it protects the
eters may be armored or they may be partially glass sensing bulb against damage and also
enclosed by a metal case, if such protection is eliminates the need for closing down a system
necessary. Several types of angle-stem liquid- Or securing a piece of machinery merely in
in-glass thermometers of the type commonly order to replace a thermometer.
used aboard ship are shown in figure 7-3. These One disadvantage of the well type of instal-
thermometers are uSed in 5-inch, 7-inch, and lation is that a certain amount of time is re-
9-inch scale lengths. However, bimetallic ther- quired for the thermometer to reach thermal
mometers are currently being substituted aboard equilibrium with the system in which the tem-
perature is being measured. To some extent,
the time lag can be decreased by filling the space
fener CHAMBER around the bulb in the well with a heat transfer
<— STEM medium such as graphite. Where rapid response
to temperature changes is a vital requirement,
7*T-— CAPILLARY BORE however, bare bulb thermometers are used in-
stead of the well type of installation. Bare bulb
thermometers have very much faster response
to changes in temperature, but they cannot be
GRADUATIONS removed for replacement or servicing while
the machinery is operating or the line is under
pressure.
MENISCUS
45° RECLINED ANGLE 45° INCLINED

ANGLE
LIQUID COLUMN
LEFT SIDE ANGLE
BULB
61.26
33.11(147A) Figure 7-3.—Angle-stem liquid-in-glass
Figure 7-2.—Liquid-in-glass thermometer. thermometers.
130
Where special requirements exist, special ing mercury in the bulb forces mercury past
types of liquid-in-glass thermometers are used. the constriction in the bore. When the tempera-
For example, maximum and minimum indica- ture falls, the mercury does not return to the
ting thermometers are uSed in magazines aboard bulb. Why? Even if the thermometer were in an
ship, for weather observations, and for various upright position, the constriction in the bore
other applications where it is necessary to would prevent the normal return flow of mercury
know the highest and the lowest temperatures by gravity: in addition, the maximum indicating
that have occurred during a certain interval thermometer is mounted with the bulb a few
of time. One type of maximum indicating ther- degrees above the horizontal position, so that the
mometer is shown in figure 7-4, and one type mercury column slopes downward from the con-
of minimum indicating thermometer is shown striction. Thus the thermometer always indi-
in figure 7-5. cates the highest temperature that has been
The maximum indicating thermometer shown reached since the instrument was last set. Ex-
in figure 7-4 is a mercury thermometer with pansion and contraction of the mercury in the
a special constriction in the bore. When the bore above the constriction does occur with
temperature rises, the pressure of the expand- temperature changes, but it is so slight as to
SUPPORT
CONSTRICTION
IN BORE
: ga
5° ABOVE
HORIZONTAL
LOWER CAREFULLY
TO VERTICAL
POSITION TO READ
5.65A
Figure 7-4.—Maximum indicating thermometer.
INVERT FOR MIN. TEMP.

CURRENT
TEMP.
CURRENT & MIN.
TEMPERATURE
SETTING HERE
5° BELOW
HORIZONTAL
\ BLACK GLASS
INDEX
9.65B
Figure 7-5.—Minimum indicating thermometer.
131
be negligible for most purposes because only a

very small amount of mercury is contained in
the very narrow bore.
COLD
The minimum indicating thermometer shown
in figure 7-5 is analcohol-in-glass thermometer
with an unusually large bore. The upper part of
the bore is filled with air under pressure to help
prevent evaporation of the alcohol. The ther- THIS METAL HAS GREATER
mometer is mounted with the bulb a fewdegrees COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR
below the horizontal position. A dumbbell-shaped EXPANSION
piece of black glass (called an index) is the
device that makes possible a reading of the mini-
mum temperature that has occurred since the
thermometer was last set. As the temperature
increases, the alcohol readily flows upward past
THIS METAL HAS
the index without moving it. As the temperature SMALLER COEFFICIENT
decreases, the retreating alcohol column flows OF LINEAR EXPANSION
past the index until the top of the column touches
the upper end of the index. With a further de- 147.53
crease in temperature, the alcohol retreats still Figure 7-6.—Effect of unequal expansion of
more and surface tension causes the index tobe bimetallic strip.
earried along down with the column. If the tem-
perature increases again, the index is left un- For use in thermometers, the bimetallic
disturbed at its lowest point while the alcohol strip is normally wound into a flat spiral (fig.
column rises again. Thus the top of the index 7-7), a single helix, or a multiple helix. The
always indicates the lowest temperature that has end of the strip that is not fixed in position is
occurred since the thermometer was last set. fastened to the end of a pointer which moves
over a circular scale. Bimetallic thermometers
BIMETALLIC EXPANSION THERMOM- are easily adapted for use as recording ther-
ETER.—Bimetallic expansion thermometers mometers; a pen is attached to the pointer and
make use of the fact that different metals have is positioned in such a way that it marks ona
different coefficients of linear expansion.~ The revolving chart.
essential element in a bimetallic expansion Bimetallic thermometers used aboard ship
thermometer is a bimetallic strip consisting of are normally used in thermometer wells. The
two layers of different metals fused together. wells are interchangeable with those used for
When such a strip is subjected to temperature mercury-in-glass thermometers.
changes, one layer expands or contracts more
than the other, thus tending to change the cur- FILLED-SYSTEM THERMOMETERS.—In
vature of the strip. general, filled-system thermometers are de-
The basic principle of a bimetallic expansion signed for use in locations where the indicating
thermometer is illustrated in figure 7-6. When part of the instrument must be placed some
one end of a straight bimetallic strip is fixed in distance away from the point where the tem-
place, the other end tends to curve away from the perature is to be measured.” For this reason
side that has the greater coefficient of linear they are often called distant-reading thermom-
expansion when the strip is heated. eters.
A filled-system thermometer (fig. 7-8) con-
sists essentially of a hollow metal sensing bulb
S-rhe coefficient of linear expansion is defined as the ‘This is not true of all filled-system thermometers,
change in length per unit length per degree change in In a few designs the capillary tubing is extremely short
temperature. As is apparent from this definition, the and in a few it is nonexistent. In general, however,
numerical value of the coefficient of linear expansion filled-system thermometers are designed to be dis-
is independent of the units in which the length is ex- tant-reading thermometers, and most of them do in
pressed but is not independent of the temperature scale fact serve this purpose. Some distant-reading ther-
chosen. ae mometers may have capillaries as long as 125 feet,
132
at one end of a small-bore capillary tube, con-

nected at the other endtoa Bourdon tube or other
device which responds to volume changes or to
pressure changes. The system is partially or
completely filled with a fluid which expands when
heated and contracts when cooled. The fluid may
be a gas, mercury, an organic liquid, ora com-
bination of liquid and vapor.
The device usually used to indicate tempera-
ture changes by its response to volume changes
or to pressure changes is called a Bourdon
tube.8 A Bourdon tube is a curved or twisted
tube which is open at one end and sealed at the
other. The open end of the tube is fixed in posi-
tion and the sealed end is free to move. The
tube is more or less elliptical in cross section;
it does not form a true circle. The cross section
of a noncircular tube which is sealed at one end
tends to become more circular when there isan
increase in the volume or in the internal pres- 147.54
sure of the contained fluid, and this tends to Figure 7-7.—Bimetallic thermometer
straighten the tube. Opposing this action, the (flat spiral element).
spring action of the tube metal tends to coil the
tube.” Since the open end of the Bourdon tube the filling fluid and those in which the Bourdon
is rigidly fastened, the sealed end moves as tube responds primarily to changes in the pres-
the volume or pressure of the contained fluid sure of the filling fluid. Obviously, there is
changes. When a pointer is attached to the sealed always some pressure effect in volumetric
end of the tube through appropriate linkages, thermometers and some volumetric effect in
and when the assembly is placed over anappro-
priately calibrated dial, the result isa Bourdon-
tube gage that may be used for measuring tem-
perature or pressure, depending upon the design
of the gage and the calibration of the scale.
Bourdon tubes are made in several shapes
for various applications. The C-shaped Bourdon
tube shown in figure 7-9 is perhaps the most
commonly used type; spiral and helical Bourdon
tubes are used where design requirements in-
clude the need for a longer length of Bourdon
tube.
There are two basic types of filled-system
thermometers: those in which the Bourdon tube
responds primarily to changes in the volume of
8 Bourdon tubes are sometimes called Bourdon springs,

Bourdon elements, or simply Bourdons. Other devices
such as bellows or diaphragms are used in some
filled-system thermometers, but they are by no means
as common as the Bourdon tube for this application.
®The precise nature of Bourdon-tube movement with
pressure and volume changes is extremely complex
and not completely describable in purely analytical
terms, Bourdon-tube instruments are designed for 61.28X
specific applications on the basis of a series of em- Figure 7-8.—Distant-reading Bourdon-tube
pirical observations and tests. thermometer.
133
junction) and the reference junctions (cold junc-

tions), the indicating instrument can be marked
SEALED END off to indicate degrees of temperature even
(FREE TO MOVE) though it is actually measuring emf’s. The indi-
cating instrument is a millivoltmeter or some
BOURDON other electrical device capable of measuring
TUBE and indicating small direct-current emf’s. The
strips or wires of dissimilar metals are welded,
twisted, fused, or otherwise firmly joined to-
gether. The extension leads are usually of the
TIP same metals as the thermocouple itself.
TRAVEL
REFERENCE JUNCTIONS
STATIONARY METAL A (COLD JUNCTIONS)
SOCKET
RNcaIOW INDICATING
(HOT ——> INSTRUMENT i
JUNCTION) (MILLIVOLTMETER,
POTENTIOMETER,
TC,
ETC.)
METAL B
EXTENSION
LEADS
PRESSURE
CONNECTION 147.55
Figure 7-10.—Simple thermocouple.
38.211(147B)
Figure 7-9.—C-shaped Bourdon tube. RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS.—Resist-
ance thermometers are based on the principle
pressure thermometers; the distinction deals that the electrical resistance of a metal changes
with the major response of the Bourdon tube. with changes in temperature. A resistance ther-
mometer is thus actually an instrument which
Pyrometers measures electrical resistance but which is
The term pyrometer is used to include a calibrated in degrees of temperature rather than
number of temperature measuring devices in units of electrical resistance.
which, in general, are suitable for use at rela- The sensitive element in a resistance ther-
tively high temperatures; some pyrometers, mometer is a winding of small diameter nickel,
however, are also suitable for use at low tem- platinum, or other metallic wire. The resistance
peratures. The types of pyrometers we are winding is located in the lower end of a bulb
concerned with here include thermocouple (sometimes called a stem); it is electrically but
pyrometers, resistance thermometers, radia- not thermally insulated from the stem. The re-
tion pyrometers, and optical pyrometers. sistance winding is connected by two, three, or
four leads to the circuit of the indicating instru-
THERMOCOUPLE PYROMETERS.— The opment. The circuit isa Wheatstone bridge or some
eration of a thermocouple pyrometer (sometimes other simple circuit which contains known re-
called a thermoelectric pyrometer) is based on sistances with which the resistance of the ther-
the observed fact that an electromotive force mometer winding is compared.
(emf)10 is generated when the two junctions of
two dissimilar metals are at different tempera- RADIATIONAND OPTICAL PYROMETERS.—
tures. A simple thermocouple is illustrated in Radiation and optical pyrometers are used to
figure 7-10. Since the electromotive force gen- measure very high temperatures. Both types of
erated is proportional to the temperature dif- pyrometers measure temperature by measuring
ference between the measuring junction (hot the amount of energy radiated by the hot object.
The main difference between the two types is in
10 Basic information on electricity is given in chapter their range of sensitivity; radiation pyrometers
20 of this text. are (theoretically, at least) sensitive to the
134
entire spectrum of radiant energy, while optical slightly to balance the potentiometer. The poten-
pyrometers are sensitive to only one wavelength tiometer measures filament current but the dial
or to a very narrow band of wavelengths. is calibrated in degrees of temperature.As may
Figure 7-11 illustrates schematically the be noted from this description, this type of opti-
general operating principle of a simple radia- cal pyrometer requires a certain amount of skill
tion pyrometer. Radiant energy from the hot and judgment on the part of the operator. In
object is concentrated on the detecting device some other types of optical pyrometers, auto-
by means of a lens or, in some cases, a conical matic operation is achieved by use of photo-
mirror or a combination of mirror and lens. electric cells arranged in a bridge network.
The detecting device may be a thermocouple, a
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
thermopile (that is, a group of thermocouples
in series), a photocell, or some other element Pressure, like temperature, is one of the
in which some electrical quantity (emf, resist- basic engineering variables and one that must
ance, etc.) varies as the temperature of the frequently be measured aboard ship. Before tak-
hot object varies. The meter or indicated part ing up the devices used to measure pressure, let
of the instrument may be a millivoltmeter or us consider certain definitions that are important
some similar device. in any discussion of pressure measurement.
An optical pyrometer measures temperature
by comparing visible light emitted by the hot PRESSURE DEFINITIONS
object with light from a standard source. A
common type of optical pyrometer is shown in Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
figure 7-12. This instrument consists of an The simplest pressure units
are ones that
eyepiece, a telescope which contains a filament indicate how much force is applied to an area
similar to the filament of an electric light bulb of a certain size. These units include pounds
and a potentiometer. per square inch, pounds per square feet, ounces
The person operating the optical pyrometer per square inch, newtons per square millimeter,
looks through the eyepiece and focuses the and dynes per square centimeter, depending upon
telescope on the hot object, meanwhile also the system being used.
observing the tin glowing filament across the You will also find another kind of pressure
field of the telescope. While watching the hot unit, and this type appears to involve length.
object and the filament, the operator adjusts These units include inches of water, inches of
the filament current (and consequently the mercury (Hg), and inches of some other liquid
brightness of the filament) by turning a knob on of known density. Actually, these units do not
the potentiometer until the filament seems to involve length as a fundamental dimension.
disappear and to merge with the hot object. Rather, length is taken as a measure of force
When the filament current has been adjusted or weight. For example, a reading of 1 inch of
so that the filament just matches the hot object water (1 in. H90) means that the exerted pres-
in brightness, the operator turns another knob sure is able to support a column of water 1 inch
DETECTING ELEMENT
NONREFLECTING (THERMOPILE, PHOTOCELL, ETC.)
TUBE
PEEPHOLE
INDICATING INSTRUMENT
(MILLIVOLTMETER, POTENTIOMETER,
ETC.)
147.56
Figure 7-11.—Simple radiation pyrometer.
135
102.20X
Figure 7-12.—Optical pyrometer.
high, or that a column of water in a U-tube 1 in. H90 = 0.074 in. Hg

would be displaced 1 inch by the pressure being 1 in. Hg = 13.6 in. H,O
measured. Similarly, a reading of 12 inches of
mercury (12 in. Hg) means that the measured In interpreting pressure measurements, a
pressure is sufficient to support a column of great deal of confusion arises because the zero
mercury 12 inches high. What is really being point on most pressure gages represents at-
expressed (even though it is not mentioned in the mospheric pressure rather than zero absolute
pressure unit) is the fact that a certain quantity pressure. Thus it is often necessary to specify
of material (water, mercury, etc.) of known the kind of pressure being measured under any
density will exert a certain definite force upon given conditions. To clarify the numerous mean-
a specified area. Pressure is still force per ings of the word pressure, the relationships
unit area, even if the pressure unit refers to among gage pressure, atmospheric pressure,
inches of some liquid. vacuum, and absolute pressure, is illustrated
It is often necessary to convert from one in figure 7-13.
type of pressure unit to another. Complete con- Gage Pressure is the pressure actually shown
version tables may be found in many texts and on the dial of a gage that registers pressure at
handbooks. Conversion factors for pounds per or above atmospheric pressure. An ordinary
square inch, inches of mercury, and inches of pressure gage reading of zero does not mean
water are: that there is no pressure in the absolute sense;
rather, it means that there is no pressure in
1 in. Hg= 0.49 psi
excess of atmospheric pressure.
1 psi = 2.036 in. Hg
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exert-
1 in. H9O0= 0.036 psi ed by the weight of the atmosphere. At sea level,
1 psi = 27.68 in. HO the average pressure of the atmosphere is
PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP pressure in the space and the pressure of the

atmosphere. Most commonly, vacuum is ex-
pressed in inches of mercury, with the vacuum
gage scale marked from 0 to 30 inches of mer-
cury. When a vacuum gage reads zero, the pres-
30 PSIA | 15.3 PSiG| GAGE sure in the space is the same as atmospheric
| —__}, = =~ PRESSURE pressure—or, in other words, there is no
| (PSIG)
vacuum. A vacuum gage reading of 29.92 inches
of mercury would indicate a perfect (or nearly
perfect) vacuum. In actual practice, it is im-
possible to obtain a perfect vacuum even under
laboratory conditions.
ABSOLUTE } 14.7 PSIA| ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE | 0 PSIG
Absolute pressure is atmospheric pressure
PRESSURE (AVERAGE AT SEALEVEL) | OIn.Hg.
(PSIA) plus gage pressure or minus vacuum. For exam-
ple, a gage pressure of 300 psig equals an
VACUUM absolute pressure of 314.7 psia (300 + 14.7). Or,
(In.Hg.) for example, consider a space in which the
measured vacuum is 10 inches of mercury
O PSIA ___|,29.92 In.Hg
vacuum; the absolute pressure in this space
must then be 19.92 or approximately 20 inches
of mercury absolute. It is important to note that
147,181
the amount of pressure in a space under vacuum
Figure 7-13.—Relationships among gage pres-
can only be expressed in terms of absolute
sure, atmospheric pressure, vacuum, and
pressure.
absolute pressure.
You may have noticed that sometimes we say
sufficient to hold a column of mercury at the psig to indicate gage pressure and other times
height of 76.0 millimeters or 29.92 inches of we merely say psi. By common convention, gage
mercury. Since a column of mercury 1 inchhigh pressure is always assumed when pressure is
exerts a pressure of 0.49 pound per square inch, given in pounds per square inch, pounds per
a column of mercury 29.92 inches high exerts a square foot, or similar units. The ‘“‘g”’ (for
pressure that is equal to 29.92 x 0.49, or ap- gage) is added only when there is some possi-
proximately 14.7 psi. Since we are dealing now in bility of confusion. Absolute pressure, on the
absolute pressure, we say that the average other hand, is always expressed as pounds per
atmospheric pressure at sealevelis 14.7 pounds square inch absolute (psia), pounds per square
per square inch absolute. It is zero on the foot absolute (psfa), and so forth. It is always
ordinary pressure gage. necessary to establish clearly just what kind of
pressure we are talking about, unless this is
Notice, however, that the figure of 14.7
very clear from the nature of the discussion.
pounds per square inch absolute (psia) repre-
sents the average atmospheric pressure at sea To this point, we have considered only the
level, and does not always represent the actual most basic and most common units of measure-
pressure being exerted by the atmosphereat the ment. It is important to remember that hundreds
moment that a gage is being read. of other units can be derived from these units,
and that specialized fields require specialized
Barometric pressure is the term used to
units of measurement. Additional units of meas-
describe the actual atmospheric pressure that
urement are introduced in appropriate places
exists at any given moment. Barometric pres-
throughout the remainder of this training man-
sure may be measured by a simple mercury
ual. When you encounter more complicated units
column or by a specially designed instrument
of measurement, you may find it helpful to re-
called an aneroid barometer.
view the basic information given here previously.
A space in which the pressure is less than
PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES
atmospheric pressure is said to be under
vacuum. The amount of vacuum is expressed in Most pressure measuring devices used
terms of the difference between the absolute aboard ship utilize mechanical pressure
elements.!1 There are two major classes of

mechanical pressure elements: (1) liquid-col- VACUUM
umn elements, and (2) elastic elements.
Liquid-Column Elements
Liquid-column pressure measuring elements ee 30

include the devices commonly referred to as
barometers and manometers. Liquid-column MERCURY
elements are simple, reliable, and accurate. 25
They are used particularly (although not exclu- wn
sively) for the measurement of relatively low r
pressures or small pressure differentials. © —————
_ 20) (©
2
Liquids commonly used in this type of pressure aii
1
gage include mercury, water, and alcohol. 4

One of the simplest kinds of liquid-column [See
elements is the fixed-cistern barometer (fig. 7- ATMOSPHERIC a
PRESSURE IN
14) which is used to measure atmospheric pres- INCHESOF
sure. Mercury is always used as the liquid in ATMOSPHERIC MERCURY he
PRESSURE
this type of instrument. Atmospheric pressure
acts upon the open surface of the mercury in
-t— 5
the cistern. Since the tube is openatthe cistern
end, and since there iS a vacuum above the
mercury in the tube, the height of the mercury act
in the tube is at all times an indication of the
existing atmospheric (barometric) pressure.
MERCURY FILLED CISTERN
A simple U-tube liquid-column element for
measuring absolute pressure is shown in figure
7-15. The liquid used in this device is mercury.
There is a vacuum above the mercury at the 69.86(147B)
closed end of the tube; the open end of the tube Figure 7-14.—Simple Barometer (fixed cistern)
is exposed to the pressure to be measured. The for measuring atmospheric pressure.
absolute pressure is indicated by the difference
in the height of the two mercury columns. gages. Bourdon-tube elements are suitable for
Manometers are available in many different the measurement of very high pressures, up to
sizes and designs. Some are installed in such 100,000 psig. The upper limit for bellows ele-
a way that the U-tube is readily recognizable, ments is about 800 psig and for diaphragm ele-
as in part A of figure 7-16; but in some designs ments about 400 psig. Diaphragm elements and
the U-tube is inverted or inclined at an angle. bellows elements are commonly used for the
The so-called single-tube or straight-tube measurement of very high vacuum (or very low
manometer (part B of fig. 7-16) is actually a absolute pressure) but Bourdon tubes can be
U-tube in which only one leg is made of glass. used for such applications.
Elastic Elements BOURDON-TUBE ELASTIC ELEMENTS.—

Bourdon-tube elements uSed in pressure gages
Elastic elements used for pressure mea- are essentially the same as those described for
surement include Bourdon tubes, bellows, and use in filled-system thermometers. Bourdon
diaphragms. All three types of elastic elements tubes for pressure gages are made of brass,
are suitable for use in pressure gages, vacuum phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-
gages, and compound (both pressure and vacuum) copper, or other metals, depending upon the
requirements of Service.
Bourdon-tube pressure gages are often clas-
1 strain gages and other electrical pressure measur- sified as simplex or duplex, depending upon
ing devices are not included in this discussion; they whether they measure one pressure or two. A
are rarely used aboard ship. simplex gage such as the one shown in figures
138
7-17, 7-18, and 7-19 has only one Bourdon tube

and measures only one pressure. (The pointer
PRESSURE marked RED HAND in figure 7-17 is a manually
BEING—~— positioned hand that is set tothe normal working
MEASURED pressure of the machinery or equipment on
which the gage is installed; the hand marked
POINTER is the only hand that moves in re-
sponse to pressure changes.)
When two Bourdon tubes are mounted in a
MERCURY single case, with each mechanism acting inde-
pendently but with the two pointers mounted on
HEIGHT a common dial, the assembly is called a duplex
oh | gage. The dial of a duplex gage is shown in
MERCURY | figure 7-20. The two Bourdon tubes and the
COLUMN | operating mechanism are shown in figure 7-21,
and the gear mechanism is shown in figure 7-
22. Note that each Bourdon tube has its own
pressure connection and its ownpointer. Duplex
gages are used to give Simultaneous indication
of the pressure at two different locations.
Bourdon-tube vacuum gages are marked off
in inches of mercury, as Shown in figure 7-23.
147,57
Figure 7-15.—U-tube liquid-column element for
RED HAND
measuring absolute pressure.
ie
61.4xX 38.211BX
Figure 7-16.—Two types of manometers. Figure 7-17.—Dial of a simplex Bourdon-tube
(A) Standard U-tube. (B) Single-tube. pressure gage.
SECTOR GEAR CASE

SEALED END
BOURDON TUBE
CONNECTING
HAIRSPRING LINK
125 150 475 9
100 ”
CONNECTING
MOVEMENT LINK SCREWS
SUPPORT
POINTER STAFF
THREADED 38.211 FX
STATIONARY OPEN END (PRESSURE CONNECTION)
Figure 7-20.—Dial of a duplex Bourdon-tube
pressure gage.
38.211AX
Figure 7-18.—Operating mechanism of simplex
Bourdon-tube pressure gage,
POINTER NO.2 POINTER NO.|
PINION POINTER SECTOR

FRAME STAFF PIVOT ADJUSTMENT BOURDON BOURDON
GEAR TUBE NO. |
POINT LEVER TUBE NO. 2
FRAME
CONNECTING
LINK TO
BOURDON
SECTOR TUBE TIP
HAIRSPRING GEAR
Bisiacallal(e:
Figure 7-19.—Gear mechanism of simplex
THREADED THREADED
Bourdon-tube pressure gage PRESSURE PRESSURE
CONNECTION NO.|I CONNECTION NO.2
When a gage is designed to measure both vacu- 38.211G

um and pressure, it is called a compound gage Figure 7-21.—Two Bourdon tubes and operating
and is marked off both in inches of mercury mechanism of duplex Bourdon-tube pressure
and in psig, as shown in figure 7-24. gage,
140
1IN.& % LB SUBD
VACUUM
38.211CA
Figure 7-22.—Gear mechanism of duplex
Bourdon-tube pressure gage.
38.211EX
Figure 7-24.—Compound Bourdon-tube gage.
but only one pointer. The Bourdon tubes are

connected in such a way that it is the pressure
difference, rather than either of the two actual
pressures, that is indicated by the pointer.
BELLOWS ELASTIC ELEMENTS.—A bel-

lows elastic element is a convoluted unit that
expands and contracts axially with changes in
pressure. The pressure to be measured can be
applied to the outside or to the inside of the
bellows; in practice, most bellows-type measur-
ing devices have the pressure applied to the
outside of the bellows, as shown in figure 7-26.
Bellows elastic elements are made of brass,
phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-
copper, or other metal suitable for the intended
service of the gage.
Most bellows-type gages are spring-loaded—
38.211DX that is, a spring opposes the bellows and thus
Figure 7-23.—Bourdon-tube vacuum gage. prevents full expansion of the bellows. Limiting
the expansion of the bellows in this way pro-
Differential pressure may also be measured tects the bellows and prolongs its life. na
with Bourdon-tube gages. One kind of Bourdon- spring-loaded bellows-type element, the deflec-
tube differential pressure gage is shown in tion is the resultant of the force acting on the
figure 7-25. This gage has two Bourdon tubes bellows and the opposing force of the spring.
141
SCALE
HAIRSPRING
SECTOR
PINION LINK
GEAR
CROSBY
BOSTON, USA
ip AAG -F
9S. Pen sq. neh
SPRING
BELLOWS
CASE
PRESSURE
CONNECTION
61.3(147B)A
Figure 7-26.—Simple bellows gage.
control systems12 because the air pressures of

the control systems are generally very low.
Many differential pressure gages are of the
bellows type. In some designs, one pressure is
applied to the inside of the bellows andthe other
pressure is applied to the outside. In other
designs, a differential pressure reading is ob-
tained by opposing two bellows in a single case.
Bellows elements are used in various appli-
cations where the pressure-Sensitive device
must be powerful enough to operate not only the
38.211KX indicating pointer but also some type of record- |
Figure 7-25.—Bourdon-tube differential ing device.
pressure gage.
DIAPHRAGM ELASTIC ELEMENTS.—Dia- |
Although some bellows-type instruments can phragm elastic elements are used for the|
be designed for measuring pressures up to 800 measurement of relatively low pressures or |
psig, their primary application aboard ship is
in the measurement of quite low pressures or
small pressure differentials. For example, 12Boiler control systems are discussed in chapter 11)
bellows elements are widely used in boiler of this text.
small pressure differences. Both metallic and

nonmetallic diaphragms are in common use.
Metallic diaphragms are made from stain- se
e h
less steel, phosphor bronze, brass, or other a
metal. A metallic diaphragm element may con-
sist of one or more capsules. Each capsule
consists of two diaphragm shells (flat or corru-
gated circular disks) which are welded, brazed,
or otherwise firmly fastened together to form HAIRSPRING
GAGE
the capsule. The capsules are all rigidly con- MOVEMENT-SECTOR
nected so that the application of pressure causes
all capsules to deflect. The amount of deflec-
tion of a diaphragm gage depends upon the
number of capsules, the design and the number
PINION CONNECTING
of the corrugations, and other factors. GEAR LINK
Nonmetallic diaphragms, also called slack
or limp diaphragms, are made of leather, FLAT
SPRING
treated cloth, neoprene, or some other soft NEOPRENE
material. Nonmetallic diaphragms are spring- DIAPHRAGM
loaded. One common type of nonmetallic dia-

phragm pressure gage is shown in figure 7-27,
When pressure is applied to the underside of
the slack diaphragm, the diaphragm moves up-
ward, although it is opposed by the action of the
calibrating spring. As the spring moves, the
linkage system causes the pointer to move toa
higher reading. Thus the reading on the scale
is proportional to the amount of pressure ex-
erted on the diaphragm, even though the move-
ment of the diaphragm is opposed by the cali- aes PRESSURE
brating spring. CONNECTION
PRESSURE GAGE INSTALLATION 38.212(147B)

Figure 7-27.—Nonmetallic diaphragm
Bourdon tube pressure gages used for steam pressure gage.
service are always installed in such a way that
the steam cannot actually enter the gage. This be expected from machinery. Pressure gages
type of installation is necessary to protect the designed to withstand shock and vibration fre-
Bourdon type from very high temperatures. An quently use small size capillary tubing between
exposed uninsulated coil is provided in the line the connections and the elastic elements to
leading to the gage, and the steam condenses protect the gage mechanism and the pointer;
into water in this exposed coil. Thus there small size tubing is used between the test con-
is always a condensate seal between the gage nection or gage valve and the gage sothat piping
and the steam line. deflections will not cause errors in the gage
Pressure gage connections are normally readings.
made to the top of the pressure line or to the
highest point on the machinery in which the
MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW
pressure is to be measured. Pressure gages
are usually mounted on flat-surfaced gage
boards in such a way as to minimize virbration; A great many devices, many of them quite
this is a matter of considerable importance, ingenious, have been developed for the measure-
since some ships experience very great struc- ment of fluid flow. The discussion here is con-
tural vibration from screws and machinery. cerned primarily with the types of fluid flow
Efforts are currently being made to design gages measuring devices that find relatively wide
capable of withstanding any vibration that may application in shipboard engineering. These
143
devices may be classified as (1) positive-dis-

placement meters, (2) head meters, and (3) area
meters.
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT METERS
Positive-displacement meters are used for

measuring liquid flow. In a meter of this type,
each cycle or complete revolution of a measur-
ing element displaces a definite, fixed volume
of liquid. Measuring elements used in positive-
displacement meters include disks, pistons,
lobes, vanes, and impellers. The motion of these
devices may be classified as reciprocating,
rotating, oscillating, or nutating, depending upon
the type of measuring element used and the
general design of the meter read-out or regis-
ter.
A positive-displacement meter of the nutat-
ing-piston type is shown in figure 7-28. The
flow of oil through the meter causes the piston
(also ca disk) to move with a nutating
motion. Understanding the nature of this motion
is the key to understanding the operation of the
meter. A nutating motion (fig. 7-29) might be
described as a ‘‘rocking around’’ motion; it is
similar to the motion of a spun coin just before
the coin settles flat on its side. The piston in
the meter cannot settle flat on its side likea
spun coin, since the piston is nutating (or rock- 38.66X
ing around) on a lower spherical bearing sur- Figure 7-29.—Diagram showing nutating motion
face. of piston and rotary motion of pin in nutating-
piston meter.
The piston cannot rotate because it is held

in place by a fixed vane or guide that runs
vertically through a slot in the piston. However,
the nutating motion of the piston imparts a
rotary motion to the pin that projects from the
i upper spherical surface. The rotary movement
of the pin rotates the gears, and the movement
of the gears actuates a counting device or regis-
ian
ter at the top of the meter.
|
SS 4 Although the action of the nutating piston
is smooth and continuous, there is neverthe-
- less a definite cycle involved in the measure-

ment of liquid flow through this meter. The
nutating action of the piston seals the measuring
chamber off into separate compartments, and
these compartments are alternately filled and
emptied. The meter is properly classed as a
positive-displacement meter, since each com-
38.64X partment holds a definite volume of the liquid.
Figure 7-28.—Nutating-piston meter for Totalizing meters have a read-out in gallons
measuring liquid flow. or pounds of liquid; however, they may also
indicate rate of flow in gallons per minute (gpm) other device for measuring differential pres-
or in other flow units. sure.
The pressure drop occurring in a fluidflow-
HEAD METERS ing through a restriction varies as the square of
the fluid velocity; or, to put it another way, the
Head meters measure fluid flow by measur- Square root of the pressure differential is pro-
ing the pressure differential across a specially portional to the rate of fluid flow. Because of the
designed restriction in the flow line. The re- square-root relationship between the pressure
striction may be an orifice plate, a flow nozzle, differential and the rate of fluid flow, a square-
a venturi tube, an elbow, a pitot tube, or some root extracting device is usually included so that
similar device. As the fluid flows toward the the scale can be graduated in even steps or in-
restriction, the velocity decreases and the pres- crements. Without a device for extracting the
sure (or ‘‘head’’) increases; as the fluid flows square root of the pressure differential, the
through the restriction, the velocity increases scale would have to be unevenly divided, with
and the pressure decreases. Figure 7-30 illus- wider divisions at the top of the scale than at
trates the pressure changes that occur asa fluid the bottom.
flows through a line that contains an orifice
plate or similar restriction. Note that there is AREA METERS
a slight increase in pressure just ahead of the
restriction and then a sudden drop in pressure An area meter indicates the rate of fluid
at the restriction. The point of minimum pres- flow by means of an orifice that is varied in
sure and maximum velocity is slightly down- area by variations in the fluid flow. The vari-
stream from the restriction; this point is called ations in the area of the orifice are produced
the vena contracta. Beyond the vena contracta, by some type of movable device which is posi-
the velocity decreases and the pressure in- tioned by the pressure of the flowing fluid. Since
creases until eventually normal flow is re- the fluid itself positions the movable device and
established. thus varies the area of the orifice, there is no
The flow nozzle, orifice plate, or other significant pressure drop between the upstream
restriction in the line is called the primary side and the downstream side of the variable
element of the head meter. A high pressure tap orifice. Since there is an essentially linear
upstream from the restriction and a low pres- relationship between the area of the orifice and
sure tap downstream from it are connected to the rate of flow, there is no need for a square-
a differential bellows, a diaphragm, or some root extracting device in an area meter.
ORIFICE PLATE
DIRECTION OF FLOW
147.59
Figure 7-30.—Pressure changes in fluid flowing through restriction in line.
145
Most area meters are classified as (1) ro- indicated by the rotor rising on the rod. The
tameters, or (2) piston-type meters, depending glass tube is so calibrated that the flow may be
upon the type of device used to vary the area of read directly, with the reading being taken at
the orifice. the top of the rotor.
Figure 7-31 shows a simple rotameter of a In a piston-type area meter, a piston is
type used in some shipboard distilling plants. lifted by fluid pressure. As the piston is lifted,
A tapered glass tube is installed vertically, it uncovers a port through which the fluid flows.
with the smaller end at the bottom. Water flows The port area uncovered by the lifting of the
in at the bottom, upward through the tube, and piston is directly proportional to the rate of
out at the top. A rod, supported by the end fit- fluid flow. Therefore, the position of the piston
tings of the tube, is centered in the tube. A provides a direct indication of the rate of flow.
movable rotor rides freely on the rod and is The means by which the position of the piston is
positioned by the fluid. Variations in the pres- transmitted to an indicating dial varies accord-
sure of the fluid lead to variations in the posi- ing to the design of the particular meter and
tion of the rotor; and, since the glass tube is the service for which it is intended.
tapered, the size of the annular orifice between
the rotor and the tube is different at each posi- MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL
tion of the rotor. An increase in flow is thus
In the engineering plant aboard ship, it is
VENT PLUG frequently necessary for operating personnel to
know the level of various liquids in various
locations. The level of the water in the ship’s
boilers is a prime example of a liquidlevel that
must be known at all times, but there are other
liquid levels that are also important—the level
of fuel oil in service and stowage tanks, the level
of water in deaerating feed tanks, the level of
lubricating oil in the oil sumps of main and
auxiliary machinery, and drains in various drain
tanks, to name but a few.
A wide variety of devices, some of them
Simple and some complex, are available for
measuring liquid level. Some measure liquid
level quite directly by measuring the height ofa
column of liquid. Others measure pressure,
volume, or some other property of the liquid
from which we may then infer liquid level.
The gage glass is one of the simplest kinds
of liquid level measuring devices and one that is
very commonly used. Gage glasses are used on
boilers, on deaerating feed tanks, on inspection
tanks, and on other shipboard machinery. Ba-
Sically, a gage glass is just one legof a U-tube,
with the other leg being the tank, drum, or other
vessel in which the liquid level is to be meas-
ured. The liquid level in the gage glass is thus
the same as the liquid level inthetank or drum,
and the reading can be made by direct visual
observation. Gage glasses vary in details of
construction, depending upon the pressure, tem-
FLOW SCHEMATIC L_——" _] perature, and other service conditions they must
withstand.
75.290 The measurement of liquid level in tanks
Figure 7-31.—Area meter (rotameter type) for aboard ship may be accomplished by simple
measuring fluid flow. devices such as direct-reading sounding rules
and gaging tapes or by some form of permanently of volume; and, when the volume of the tank and
installed, remote reading gaging system. (Al- the specific weight of the liquid are known, the
though remote reading gaging systems are often scale can be calibrated to indicate weight. The
referred to as ‘‘tank level indicators,’’ it should reading on this type of tank gaging system is
be noted that the scale may be calibrated to always taken after compressed air has been
show level, volume, or weight; frequently there admitted to the balance chamber through the
are two scales—one to show volume and one to control valve; to ensure proper readings, a
show level.) sufficient amount of compressed air must be
A static head gaging system of a type com- admitted to force the liquid down to the level of
monly used for measuring liquid level in fuel the bottom of the standpipe.
oil tanks aboard ship is shown in figure 7-32.
This system balances a head of liquid in the MEASUREMENT OF ROTATIONAL
tank against a column of liquid in a manometer SPEED
or against a bellows or diaphragm differential
pressure unit; the system illustrated uses a The rotational speed of propeller shafts,
mercury manometer. The balance chamber is turbines, generators, blowers, pumps, and other
located so that its orifice is near the bottom kinds of shipboard machinery is measured by
of the tank; a line connects the top of the bal- means of tachometers. For most shipboard
ance chamber to the mercury-filled bulb of the machinery, rotational speed is expressed in
indicator gage, and another line connects the revolutions per minute (rpm). The tachometers
space above the mercury column to the top of most commonly used aboard ship are of the
the tank. Since the height of the liquid in the centrifugal type, the chronometric type, and the
tank bears a definite relationship to the pres- resonance type. Stroboscopic tachometers are
sure exerted by the liquid, the scale can be also used occasionally.
calibrated to show height (or liquid level). When Some types of machinery are equipped with
the size of the tank is known, the measurement of permanently mounted tachometers, but portable
height can readily be converted to measurement tachometers are used for checking the rpm of
many units. A portable tachometer of the cen-
trifugal type or of the chronometric type is
applied manually to a depression or a projec-
tion at the center of a moving shaft. Each port-
(SILL. SLLLI GDOSSSSSSSISSS
Df,
SSS able tachometer is Supplied with several hard
rubber tips; to use the instrument, the operator
selects a tip of the proper shape, fits it over the
end of the tachometer drive shaft, and holds the
tip against the center of the moving shaft. Some
—_— MERCURY tachometers are also supplied with a small
== SS GAGE wheel which can be fitted to the end of the drive
shaft and used to measure the linear velocity
(in feet per second) of a wheel ora journal; with
=o W this type of instrument, the wheel is held against
the outer surface of the moving object. Portable
tachometers are used only for intermittent read-
ing, not for continuous operation.
ce, gy
= CONTROL» yb
-- {££
yk \
vue /\ f CENTRIFUGAL TACHOMETERS
DQ
Z
\ COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY As the name implies, a centrifugal tachom-
+s BALANCE CHAMBER eter utilizes centrifugal force for its operation.
he
ate The main parts of a centrifugal tachometer are
|
SSIS
SSS
—— = 7+ shown in figure 7-33 and the dial of the instru-
== ddddddddddddddddaat??
Semen -Y ORIFICE
LE
Y
ment is shown in figure 7-34. Centrifugal force
acts upon weights or flyballs which are connected
61.5X by linkage to an upper and a lower collar. The
Figure 7-32.—Tank gaging system. upper collar is fixed to the drive shaft, but the
147
FIXED
COLLAR
FLY WEIGHTS
MOVABLE
\
COLLAR
\
DRIVE SHAR, >
y SS
dleum Warmed
MADE IN USA
10\: *
f
2.66X
Figure 7-33.—Main parts of centrifugal
tachometer.
lower collar is free to move up and down the

shaft. A spring which fits over the drive shaft 2.66X
connects the upper collar and the lower collar. Figure 7-34.—Dial of centrifugal tachometer.
As the drive shaft begins to rotate, the flyballs
spin around with it. Centrifugal force tends to
pull the flyballs away from the center, thus
raising the lower collar and compressing the
spring. The lower collar is connected to the
pointer, and the upward movement of the collar
causes the pointer tomovetoahigher rpm read-
ing onthe dial. The centrifugal tachometer regis-
ters rpm of a rotating shaft as long as it is in
contact with the shaft. For this reason itis called
a constant-reading tachometer.
CHRONOMETRIC TACHOMETERS
A chronometric tachometer (fig. 7-35) isa
combination of a watch and a revolution counter
which measures the average number of revolu-
tions per minute of a rotating shaft. The device
is not a constant-reading instrument; the outer
drive shaft runs free when the instrument is
applied to a rotating shaft until a starting button
is depressed to start the timing element. After
the drive shaft has been disengaged from the
rotating shaft, the pointer remains in position on
the dial until it is returned to the zero position
by the operation of a reset button (which may be
the same as the starting button.)
RESONANCE TACHOMETERS
A resonance tachometer (fig. 7-36) consists 2.66X
of a number of steel reeds, each one of which Figure 7-35.—Chronometric tachometer.
148
The instruments give continuous readings and

make very rapid—almost instantaneous—adjust-
ments to changes in rotational speed.
STROBOSCOPIC TACHOMETERS
A stroboscopic tachometer is a device which

allows rotating, reciprocating, or vibrating ma-
chinery to be viewed intermittently, under flash-
ing light, in such a way that the movement of
the machinery appears to be slowed, stopped,
or reversed. Because the illumination is inter-
mittent, rather than steady, the eye receives a
series of views rather than one continuous view.
When the speed of the flashing light coin-
cides with the speed of the moving machinery,
the machinery appears to be motionless. This
effect occurs because the moving object is seen
each time at the same point inits cycle of move-
ment. If the flashing rate is decreased slightly,
the machinery appears to be moving slowly in
the true direction of movement; if the flashing
rate is increased slightly, the machinery ap-
pears to be moving slowly in the reverse direc-
61.16X tion. To measure the speed of a machine,
Figure 7-36.—Resonance tachometer mounted therefore, it is only necessary to find the rate
on rotating machine. of intermittent illumination at which the ma-
chinery appears to be motionless. To observe
vibrates at a different frequency. The reeds are the operating machinery in slow motion, it is
fastened in a row, in order of frequency; the row necessary to adjust the stroboscope until the
is mounted with the reeds at right angles to the machinery appears to be moving at the desired
back of the instrument. The unattached ends of speed.
the reeds extend through a horizontal slit in the The stroboscopic tachometer furnished for
face of the instrument; the scale is stamped shipboard use is a small, portable instrument.
along the slit. When the instrument is solidly It is calibrated so that the speed can be read
attached to the foundation or casing of a rotating directly from the control dial. The flashing rate
machine, the reeds which are nearest in fre- is determined by a Self-contained electronic
quency to the rpm of the machine begin to pulse generator which can be adjusted, by means
vibrate. In figure 7-36, notice that five reeds of the direct-reading dial, to any value between
are out of line with the rest of the reeds; these 600 and 14,400 rpm. The relationship between
five are vibrating noticeably more than the rotational speed and flashing rate may be illus-
others, and the one in the middle is vibrating trated by an example. If an electric fanis oper-
more than the other four. To read the rpm of ating at a rate of 1800 rpm, it will appear to be
the machine, then, it is only necessary to read motionless when it is viewed through a stro-
the scale marking underneath the reed that is boscopic tachometer which is flashing at the
vibrating the most—that is, the one which is rate of 1800 times per minute.
most out of line with the others inthe horizontal Because the stroboscopic tachometer is
slit. never used in direct contact with moving ma-
Resonance tachometers are particularly use- chinery, it is particularly useful for measuring
ful for measuring high rotational speeds suchas the speed or observing the operation of machin-
those that occur in turbines, generators, and ery which is run by a relatively small power
forced draft blowers. They are also particularly input. It is also very useful for measuring the
useful in applications where it is difficult or speed of machinery which is installed in rela-
impossible to get at the moving ends of shafts. tively inaccessible places.
149
MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY “built in’’ by the calibration of the hydrom-

eter.
The specifie gravity of a substance is defined For fuel oil and other petroleum products,
as the ratio of the density of the substance to it is customary to measure degrees API, rather
the density of a standard substance. The stand- than specific gravity, in accordance witha scale
ard of density for liquids and solids is pure developed by the American Petroleum Institute.
water; for gases, the standard is air. Each The relationship between specific gravity and
standard (water or air) is considered to have a API gravity is given by the formula
specific gravity of 1.00 under standard condi-
clone 141.5
tions of pressure and temperature. For a
seb ers (ye degrees API
solid or a liquid substance, then, we may Say
that
A hydrometer of the type normally used
density of substance
Sp. gr. of solid or liquid= density of water aboard ship to measure the degrees API of fuel
oil is shown in figure 7-37. The major differ-
ence between this hydrometer and others used
Density is sometimes defined as the mass aboard ship is that this one is calibratedto read
per unit volume of a substance and sometimes degrees API rather than specific gravity.
as weight per unit volume, In engineering,
fortunately, this difference in defintions rarely MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY
causes confusion because we are uSually inter-
ested in relative densities—or, in other words, The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its
in specific gravity. Since specific gravity is the resistance to flow. A liquid is said to have high
ratio of two densities, it really does not matter viscosity if it flows sluggishly, like cold mo-
whether we use mass densities or weight den- lasses. It is said to have low viscosity if it
sities; the units cancel out and give us a pure flows freely, like water. The viscosity of most
number which is independent of the system of liquids is greatly affected by temperature; in
units used. general, liquids are less viscous at higher tem-
Aboard ship, it is sometimes necessary to peratures,
measure the specific gravity of various liquids.
This is usually done by using a device called a
hydrometer. A hydrometer measures specific
gravity by comparing the buoyancy (or loss of
weight) of an object in water with the buoyancy
of the same object in the liquid being measured.
Since the buoyancy of an object is directly re-
lated to the density of the liquid, then
buoyant force of liquid
Sp. gr. of liquid=
buoyant force of water
A hydrometer is merely a calibrated rod

which is weighted at one end so that it floats in
a vertical position in the liquid being measured. TTT
Hydrometers are calibrated in such a way that
the specific gravity of the liquid may be read
directly from the scale; in other words, the
comparison between the density of the liquid
being measured and the density of water is
iree
AAG
13 hor most engineering purposes, the standard pres-

sure and temperature conditions for water as a
standard of specific gravity are atmospheric pressure
4.135
and 60°F, Figure 7-37.—Hydrometer.
150
Aboard ship, it is necessary to measure the that the temperature be included in the state-
viscosity of fuel oil and of lubricating oil. The ment of viscosity.
viscosity of an oil is usually expressed as the
number of seconds required for a given amount OTHER TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
of oil to flow through an orifice of a specified
size when the oil is at a specified temperature. Thus far in this chapter, we have been
Devices used to measure the rate of flow (and largely concerned with basic principles of
hence the viscosity) are called viscosimeters measurement and with widely used kinds of
or viscometers. measuring devices. We have taken up many of
The viscosimeter furnished for shipboard the devices used to measure the fundamental
use is a Saybolt viscosimeter with two orifices. variables of temperature, pressure, fluid flow,
The larger orifice is called the Saybolt Furol liquid level, and rotational speed, and we have
orifice; the smaller one is called the Saybolt considered the measurement of the properties
Universal orifice. The Furol orifice is used for of specific gravity and viscosity. For the most
measuring the viscosity of relatively heavy part, we have dealt with measuring devices that
oils; the Universal orifice is used for measuring might be considered as basically mechanical in
the viscosity of relatively light oils. nature.
A Saybolt viscosimeter consists of an oil Before concluding this chapter, it might be
tube, a constant-temperature oil bath which well to point out that many other kinds of meas-
maintains the correct temperature of the sample urement are required inthe Shipboard engineer-
in the tube, a 60-cc (cubic centimeter) graduated ing plant. While it is true that many of the prin-
receiving flask, thermometers for measuring ciples of measurement discussed inthis chapter
the temperature of the oil sample and of the apply to measuring devices other than those
oil bath, and a timing device. A Saybolt vis- described here, it is also true that a specific
cosimeter is shown in figure 7-38; figure 7-39 application may require a measuring device that
shows details of the viscosimeter oil tube. is not precisely the Same as any device we have
The oil to be tested is strained and poured considered. Where appropriate, other types of
into the oil tube. The tube is surrounded by the measuring devices are discussed in other chap-
constant-temperature oil bath. When the oil ters of this text, as they relate tosome particular
sample is at the correct temperature, the cork kind of machinery or equipment. In some in-
is pulled from the lower end of the tube and the stances, the student may find it helpful to come
sample flows through the orifice and into the back to the present chapter to renew his under-
graduated receiving flask. The time (in seconds) standing of the basic principles of measurement
required for the oil to fill the receiving flask we have considered here.
to the 60-cc mark is noted.
The viscosity of the oil is expressed by NAVY CALIBRATION PROGRAM
indicating three things: first, the number of
seconds required for 60 cubic centimeters of The calibration of all measuring devices
oil to flow into the receiving flask; second, the begins with and is dependent upon the basic
type of orifice used; and third, the temperature international and national standards of measure-
of the oil sample at the time the viscosity ment just discussed. Obviously, however, we
determination is made. For example, suppose can’t rush off tothe National Bureau of Standards
that a sample of Navy Special fuel oil is heated every time we need to measure alength, a mass,
to 122°F and that 132 seconds are required for a weight, or an interval of time. Therefore, the
60 cc of the sample to flow through a Saybolt National Bureau of Standards prepares and cali-
Universal orifice and into the receiving flask. brates a great many practical standards that
The viscosity of this oil is said to be 132 sec- can be used by government and industry. Gov-
onds Saybolt Universal at 122° F. This is usually ernment and industry, in turn, prepare and
expressed in shorter form as 132 SSU at122°F. calibrate their own practical standards. Thus
Saybolt Furol viscosities are obtained at there is a continuous linkage of measurement
122°F. The same temrerature (122° F) is used standards that begins with the international
for obtaining Saybolt Universal viscosities of standards, comes down through the national
fuel oil, but various other temperatures are standards, and works all the way on down to
used for obtaining Saybolt Universal viscosities the rulers, weights, clocks, gages, and other
of oils other than fuel oil. Thus it is important devices that we uSe for everyday measurement.
151
38.213
Figure 7-38.—Saybolt viscosimeter.
As may be seen (fig. 7-40) in the structure maintained by the Navy Type I Standards Lab-
of this program (Navy Calibration Program), oratories.
the National Bureau of Standards is the highest The Navy Type I Standards Laboratories
level standards agency in the United States and maintain the highest standards within the Navy
that it has custody of this Nation’s basic physi- Calibration Program. The Type I Standards
cal standards. The National Bureau of Standards Laboratories obtain calibration services from
provides the common reference for all measure- the National Bureau of Standards and provide
ments and certifies the Navy Standards that are calibration of standards and _ associated
152
)i|
basic types of Navy Calibration Laboratories.

Fleet Calibration Laboratories, which are lo-
ll
cated on repair ships and tenders (MIRCS) re-
;
ceive and calibrate fleet equipment only. Shore
Calibration Laboratories, which are located in
various shore activities of the Navy, receive and
|
calibrate shore equipment and also handle the
Ss
overflow from Fleet Calibration Laboratories.
Baas
As indicated in figure 7-40 equipment to be

Ol
BAESses TUBE calibrated may go directly to a Navy Calibration
DSS Ass’
BAAS2 (Stainless steel
or brass)
Laboratory or it may go to a shop or repair
Saas j AS
facility for ‘‘qualification.’’ Qualification is not
a Yo
DOI
BS
SSS. (SE the same as calibration, and the two terms
[fF
PY
S|
SS Yo
(SSS should be clearly distinguished.
OY]
PSS
Sa
SSS Calibration is the process by which Calibra-
eH 9 ESS tion Laboratories and Standards Laboratories
4) SS
OOOOOH
y (ae compare a Standard or a measuring instrument
ey (SF with a standard of higher accuracy in order to
SY JF
See
OY
|SSS ensure that the item being compared is accurate
EY) YJ
BERS within specified limits throughout its entire
iS range. The calibration process involves the use
PSS
ee SSS SS aaa
SP
of approved instrument calibration procedures;

it may also include any adjustments or incidental
repairs necessary to bring the standard or in-
strument being calibrated within specified
a ~<-
Ytdter
YY)
cVZ
Ze
WASHERS limits. Calibration of standards is considered
SS NUT,
HEATING OIL
VESSEL CORK
mandatory.
Qualification isthe process by which an
38.214 activity other thanofficially designated Stand-
Figure 7-39.—Details of viscosimeter tube. ards Laboratories or Calibration Laboratories
compares a test or measuring instrument with
measuring equipment received from Type II one of higher accuracy in order to determine
Standards Laboratories. There are only two the need for calibration. Qualification may be
Type I Standards Laboratories: the Eastern SL, performed by ships or stations that have been
in Washington D.C., and the Western SL, in San furnished with approved measurement standards
Diego, California. and procedures. However, the instruments used
Navy Standards Laboratories designated as to qualify the test or measuring equipment
Type II furnish the second highest level of cali- should be calibrated periodically by a Navy
bration services to assigned geographical areas Standards Laboratory or a Navy Calibration
within the Naval Establishment. The Type II Laboratory in order for the qualification to be
Standards Laboratories obtain standards cali- valid.
bration services from the cognizant Type I Several additional terms used in connection
Standard Laboratory and calibrate standards with the Navy Calibration Program are defined
and associated measuring equipment received in the following paragraphs. It is important to
from lower level laboratories. There are half understand the precise meaning of these terms
a dozen Type II Navy Standards Laboratories, and to use them correctly.
located in various shore activities throughout Calibration Procedure is the term used for
the United States. a document that outlines the steps and opera-
Navy Calibration Laboratories furnish the tions to be followed by standards and calibration
third highest level of calibration services inthe laboratory personnel in the performance of
Navy Calibration Program, The Navy Calibra- instrument calibration.
tion Laboratories obtain calibration services Calibration cycle is the length of time be-
from the Type II Standards Laboratories and tween calibration services during which each
they calibrate test equipment received from test equipment is expected to maintain reliable
ships and from shore activities. There are two measurement capability. The Metrology
153
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
NAVY STANDARDS LABORATORIES—TYPE I
EASTERN SL,WASHINGTON,D.C.
WESTERN SL, SAN DIEGO, CALIF.
NAVY STANDARDS LABORATORIES—TYPEIL
(SHORE BASED)
NAVY SHORE CALIBRATION FLEET CALIBRATION LABORATORIES

LABORATORIES (FCL)— REPAIR SHIPS & TENDERS
SHOP OR REPAIR FACILITY SHOP OR REPAIR FACILITY

(FOR QUALIFICATION) (FOR QUALIFICATION )
SHORE EQUIPMENT TO BE FLEET EQUIPMENT TO

CALIBRATED (INCLUDING
BE CALIBRATED
SHIPS IN YARDS)
170.49
Figure 7-40.—Navy Calibration Program Structure.
Requirements List (NAVAIR 17-35MTL-1 NAV- Incidental repair is the term used to describe
SHIPS) is available and used tofind the following those repairs found necessary during the cali-
information relating to a particular instrument: bration of an operable equipment to bring it
within its specified tolerances. Incidental repair
(1) Instrument Calibration Recall Intervals
includes the replacement of parts which have
(2) Applicable Procedure Numbers
changed value sufficiently to prevent calibration
(3) Related Technical Numbers
but not enough to render the equipment inopera-
(Note: The Metrology Requirements List is tive. Incidental repair is normally performed
where you can find calibration cycles.) in the laboratories in conjunction with the cali-
bration of test equipment or standards.
Cross-checks involve the comparison of two Laboratory standard is the term used to
or more instruments of equal or near equal ac- identify a laboratory-type device that is used to
curacy for the sole purpose of determining if the maintain the continuity of values in units of
values of any of the instruments have shifted measurement by periodic comparison with
significantly. The cross-check is used as an standards of Navy laboratories or with standards
interim measure until a standard or instrument maintained by the National Bureau of Standards.
of sufficiently high accuracy can be used to A laboratory standard is used to calibrate a
calibrate or qualify an instrument. standard of lesser accuracy.
154
An acceptance for limited use indicates that an instrument with an accuracy of 1 percent is
an instrument which has failed certain tests or said to have an error of +1 percent.
which has not been tested against all acceptance The error of an instrument is the difference
criteria is nevertheless suitable for certain between the reading shown on the instrument and
specified (limited) usage. In such a situation, the true value of the variable being measured.
a limited use label (rather than a CALIBRATED Error may be expressed in scale units, in per-
or QUALIFIED label) is placed on the instru- cent of scale span, in percent of range, or in
ment to draw attention to the conditional ac- percent of indicated value (iv). By agreement
ceptance. In addition to the label, a limited use among instrument manufacturers, error in in-
tag is attached to the instrument. This tag is struments with uniform scales is most com-
filled in by the servicing activity; it includes monly expressed as a percentage of the full
a full description of the reservations or pre- scale length, regardless of where the measure-
cautions which should be observed in using the ment is made on the scale. The exception to
instrument. The label and the tag indicating that this general rule is that the measurement is not
the instrument is suitable only for limited use made at the extreme top or the extreme bottom
must remain on the instrument until the next of the scale, since an instrument is almost sure
calibration or qualification. to be less accurate in these areas than in the
The term rejected is used when an instrument working range of the scale.
fails to meet the acceptance criteria during Using the full scale length as a basis for
calibration or qualification and when it cannot determining instrument error can lead to some
be made to meet these criteria by incidental confusion. For example, consider several pres-
repair. Under these conditions, a REJECTED sure gages, each one of which has a guaranteed
label is placed on the instrument and all other accuracy of 1 percent. If the scale reads 0 to 30
servicing labels are removed. In addition to the psi, the allowable error is+0.3 psi. If the scale
label, a REJECTED tag is attached to the in- reads 0 to 100 psi, the allowable error is+1 psi.
strument. The tag, which is filled in by the If the scale reads O to 500 psi, the allowable
servicing activity, gives the reason for rejec- error is+5 psi. If the scale reads 0 to 1000,
tion and such other information as may be re- the allowable error is +10 psi.
quired. As far as accuracy ratios are concerned,
Repair is defined as the repair and/or there are recommended low and high accuracy
replacement of malfunctioning parts of a meas- ratios that should exist between the test and
uring instrument or standard to the degree measuring equipment, andthe measuring system
required to restore the instrument or standard or Standard, also between echelons of Standards.
to an operating condition. The lower limit ratio should be at least 4 to
Traceability is when the accuracy of a meas- 1; a ratio below this limit is impracticable for
urement made by the fleet canbe directly trace- technical reasons. The upper limit ratio should
able through the echelons of calibration to not be more than 10 to 1; if the ratio is higher,
Reference Standards maintained by the National equipment costs will become excessive.
Bureau of Standards (unbroken chain of properly Calibration error is taken care of by line-
conducted calibrations.) arity and range errors. Linearity error is when
the lowest and the highest indications are cor-
INSTRUMENT ACCURACY
rect, and there is an error in between these
As we have seen, all measurement is subject indications. Range error occurs when the lowest
to a certain amount of error. The international indication is on and the highest indication is off,
and national standards have some error, even above or below the true value.
though it is almost unbelievably small. The If an instrument does not give the same read-
error in secondary standards, while still ex- ing when it comes from the top of the scale down
tremely small, is somewhat greater than the to the point of measurement as it does when it
error in the primary standards. When we get goes from the bottom of the scale upto the point
down to the actual measuring devices used even of measurement, the error is called hysteresis.
for precision measurement, the error is larger Hysteresis occurs from a variety of factors that
still, cause loss of energy within the instrument; it
Although it may sound backwards, the accu- might occur because of friction or binding of
racy of an instrument is expressed by giving the parts, fatigue of a spring, excessive play in
amount of error of the instrument. For example, gears, or other mechanical difficulties.
155
Because there will always be some error of in the measured variable, it is a very sensitive
measurement, and because the error may actu- instrument; if larger changes in the measured
ally be considerably greater than that indicated variable are required to produce effective motion
by the percentage of guaranteed accuracy, the of the measuring element, the instrument is less
calibration of any measuring device requires sensitive.
the highest possible precision.
Instrument sensitivity is sometimes confused Sensitivity is quite directly related to fric-
with instrument accuracy. This isa big mistake. tion within an instrument. An instrument that
The sensitivity of an instrument refers to the has relatively small energy losses because of
ability of the instrument to respond to changes friction will, all other things being equal, be
in the value of the measured variable. If an more sensitive than an instrument with rela-
instrument can respond to very small changes tively large friction losses,
156
CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
The shipboard engineering plant may be as a basis for understanding the shipboard
thought of as a series of devices and arrange- engineering plant. The information given here
ments for the exchange and transformation of is introductory in nature; obviously, it is not in
energy. The energy transformation of greatest any sense a complete or thorough exploration
importance in the shipboard plant is the produc- of the subject. Insofar as possible, we will
tion of mechanical work from thermal energy, depend upon verbal description rather than
since we depend largely upon this transformation mathematical analysis to develop our under-
to make the ship move through the water. On standing of the laws and pricfples of energy
steam-driven ships, steam serves the vital pur- exchanges and transformations.
pose of carrying energy to the engines. The It should perhaps be noted that many of the
source of this energy may be the combustion of terms used in this chapter—including such basic
a conventional fuel oil or the fission of a radio- terms as energy and heat—have more specialized
active material. In either case, the steam that is and more precise meanings in the study of ther-
generated is the medium by whichthermal energy modynamics than they do in everyday life or
is carried to the ship’s engines, where it is even in the study of general physics. This is
converted into mechanical energy which propels only to be expected; thermodynamics is ahighly
the ship. In addition, energy transformations specialized branch of physics and, like any other
related directly or indirectly to the basic pro- specialty, it requires a certain refinement of
pulsion plant energy conversion provide power terminology. If any difficulty arises from the
for many vital services such as steering, light- fact that familiar terms are used in asomewhat
ing, ventilation, heating, refrigeration and air unfamiliar sense, the difficulty can be largely
conditioning, the operation of various electrical minimized by paying particular attention to the
and electronic devices, and the loading, aiming. exact meaning of each term, as defined here,
and firing of the ship’s weapons. rather than depending upon a general knowledge
In order to acquire a basic understanding of for an understanding of the terms.
the design of shipboard engineering plants, it is
necessary to have some understanding of certain ENERGY
concepts in the field of thermodynamics. In the
broadest sense of the term, thermodynamics is Although energy has a general meaning to
the physical science that deals with energy and almost everyone, it is not easy to define the
energy transformations. The branch of thermo- word in a completely satisfactory way. Energy
dynamics which is of primary interest to engi- is intangible and is largely known through its
neers is usually referred to as applied thermo- effects. Because energy is so often manifested
dynamics or engineering thermodynamics; it by the production of work, energy is commonly
deals with fundamental design and operational defined as ‘‘the capacity for doing work.’’ How-
considerations of boilers, turbines, internal ever, this is not entirely adequate as a defini-
combustion engines, air compressors, refrig- tion, since work is not the only effect that is
eration and air conditioning equipment, and other
machinery in which energy is exchanged or
transferred in order to produce some desired the student who has the mathematical background
effect. required for further study of thermodynamics will find
This chapter deals with certain thermody- it profitable to consult thermodynamics texts to am-
namic concepts that are particularly necessary plify the information given in this chapter.
157
produced by energy. For example, heat can flow energy. The two forms of stored mechanical
from one body to another without doing any work energy are (1) mechanical potential energy,
at all, but the heat must still be considered as and (2) mechanical kinetic energy.“ Mechanical
energy and the process of heat transfer must be energy in transition is manifested by work.
recognized aS a process that has produced an Mechanical potential energy is stored in a
effect. A broader definition, then, and one which system by virtue of the relative positions of
satisfies more of the conditions under which we the bodies that make up the system. The me-
know energy to exist, is ‘‘the capacity for pro- chanical potential energy associated with the
ducing an effect.’’ gravitational attraction between the earth and
Energy exists in many forms. For conveni- another body provides us with many everyday
ence, we uSually classify energy according to examples. A rock resting on the edge of a cliff
the size and nature of the bodies or particles in such a position that it will fall freely if
with which the energy is associated. Thus we pushed has mechanical potential energy. Water
say that mechanical energy is the energy asso- at the top of a dam has mechanical potential
ciated with large bodies or objects—usually, energy. A Sled that is being held atthe top of an
things that are big enough to see. Thermal icy hill has mechanical potential energy. Note
energy is energy associated with molecules. that in each of these examples the energy resides
Chemical energy is energy that arises from the neither in the earth alone nor inthe other object
forces that bindthe atoms together ina molecule. alone but rather in an energy system of which
Chemical energy is demonstrated whenever the earth is merely one component.
combustion or any other chemical reaction takes Mechanical kinetic energy is stored ina
place. Electrical energy, light, X-rays, and system by virtue of the relative velocities of
radio waves are examples of energy associated the component parts of the system. Push that
with particles that are even smaller than atoms. rock over the edge of the cliff, open the gate of
Each of these types of energy must be further the dam, or let go of the sled—and something
classified as (1) stored energy, or (2) energy in will move. The rock will fall, the water will
transition. Stored energy can be thought of as flow, the Sled will slide down the hill. In each
energy that is actually ‘‘contained in’’ or ‘‘stored case the mechanical potential energy will be
in’’ a substance or system. There are twokinds changed to mechanical kinetic energy. Since it
of stored energy: (1) potential energy, and (2) is customary toascribe zero velocity to an object
kinetic energy. When energy is stored in a sys- which is at rest with respect to the earth, it is
tem because of the relative positions of two or also customary to think of kinetic energy as
more objects or particles, we call it potential though it pertained only to the object which is
energy. When energy is stored in a system be- in motion with respect to the earth. It should be
cause of the relative velocities of two or more remembered, however, that kinetic energy, like
objects or particles, we call it kinetic energy. potential energy, is properly assigned to the
It should be emphasized that all stored energy system rather than to any one component of the
is either potential energy or kinetic energy. system.
Energy in transition is, as thename implies, In these examples of mechanical potential
energy that is inthe process of being transferred energy and mechanical kinetic energy, we have
from one object or system to another. All energy used an external source of energy to get things
in transition begins and ends as stored energy. started. Energy from some outside source is
In order to understand any form of energy, required to push the rock, open the gate of the
then, we need to know the relative size of the dam, or let go of the sled. All real machines
bodies or particles in the energy system and we and processes require this kind of a boost from
need to know whether the energy is stored or in an energy source outside of the system; Simi-
transition. Bearing in mind these two modes of larly, the energy from any one system is bound
classification, let us now examine mechanical
energy and thermal energy—the two forms of
energy which are of particular interest inprac-
tically all aspects of shipboard engineering.
2 although all forms of energy may be storedas poten-
MECHANICAL ENERGY tial energy or as kinetic energy, theseterms refer, in
common usage, to mechanical potential energy and
Energy associated with a system composed mechanical kinetic energy, unless some other form of
of relatively large bodies is called mechanical energy (thermal, chemical, etc.) is specified.
158
Chapter 8—INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
to affect other energy systems, since no one between the earth and the rock—that is, the force
system can be completely isolated as far as of gravity acting upon the rock, or the weight of
energy iS concerned. However, it is easier to the rock, and (2) the linear separation between
understand the basic energy concepts if we dis- the two objects. If we measure the weight in
regard all the other energy systems that might pounds and the distance in feet, the amount of
be involved in or affected by each energy process. mechanical potential energy stored inthe system
Hence we will generally consider one system at by virtue of the elevation of the rock is meas-
a time, disregarding energy boosts that may be ured in the unit called the foot-pound. Specifi-
received from an outside source and disregard- cally,
ing the energy transfers that may take place
between the system we are considering and any E._=-WxD
p
other system.
It should be emphasized that mechanical where
potential energy and mechanical kinetic energy
are both stored forms of energy. Some confusion E_ = mechanical potential energy, in foot-
arises because mechanical kinetic energy is P pounds
often referred to as the ‘‘energy of motion,”’’
thus leading to the false conclusion that ‘‘energy W = weight of body, in pounds
in transition’’ is somehow involved. This is not
the case, however. Work—mechanical work—is D= distance between earth and body, in feet
the only form of mechanical energy which can
properly be considered as energy in transition. The magnitude of mechanical kinetic energy
Mechanical potential energy and mechanical is proportional to the mass and to the square of
kinetic energy are mutually convertible. Totake the velocity of an object which has velocity with
the example of the rock resting on the edge of respect to another object, or
the cliff, let us suppose that some external force
pushes the rock over the edge so that it falls. mv2
E, = ——
As the rock falls, the system loses potential Lain
energy but gains kinetic energy. By the time the where
rock reaches the ground at the base of the cliff,
all the potential energy of the system has been E, = mechanical kinetic energy, in foot-
converted into kinetic energy. The sum of the pounds
potential energy and the kinetic energy is iden-
tical at each point along the line of fall, but the M = mass of body, in pounds
proportions of potential energy and kinetic
energy are constantly changing asthe rock falls. V =velocity of body relative to the earth,
To take another example, consider a baseball in feet per second
that is thrown straight up into the air. The ball
has kinetic energy while it is in upward motion, Where it is more convenient to use the weight
but the amount of kinetic energy is decreasing of the body, rather than the mass, the equation
and the amount of potential energy is increasing becomes
as the ball travels upward. When the ball has
just reached its uppermost position, before it wv"
starts to fall back toward the earth, it has only EK 2g
potential energy. Then, as the ball falls back
toward the earth, the potential energy is con- where W is the weight of the body, in pounds,
verted into kinetic energy again. andg is the acceleration due to gravity, gen-
The magnitude of the mechanical potential erally taken as 32.2 feet per second per second.
energy Stored in a system by virtue ofthe rela- Work, as we have Seen, is mechanical energy
tive positions of the bodies that make up the in transition—that is, it is a transitory form of
system is proportional to (1) the force of at- mechanical energy which occurs only between
traction between the bodies, and (2) the distance two or more other forms of energy. Work is
between the bodies. In the case of the rock which done when a tangible body or substance is moved
is ready to fall from the edge of the cliff, we are through a tangible distance by the action of a
concerned with (1) the force of attraction tangible force. Thus we may define work as the
159
energy which is transferred by the action of a fell back to the floor, the mechanical potential
force through a distance, or energy was converted into mechanical kinetic
energy. In one sense, therefore, we say that
Ewk =FxD our work was ‘‘undone’’ and that no net work
where has been done.
On the other hand, we may choose to regard
ELK = work, in foot pounds the two actions separately. In such a case, we
say that we have done 15 foot-pounds of work by
F = force, in pounds lifting the weight and that the force of gravity
acting upon the weight has done 15 foot-pounds
D = distance (or displacement), in feet of work to return the weight to its original posi-
tion on the floor. However, we must regard one
In the case of work done against gravity, the work as positive and the other as negative. The
force is numerically the same as the weight of two cancel each other out, so there is again no
the object or body that is being displaced. net work. But in this case we have recognized
It is important to note that no work is done that 15 foot-pounds of work were performed
unless something is displaced from its previous twice, in two separate operations, by two dif-
position. When we lift a 5-pound weight from ferent agencies.
the floor to a table that is 3 feet high, we have This example has been elaborated at some
done 15 foot-pounds of work. If we merely stand length because we may draw several important
and hold the 5-pound weight, we do not perform inferences from it. First, it may help to clarify
any work in the technical sense of the term, even the concept of work as a form of energy that
though we may feel like we are working. In this must be accounted for. Also, it may help to
case, actually, all we are doing is exerting force convey the real meaning of the statement that
in order to support the weight against the action work is mechanical energy in transition. Work
of the force of gravity. The forces are balanced; is energy in transition because it occurs only
there is no motion or displacement of the weight, temporarily, between other forms of energy, and
so no work is done. because it must always begin and end as stored
If the force and the displacement are neither energy. And finally, the example suggests the
acting in the same direction nor acting in total need for arbitrary reference planes in connec-
opposition, work is done only by that component tion with the measurement of potential energy,
of the force which is acting in the direction of kinetic energy, and work. The quantitative
the displacement of the body or object. A man consideration of any form of energy requires a
pushing a lawnmower, for example, is exerting frame of reference which defines the starting
some force that acts in the direction in which point and the stopping point of any particular
the lawnmower is moving; but he is also exert- operation; the reference planes are practically
ing some force which acts downward, at right always relative rather than absolute.
angles to the direction of displacement. In this Note that mechanical potential energy, me-
case, only the forward component of the exerted chanical kinetic energy, and work are all
force results in work—that is, in the forward measured in the same unit, the foot-pound. One
motion of the lawnmower. foot-pound of work is done when a force of 1
Suppose that we move an object insucha way pound acts through a distance of 1 foot. One
that it returns to its original position. Have we foot-pound of mechanical kinetic energy or 1
done work or haven’t we? Let us consider again foot-pound of mechanical potential energy is
the example of lifting a 5-pound weight to the the amount of energy that would be required to
top of a 3-foot table. By this action we have per- accomplish 1 foot-pound of work.
formed 15 foot-pounds of work. Now suppose The amount of work done has nothing to do
that we let the weight fall back to the floor, so with the length of time required to do it. Ifa
that it ends up in the same position it had origi- weight of 1 pound is lifted through a distance
nally. Displacement is zero, so work must be of 1 foot, 1 foot-pound of work has been done,
zero. But what has happened to the 15 foot-pounds regardless of whether it was done in half a
of work we put into the system when we lifted second or half an hour. The rate at which work
the weight to the top of the table? By doing this is done is called power. In the field of mechani-
work, we gave the system 15 foot-pounds of cal engineering, the horsepower (hp) is the
mechanical potential energy. When the weight common unit of measurement for power. By
160
definition, 1 horsepower is equal to 33,000 foot- internal energy. Instead of referring to internal
pounds of work per minute or 550 foot-pounds of potential energy and internal kinetic energy,
work per second. Thus a machine that is capable therefore, we may often simply use the term
of doing 550 foot-pounds of work per second is internal energy. When used in this way, without
said to be a 1-horsepower machine. qualification, the term internal energy should
be understood to mean the sum total of all
THERMAL ENERGY internal energy stored in the substance or sys-
tem by virtue of the motion of molecules or by
Energy associated primarily with systems virtue of the forces of attraction between
of molecules is called thermal energy. Like molecules.
other kinds of energy, thermal energy may exist
in stored form (in which case it is called in- Heat
ternal energy) or as energy in transition (in
which case it is called heat). Although the term heat is more familiar than
In common usage, the term heat is often used the term internal energy, it may be more diffi-
to include all forms of thermal energy. How- cult to arrive at an accurate definition of heat.
ever, this lack of distinction between heat andthe Heat is thermal energy in transition. Like work,
stored forms of thermal energy can lead to heat is a transitory energy form existing be-
serious confusion. In this text, therefore, the tween two or more other forms of energy.
term internal energy is used to describe the Since the flow of thermal energy can occur
stored forms of thermal energy, and the term only when there is a temperature difference
heat is used only to describe thermal energy between two objects or regions, it is apparent
in transition. that heat is not a property or attribute of any
one object or substance. If aperson accidentally
Internal Energy touches a hot stove, he may understandably feel
that heat is a property of the stove. More ac-
Internal energy, like all stored forms of curately, however, he might reflect that his hand
energy, exists either as potential energy or as and the stove constitute an energy system and
kinetic energy. that thermal energy flows from the stove to his
Internal potential energy is the energy asso- hand because the stove has a higher tempera-
ciated with the forces of attraction that exist ture than his hand.
between molecules. The magnitude of internal As another example of the difference between
potential energy is dependent upon the mass of heat and internal energy, consider two equal
the molecules and the average distance by which lengths of piping, made of identical materials
they are separated, in much the same way that and containing steam at the same pressure and
mechanical potential energy depends upon the temperature. One pipe is well insulated, one is
mass of the bodies in the system and the dis- not. From everyday experience, we expect more
tance by which they are separated. The force of heat to flow from the uninsulated section of pipe
attraction between molecules is greatest in than from the insulated section. When the two
solids, less in liquids and yielding substances, pipes are first filled with steam, the steam in
and least of all in gases and vapors. Whenever one pipe contains exactly as much internal energy
something happens to change. the average dis- as the steam in the other pipe. We know this is
tance between the molecules of a substance, true because the two pipes contain equal volumes
there is a corresponding change in the internal of steam at equal pressures and temperatures.
potential energy of the substance. After a few minutes, the steam in the uninsu-
Internal kinetic energy is the energy asso- lated pipe will contain muchless internal energy
ciated primarily with the activity of molecules, than the steam in the insulated pipe, as we can
just as mechanical kinetic energy is the energy tell by reading the pressure and temperature
associated with the velocities of relatively large gages on each pipe. What has happened? Stored
bodies, It is important to note that the tempera- thermal energy—internal energy—has moved
ture of a substance arises from and is propor- from one place to another, first from the
tional to the molecular activity with which insteam to the pipe, then from the uninsulated
ternal kinetic energy is associated. pipe to the air. It is this movement, or
For most purposes, we will not need to this flow, of energy that should properly be
distinguish between the two stored forms of called heat. Temperature is a reflection of the
161
amount of internal kinetic energy possessed by following relationships have thus been estab-
an object or a substance, and it is therefore an lished by definition or derived from the estab-
attribute or property of the substance. The move- lished definitions:
ment or flow of thermal energy—or, in other
Sere a |
words, heat—is an attribute of the ener eysystem 1 calorie B60 watt-hour
rather than of any one component of it.
Units of Measurement 4.18605 joules
In engineering, heat is commonly measured
in the unit called the British thermal unit (Btu). 3.0883 foot-pounds
Originally, 1 Btu was defined as the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound 1 Btu 251.996 calories
of water through 1 degree on the Fahrenheit
scale. A similar unit called the calorie (cal) was 778.26 foot-pounds
originally defined as the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1054.886 joules
through 1 degree on the Celsius scale. These
units are still in use, but the original definitions The values given here are, of course, con-
have been abandoned by international agreement. siderably more precise than those normally re-
The Btu and the calorie are now defined in terms quired in engineering calculations.
of the unit of energy called the joule.4 The When large amounts of thermal energy are
involved, it is often more convenient to use mul-
3The correct definition of heat is emphasized here in tiples of the Btu or the calorie. For example, we
order to avoid subsequent misunderstanding in the may wish to refer to thousands or millions of
study of thermodynamic processes. It is obvious that Btu, in which case we would use the unit kB
"heat'’ and related words are sometimes used ina (1 kB = 1000 Btu) or the unit mB (1 mB=
general way to indicate temperature. For example, 1,000,000 Btu). Similarly, the kilocalorie may
we have no simple way of referring to an object with
be used when we wish to express calories in
a large amount of internal kinetic energy except to say
that it is "hot.'' Similarly, a reference to "'the heat of
thousands (1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories). The
the sun" may mean either the temperature of the sun or kilocalorie, also called the ‘‘large calorie,’’ is
the amount of heat being radiated by the sun. Even the unit normally used for indicating the thermal
"heat flow" or "heat transfer''—the terms quite prop- energies of various foods. Thus a portion of
erly used to describe the flow of thermal energy—are food which contains ‘‘100 calories”’ actually con-
sometimes used in such a way as toimply that heat is tains 100 kilocalories or 100,000 ordinary calo-
a property of one object or substance rather than an ries.
attribute of an energy system. To a certain extent,
such inaccurate use of "heat'' and related words is
really unavoidable; we must continue to "add heat" Heat Transfer
and "remove heat'' and perform other impossible Heat flow, or the transfer of thermal energy
operations, verbally, unless we wish to adopt a very
from one body, substance, or region to another,
stuffy and long-winded form of speech. It is essential,
however, that we maintain a clear understanding of
takes place always from a region of higher tem-
the true nature of heat and of the distinction between perature to a region of lower temperature.° In
heat and the stored forms of thermal energy. thermodynamics, the high temperature region
Several reasons contributed to the abandonment ofthe may be called the source or the emitting region;
original definitions of the Btu and the calorie. For one the low temperature region may be called the
thing, precise measurements indicated that the quantity sink, the receiver, or the receiving region.
of heat required to raise a specified amount of water
through 1 degree on the appropriate scale was not con-
stant at all temperatures. Second—and perhaps even
more important—the recognition of heat as a form of Phis statement, although entirely true for all practi-
energy makes the Btu and the calorie unnecessary. In- cal engineering applications, should perhaps be quali-
deed, it has been suggested that the calorie and the Btu fied. Energy exchanges between molecules may be
could be given up entirely and that heat could be ex- thought of as being random, in the statistical sense;
pressed directly in joules, ergs, foot-pounds, or other therefore, some exchanges of thermal energy may in-
established energy units. Some progress has been made deed "go in the wrong direction''—that is, from a
in this direction, but not much; the Btuand the calorie colder region to a warmer region. On the average,
are still the units of heat most widely used in engineer- however, the flow of heat is always from the higher to
ing and in the physical sciences generally. the lower temperature. %
162
Although three modes of heat transfer— 3. The quantity of heat is directly propor-
conduction, radiation, and convection—are com- tional to the time of heat flow.
monly recognized, we will find it easier to 4. The quantity of heat depends upon the
understand heat transfer if we make a
distinction thermal conductivity of the material of which
between conduction and radiation, on the one the bar is made. Thermal conductivity (k) is
hand, and convection, on the other. Conduction different for each material.
and radiation may be regarded as the primary These relationships may be expressed by
modes of heat flow. Convection may best be the equation
thought of as a related but basically different
and special kind of process which involves the Q=kTA
Sie
L
movement of a mass of fluid from one place to
where
another.
Q = quantity of heat, in Btu or calories
CONDUCTION.—Conduction is the mode by
which heat flows from a hotter to a colder re- k = coefficient of thermal conductivity
gion when there is physical contact between the (characteristic of each material)
two regions. For example, consider a metal bar
which is held so that one end of it is in boiling T = time during which heat flows
water. In a very short time the end of the bar
which is not in the boiling water will have be- A = cross-sectional area, normal to the path
come too hot to hold. We say that heat has been of heat
conducted from molecule to molecule along the
entire length of the bar. The molecules in the ty = temperature at the hot end of the bar
layer nearest the source of heat become in-
creasingly active as they receive thermal to = temperature at the cold end of the bar
energy. Since each layer of molecules is bound
to the adjacent layers by cohesive forces, the L = distance between the two ends of the bar
motion is passed on to the next layer which, in
turn, sets up increased activity in the next layer.
The process of conduction continues as long as This equation, which is sometimes called the
there is a temperature difference between the general conduction equation, applies whether we
two ends of the bar. are uSing a metric system or a British system.
The total quantity of heat conducted depends Consistency in the use of units is, of course,
upon a number of factors. Let us considera bar vital.
of homogeneous material which is uniform in
eross-sectional area throughout its length. One t, —t
The quantity 1+ is called the thermal
end of the bar is kept at a uniformly high tem-
perature, the other end.is kept at a uniformly
gradient or the temperature gradient. In the
low temperature. After a steady and uniform
metric CGS system, the temperature gradient is
flow of heat has been established, the total quan-
expressed in degrees Celsius per centimeter of
tity of heat that will be conducted through this
length; the cross-sectional area is expressed in
bar depends upon the following relationships:
Square centimeters; and the time is expressed
in seconds. In British units, the temperature
1. The total quantity of heat passing through gradient is expressed in Btu per inch (or some-
the conductor in a given length of time is di- times per foot) of length; the cross-sectional
rectly proportional to the cross-sectional area area is expressed in Square feet; andthe time is
of the conductor. The cross-sectional area is expressed in seconds or in hours. (As may be
measured normal to (that is, at right angles to) noted, some caution is required in using the
the direction of heat flow. British units; we must know whether the tem-
2. The total quantity of heat passing through perature gradient indicates Btu per inch or Btu
the conductor in a given length of time is proper foot, and we must know whether the time is
portional to the thermal gradient—that is, tothe expressed in seconds or in hours.)
difference in temperature between the two ends From the general conduction equation, we
of the bar, divided by the length of the bar. may infer that the coefficient of thermal
163
conductivity (k) represents the quantity of heat that the amount of heat absorbed by the circulat-
which will flow through unit cross section and ing water in the water chest is a true indication
unit length of a material in unit time when there of the heat conducted from the hotter end of the
is unit temperature difference between the hotter bar to the colder end. We will assume that the
and the colder faces of the material. following data are known at the outset or learned
Thermal conductivity is determined experi- by measurement or determined in the course of
mentally for various materials. We may perhaps the experiment:
visualize the process of conduction more clearly
and understand its quantitative aspects more Specific heat of water = 1.00
fully by examining an apparatus for the deter-
mination of thermal conductivity and by setting Temperature of water entering water chest =
up a problem. 20°C
Figure 8-1 shows a device that could be used
for determining thermal conductivity. Assume Temperature of water leaving water chest =
that we have a bar of uniform diameter, made
3036
of an unknown metal. (If we knew the kind of
metal, we could look up the thermal conduc- Mass of water passing through water chest =
tivity in a table; since we donot know the metal, 1300 grams
we shall find k experimentally.) One end of the
bar is inserted into a steam chest in whicha ty (temperature at hotter end of bar) = 80°C
constant temperature is maintained; the other
end of the bar is inserted into a water chest. to (temperature at cooler end of bar) = 60°C
The quantity of water flowing through the water
chest and the entrance and exit temperature of A (cross-sectional area of bar) = 20 square
the water are measured. Also, the temperature
centimeters
of the bar itself is measured at two points by
means of thermometers inserted into holes in L (distance between points of temperature
the bar; we may choose any two points along the measurement on bar) = 10 centimeters
bar, provided they are reasonably far apart and
provided they are some distance away from the T (time of heat flow) = 6 minutes = 360 sec-
steam chest and the water chest.
onds
We will assume that the entire apparatus is
perfectly insulated so that the temperature dif-
ference between t, and t, is an accurate reflec- To determine the thermal conductivity, k, of
tion of the heat conductéd along the bar and so our unknown metal, we will use two equations.
oenN —<— WATER IN
STEAM IN ——>
147.60
Figure 8-1.—Device for measuring thermal conductivity.
164
Chapter 8-INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
One is the general conduction equation as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of that substance 1
t, —t
degree.° In the metric CGS system, specific
heat is expressed in calories per gram per
degree Celsius; in the metric MKS system, it
where, aS we have seen, Q may be expressed is expressed in kilocalories per kilogram per
in calories or in Btu. In this example, we are degree Celsius; and in British systems, it is
using the metric CGS system and must therefore expressed in Btu per pound per degree Fahren-
express Q in calories. The second equation we heit. The specific heat of water is 1.00 in any
will use gives us a Second way of calculating system, and the numerical value of specific
Q—that is, by determining the amount of heat heat for any given substance is the same in all
absorbed by the circulating water. Thus, systems (although the units are, of course, dif-
ferent),
Q = mass of water x temperature change Specific heat is determined experimentally
of water x specific heat of water by laboratory procedures which are extremely
complex and difficult in practice, although
Substituting some of our known values in basically simple in theory. One of the common-
this second equation, we find that est methods of determining specific heat is
known as the method of mixtures. In this pro-
Q = (1300) (10) (1) = 13,000 calories cedure, a known mass of finely divided metal is
heated and then mixed with a known mass of
Using this value of Q and substituting other water. The temperatures of the metal before
known values in the general conduction equation, mixing, of the water before mixing, and of the
we find that mixture just as it reaches thermal equilibrium
are measured. Then, on the simple premise that
80 — 60)
13,000 = k (360) (20) (5 the heat lost by one substance must be gained
by the other substance, the specific heat of the
k (360) (20) (2) metal can be found by using the equation
14,400 k mC, (ty — tg) = mpcy (tz — ta)

where
0.9=k
m, = mass of metal
It should be noted that the general conduction
equation applies only when there is a steady- Moy = mass of water
state thermal gradient—that is, after a uniform
flow of heat has been established. It should be C) = specific heat of metal
noted also that k varies slightly as a function of
temperature, although for many purposes the Co = specific heat of water (known
to be 1.00)
rise in k that goes with a rise in temperature
_ is so slight that it can safely be disregarded. t, = temperature of metal before mixing
In considering the experiméntal determina-
tion of thermal conductivity, why do we include t, = temperature of water before mixing
“specific heat of water = 1.00’’ as one of the
known data? What is specific heat, and what is t, = temperature at which water and metal
its utility? Specific heat (also called heat capac- reach thermal equilibrium
ity or specific heat capacity) is, like thermal
conductivity, a thermal property of matter that
must be determined experimentally for each
substance. In general, we may Say that specific
heat is the property of matter that explains why 8 specific heat as defined here should not be confused
the addition of equal quantities of heat to two with the relatively useless concept of specific heat
ratio, by which the heat capacity of each substance is
different substances will not necessarily produce
compared to the heat capacity of water (taken as 1.00).
the same temperature rise inthe two substances, The specific heat ratio is, obviously, a pure number
We may define the specific heat of any substance without units.
165
In words, then, we may say that the mass All substances—solids, liquids, and gases—
times the specific heat times the temperature emit radiant energy at all times. We tend to
change of the first substance must equal the think of radiant energy as something that is
mass times the specific heat times the tem- emitted only by extremely hot objects such as
perature change of the second substance. Inthis the sun, a stove, or a furnace, butthis is a very
equation and in this verbal statement, we are limited view of the nature of radiant energy.
ignoring the thermal energy absorbed by the The earth absorbs radiant energy emitted by the
apparatus, by the stirring rods, and by the sun, but the earth in turn radiates energy to the
thermometers. In actually determining specific stars. A stove radiates energy to everything
heats, it is often necessary to account for all surrounding it, but at the same time allthe sur-
thermal energy, even that relatively minute rounding objects are radiating energy to the
quantity which is absorbed by the equipment. stove. A child standing near a snowman may
In such a case, the heat absorbed by the equip- well believe that the snowman is “‘radiating
ment is merely added to the right-hand side of cold’’ rather than emitting radiant energy; ac-
the equation. tually, however, both the child and the snowman
Specific heat is primarily useful in that are emitting radiant energy. The child, of course,
it allows us to determine the quantity of heat is radiating far more energy than the snowman,
added to a substance merely by observing the so the net effect of this energy exchange is that
temperature rise, when we know the mass and the Snowman grows warmer and the child grows
the specific heat of the substance. And this, in colder. We are literally surrounded by—and a
fact, is precisely what we did in the thermal part of—such energy exchanges at all times. As
conductivity problem, where we calculated the we consider these energy exchanges, we may ar-
amount of heat that had been absorbed by the rive at a new view of thermal equilibrium:
water in the water chest by using the equation when objects are radiating precisely as much
thermal energy as they are receiving, in any
Q = mass x temperature change x specific heat given period of time, they are in thermal equi-
librium.
Specific heat varies, in greater or lesser
Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic
degree, according to pressure, volume, and
wave phenomenon, differing from light, radio
temperature. Specific heat values quoted for
waves, and other electromagnetic phenomenon
solids and liquids are obtained through experi-
merely in the wavelengths involved. When the
mental procedures in which the substance is
wavelengths are in the infrared part of the elec-
kept at constant pressure. The specific heat of
tromagnetic spectrum—that is, when they are
any gaS may vary tremendously, having in fact
just below the range of visible light waves—we
an almost infinite variety of values because of
refer to the radiated energy as thermal radia-
the almost infinite variety of processes and
tion. It should be noted, however, that all elec-
states during which energy is transferred to or
tromagnetic waves transport energy which can
by a gas. For convenience, specific heats of
be absorbed by matter and which can in many
gases are given as specific heat at constant
cases result in observable thermal effects. For
volume (c,,) and specific heat at constant pres-
example, one energy unit of light absorbed by
sure (cp).
a substance produces the same temperature rise
in that substance as is produced by the absorp-
RADIATION.—Thermal radiation is a mode
tion of an equal amount of thermal (infrared)
of heat transfer that does not involve any physi-
energy.
eal contact between the emitting region and the
receiving region. A person sitting near a hot When radiant energy falls upon a body that
stove is warmed by thermal radiation from the can absorb it, some of the energy is absorbed
stove, even though the air in between remains and some is reflected. The amount absorbed and
relatively cold. Thermal radiation from the the amount reflected depend in large part upon
sun warms the earth without warming the space the surface of the receiving body. Dark, opaque
through which it passes. Thermal radiation bodies absorb more thermal radiation than shiny,
passes through any transparent substance—air, bright, white, or polished bodies. Shiny, bright,
glass, ice—without warming it to any extent white, or polished bodies reflect more thermal
because transparent materials are very poor radiation than dark, opaque bodies. Good radia-
absorbers of radiant energy. tors are also good absorbers and poor radiators
166
are poor absorbers. In general, good reflectors convection does not, in and of itself, ‘‘transfer’’
are poor radiators and poor absorbers. thermal energy.
Convection serves a vital purpose in bring-
In considering thermal radiation, the concept ing the different parts of a fluid into close
of black body radiation is frequently a useful contact with each other so that heat transfer can
construct. A black body is conceived of as an
occur. Without convection, there would be little
ideal or theoretical body which, being perfectly heat transfer from, to, or within fluids, since
black, is a perfect radiator, a perfect absorber, most fluids are very poor at transferring heat
and a perfect nonreflector of radiant energy.
except when they are in motion.
The thermal radiation emitted by such a perfect Two kinds of convection may be distinguished.
black body is proportional to T4—that is, to the Natural convection occurs when there are differ-
absolute temperature raised tothe fourth power. ences in the density of different parts of the
Because of the fourth power relationship, dou- fluid. The differences in density are usually
bling the absolute temperature increases the
caused by unequal temperatures within the mass
radiation 16 times, tripling the absolute tem- of fluid. As the air over ahot radiator is heated,
perature increases the radiation 81 times, and for example, it becomes less dense and there-
so forth. The thermal radiation emitted by real fore begins to rise. Cooler, heavier air is drawn
bodies is also proportional tothe fourth power of in to replace the heated air that has moved up-
the absolute temperature, although the total
ward, and convection currents are thus set up.
radiation emitted by a real body depends also Another example of natural convection, and one
upon the surface of the body. Consideration of that may be quite readily observed, may be
the relationship between the thermal radiation
found in a pan of water that is being heated on
of a body and the fourth power of the absolute a stove. As the water near the bottom of the pan
temperature of that body explains why the prob-
is heated first, it becomes less dense and moves
lem of thermal insulation against radiation
upward. This displaces the cooler, heavier water
losses increases so enormously as the tempera- and forces it downward; as the cooler water is
ture increases, heated in turn, it rises and displaces the water
near the top. By the time the water has almost
CONVECTION.—Although convection is often reached the boiling point, a considerable amount
loosely classified as a mode of heat transfer, it
of motion can be observed in the water.
is more accurately regarded as the mechanical
Forced convection occurs when some me-
transportation of a mass of fluid (liquid or gas) chanical device such as a pump or a fan produces
from one place to another. In the process of this
movement of a fluid. Many examples of forced
transportation, all the thermal energy stored convection may be observed in the shipboard
within the fluid remains in stored form unless it
engineering plant: feed pumps transporting water
is transferred by radiation or by conduction. to the boilers, fuel oil pumps moving fuel oil
Since convection does not involve thermal energy through heaters and meters, lubricating oil
in transition, we cannot in the most fundamental
pumps forcing lubricating oil through coolers,
sense regard it as a mode ofheattransfer.
and forced draft blowers pushing air through
Convection is the transportation or the move- boiler double casings, to name but a few.
ment of some portions within amass of fluid. As The mathematical treatment of convection
this movement occurs, the moving portions of is extremely complex, largely because the
the fluid transport their contained thermal amount of heat gained or lost through the con-
energy to other parts of the fluid. The effect of vection process depends upon so many different
convection is thus to mix the various portions of factors. Empirically determined convection co-
the fluid. The part that was at the bottom of efficients which take account of these many
the container may move to the top or the part factors are available for most kinds of engineer-
that was at one side may move tothe other side. ing equipment.
As this mixing takes place, heattransfer occurs
by conduction and radiation from one part of the Sensible Heat and Latent Heat
fluid to another and between the fluid and its
Surroundings, In other words, convectiontrans-
ports portions of the fluid from one place to an- The terms sensible heat and latent heat are
other, mixes the fluid, and thus provides an often used to indicate the effect that the trans-
opportunity for heat transfer to occur. But fer of heat has upon a substance. The flow of
167
heat) from one substance to another is normal- energy stored in the substance, but it does not
ly reflected in a temperature change in each result in an increase in the amount of internal
substance—that is, the hotter substance be- kinetic energy. Only after the change of state
comes cooler and the cooler substance becomes has been fully accomplished does the addition of
hotter. However, the flow of heat is not reheat result in a change in the amount of internal
flected in a temperature change in a substance kinetic energy stored in the substance; hence,
which is in process of changing from one physi- there is no temperature change until after the
cal state’ to another. When the flow of heatis change of state is complete.
reflected in a temperature change, we say that In a Sense, we may think of latent heat as
sensible heat has been added to or removed the energy price that must be paid for a change
from a substance. When the flow of heat is not of state from solid to liquid or from liquid to
reflected in a temperature change but is re- gas, But the energy is not lost; rather, it is
flected in the changing physical state of a sub- stored in the substance as internal potential
stance, we say that latent heat has been added energy. The energy price is ‘‘repaid,’’ so to
or removed, speak, when the substance changes back from
Since heat is defined as thermal energy in gas to liquid or from liquid to solid; during
transition, we must not infer that sensible heat these changes of state, the substance gives off
and latent heat are really two different kinds of heat without any change in temperature.
heat. Instead, the terms serve to distinguish The amount of latent heat required to cause
between two different kinds of effects produced a change of state—or, on the other hand, the
by the transfer of heat; and, at a more funda- amount of latent heat given off during a change
mental level, they indicate something about the of state—varies according to the pressure under
manner in which the thermal energy was or will which the process takes place. For example, it
be stored. Sensible heat involves internal kinetic takes about 970 Btu to change 1 pound of water
energy and latent heat involves internal potential to steam at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia)
energy. but it takes only 62 Btu to change 1 pound of
The three fundamental physical states of all water to steam at 3200 psia.
matter are Solid, liquid, and gas (or vapor). The Figure 8-2 shows the relationship between
physical state of a substance is closely re- sensible heat and latent heat for one substance,
lated to the distance between molecules. The water, at atmospheric pressure.8 If we start
molecules are closest together in solids, farther with 1 pound of ice at 0°F, we must add 16 Btu
apart inliquids, andfarthest apart in gases. When to raise the temperature of the ice to 32°F. We
the flow of heat to asubstance is not reflected in call this adding sensible heat. To change the
a temperature change, we know that the energy pound of ice at 32°F to a pound of water at 32°F,
is being used to increase the distance between we must add 144 Btu (the latent heat of fusion).
the molecules of the substance and thus change There will be no change in temperature while
it from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid toa the ice is melting. After all the ice has melted,
gas. In other words, the addition of heat toa however, the temperature of the water will be
substance that is in process of changing from raised as additional heat is supplied. Again, we
solid to liquid or from liquid to gas results in are adding sensible heat. If we add 180 Btu—
an increase in the amount of internal potential that is, 1 Btu for each degree of temperature
between 32°F and 212°F—the temperature of the |
water will be raised to the boiling point. To
hh thermodynamics, the physical state of asubstance change the pound of water at 212°F to a pound
(solid, liquid, or gas) is usually described by the term of steam at 212°F, we must add 970 Btu (the
phase, while the term state is used to describe the latent heat of vaporization). After all the water
substance with respect to all of its properties—phase, has been converted to steam, the addition of
pressure, temperature, specific volume, and so forth. more heat will cause an increase in the tem-
Thus the phase of a substance may be considered as
perature of the steam. If we add 42 Btu to the
merely one of the several properties that fixthe state
of the substance. While the precision of this usage
has some obvious advantages, it is notinstandard use
among engineers. In this text, therefore, the term 8rhe same kind of chart could be drawn up for other
physical state (or sometimes state) is used to denote substances, but different amounts of thermal energy
the molecular condition of a substance that determines would of course be required for each change of tem-
whether the substance is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. perature or of physical state.
168
pound of steam which is at 212°F,

we can super- are of the shell-and-tube types, consisting of a
heat? it to 300°F. bundle of metal tubes that fit inside a shell.
The same relationships apply when heat is One fluid flows through the inside of the tubes
being removed. The removal of 42 Btu from the and the other flows through the shell, around
pound of steam which is at 300°F will cause the outside of the tubes.
the temperature to drop to 212°F, As the pound The exchanges of thermal energy that take
of steam at 212°F changes to a pound of water place in even a simple heat exchanger are really
at 212°F, 970 Btu are given off. When a gas or quite complex. The processes of conduction,
vapor is changing to a liquid, we usually use the radiation, and convection are involved in practi-
term latent heat of condensation; numerically, cally all heat exchangers. Processes involving
of course, the latent heat of condensation is latent heat—that is, the processes of evapora-
exactly the same as the latent heat of vaporization, condensation, melting, and solidification—
tion. The removal of another 180 Btu will lower may contribute to the heat transfer problem. In
the temperature of the pound of water from 212°F all cases, heat transfer is affected by physical
to 32°F. As the pound of water at 32°F changes properties of the fluids which are exchanging
to a pound of ice at 32°F, 144 Btu are given off thermal energy and by physical properties of the
without any accompanying change in tempera- metal through which the change is being ef-
ture. Further removal of heat causes the tem- fected. The temperature differences involved,
perature of the ice to decrease. the extent and nature of the fluid films, the
thickness and nature of the metals through which
Heat Transfer Apparatus heat transfer takes place, the length and area
of the path of heat flow, the types of surfaces
Any device or apparatus designed to allow involved, the velocity of flow, and other factors
the flow of thermal energy from one fluid to also determine the amount of heat transferred
another is called a heat exchanger. The shipin any heat exchanger.
board engineering plant contains an enormous Because heat transfer is such a complex
number and variety of heat exchangers, ranging phenomenon, heat transfer calculations are nec-
from large items such as boilers and main con- essarily complex. For some purposes, heat
densers to relatively small items such as fuel transfer problems are simplified by the use of
oil heaters and lubricating oil coolers. an overall coefficient of heat transfer (U) which
As a basis for understanding something about may be determined experimentally for any
heat transfer in real heat exchangers, it isnec- specific set of conditions. Tabulated values of
essary to visualize the general configuration of U are available for various kinds of heat ex-
the most commonly used type of heat exchanger. changer metal tubes, for building materials, and
With few exceptions, heat exchangers used for other materials; in most cases the values of
aboard ship are of the indirect or surface type— U_ are approximate, since various conditions
that is, heat flows from one fluid to another such as temperature, velocity of flow, condition
through some kind of tube, plate, or other ‘‘sur- of the heat transfer surfaces, and the physical
face’’ that separates the two fluids and keeps properties of the fluids have a profound effect
them from mixing. Most surface heat exchangers upon the amount of heat transferred.
The transfer of heat in a heat exchanger
involves the flow of heat from the hot fluid to
the tube metal and from the tube metal to the
aN vapor or gas is said to be superheated when its cold fluid. In addition, heat must also be trans-
temperature has been raised above the temperature ferred through two layers of fluid (one on the
of the liquid from which the vapor or gas is being inside and one on the outside of the tube) which
generated, As may be inferred from the discussion,
are not flowing with the remainder of the fluid
it is impossible to superheat a vapor or gas as long
as it is in contact withthe liquidfrom which it is being but are almost motionless. These relatively
generated. stagnant layers, known as boundary layers or
fluid films, are extremely small in size but
aOR notable exception is the deaerating feed tank,
have an extremely important effect on heat
discussed in chapter 13 of this text. Deaerating feed
tanks are basically described as direct-contact heat transfer.
exchangers, rather than surface heat exchangers, be- As previously noted, most fluids are very
cause heat transfer is accomplished by the actual poor transferrers of heat. As a fluid is flowing,
mixing of the hotter and the colder fluids. however, convection and mechanical mixing of
169
LATENT HEAT
LATENT OF VAPORIZATION
SENSIBLE|HEAT OF SENSIBLE (OR LATENT HEAT SENSIBLE
FUSION HEAT OF CONDENSATION) HE AT
STEAM-~!
y
Mia ee wy
\
WATER
BOILING
>
uw 212°
° 2002 oe
STEAM vs
CONDENSING “i
STEAM
COOL!
100°
TEMPERATURE
IN
MING
ICE
MELTING
>
32°
=— ICE
WATER COOLING
~ FREEZIN Gane
180 970 42
BTU PER POUND OF WATER
38.1
Figure 8-2,—Relationship between sensible heat and latent heat for water at atmospheric pressure.
the fluid bring the molecules into such intimate from this fluid film to the tube metal, from the
contact that heat transfer can and does occur. tube metal to the other fluid film, and from this
Other things being equal, increasing the velocity fluid film to the cold fluid. As may be seen, the
of fluid flow increases heat transfer. major part of the temperature drop occurs in the
Since the fluid film is almost motionless, fluid films rather than in the tube metal. Note,
heat transfer through the film is very poor. The also, that the thicker fluidfilm is more resistant
effect of fluid films on heat transfer is shown in to heat transfer than the thinner fluid film.
figure 8-3. The temperature line indicates the The velocity of flow and the amount of tur-
changes in temperature that occur as heat is bulence in the flow affect heat transfer by alter-
transferred from the hot fluid to the fluid film, ing the thickness of the fluid film. Increasing the
velocity of flow diminishes the thickness of the
fluid film and thus increases heat transfer.
1D eee
It is important here to maintain the distinction, Turbulent flow breaks up the fluid film and thus
previously established, between heat andtemperature. increases heat transfer. Although there are some
Increasing the velocity of flow increases the amount obvious disadvantages to excessive turbulence,
of heat that is transferred, but decreasingthe velocity many heat exchangers are designed to operate
increases the temperature of the fluid. This fact is of
with a certain amount of turbulence so that the
considerable practical importance in the design and
operation of heat exchangers. In a heat exchanger fluid films will be kept to a minimum.
designed for high velocity flow, stagnation of the flow In real heat exchangers, the accumulation of
is likely to cause severe overheating of the heat ex- deposits of scale, soot, or dirt on the inside or
changer metal. the outside of the tubes has a profound and
170
same direction. Parallel-flow heat exchangers

are rarely used for naval service, largely be-
cause they would require an impossibly long
heat transfer surface to achieve the required
amount of heat transfer. In counter flow (fig.
8-5) the two fluids flow in opposite directions.
Many heat exchangers used aboard ship are of
the counter-flow type. In cross flow (fig. 8-6)
one fluid flows at right angles tothe other. Cross
flow is used particularly where the purpose of
the heat exchanger is to remove latent heat and
thus change the physical state of a substance.
Main and auxiliary condensers are typically of
the cross-flow type, as are several other small-
er shipboard condensers.
Surface heat exchangers are referred to as
single-pass units, if each fluid passes the other
only once, or as multipass units, if one fluid
passes the other more than once. Multipass flow
may be obtained by the arrangement ofthe tubes
TEMPERATURE and of the fluid inlets and outlets, or it may be
obtained by using baffles to guide a fluid so that
it passes the other fluid more than once before
it leaves the heat exchanger.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
In the previous discussion of energy, we have

occasionally assumed a general principle which
must now be stated. This principle is called the
147.61 principle of the conservation of energy. The
Figure 8-3,—Effect of fluidfilm on heat transfer. principle may be stated in several ways. Most
commonly, perhaps, it is stated as energy can
detrimental effect upon heat transfer. Such de- be neither destroyed nor created, but only
posits not only reduce the efficiency of the heat transformed. Another statement is that energy
exchanger but also tend to cause overheating of may be transformed from one form to another,
the tube metal. but the total energy of any body or system of
In surface heat exchangers, the components bodies is a quantity that can neither be increased
may be arranged so as to provide parallel flow, nor diminished by the action of the body or bod-
counter flow, or cross flow of the two fluids. In ies. Still another way of stating this principle is
parallel flow (fig. 8-4) both fluids flow in the by saying that the total quantity of energy in the
SW
nar AAAAAAAA 01 Rw")
SECOND FLUID SECOND FLUID
ULL VL
FIRST FLUID alti
CMLL VL
SECOND FLUID SECOND FLUID
SSS,
9
98.30 98.31
Figure 8-4.—Parallel flow in heat exchanger. Figure 8-5.—Counter flow in heat exchanger.
171
universe is always the same. Regardless of the

mode of expression, the principle of the conser-
SECOND FLUID
vation of energy applies to all kinds of energy.
Energy equations for many thermodynamic
processes are based directly upon the principle
of the conservation of energy. When the prin-
ciple of the conservation of energy is written in
equation form, it is known as the general energy FIRST FLUID
equation and is expressed as:
ARSE SSS
energy in = energy out FIRST FLUID
or, in more detail, it may be stated that the FIRST FLUIO—————>

energy entering a system equals the energy
leaving the system plus any accumulation and 98.32
minus any dimunition in the amount of energy Figure 8-6.—Cross flow in heat exchanger.
stored within the system.
The first law of thermodynamics, a special accordance with the first law of thermodynam-
statement of the principle of the conservation ics, it is expressed as
of energy, deals with the transformation of
J = 778 ft-lb per Btu
mechanical energy to thermal energy and of
thermal energy to mechanical energy. The first or y= 278 ft-lb
law is commonly stated as follows: Thermal Poem leet
energy and mechanical energy are mutually
The mechanical equivalent of heat provides
convertible, in the ratio of 778 foot-pounds to 1
us, directly or by extension, with a number of
Btu.
useful numerical values relating to heat, work,
The ratio of conversion between mechanical
and power. Some of the most widely used values
energy and thermal energy is known as the
are given here; others may be obtained from
mechanical equivalent of heat, or Joule’s equiva-
engineering handbooks and similar publications.
lent. It is symbolized by the letter J and, in
1 Btu = 778 ft-lb
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb per min =
550 ft-lb per sec
120he principle of the conservation of energy and the 1 kw = 1.341 hp
principle of the conservation of mass have been basic
to the development of modern science. Until the estab-
1 hp = 2545 Btu per hr =
lishment of the theory of relativity, with its implica- 42.42 Btu per min
tion of the mutual convertibility of energy and mass, 1 kw = 3413 Btu per hr
the two principles were considered quite separate. 1 kw = 44,256 ft-lb per min
According to the theory of relativity, however, they 1 hp-hr = 2545 Btu
must be considered merely as two phases of a single 1 kw-hr = 3413 Btu
principle which states that mass and energy are
interchangeable and the total amount of matter and The first law of thermodynamics is often
energy in the universe is constant. Nuclear fission, written in equation form as
a process in which atomic nuclei split into fragments
with the release of enormous quantities of energy, U5 = U, =Q—W
is a dramatic example of the actual conversion of
matter into energy. Even in the familiar process of where
combustion, modern techniques of measurement have U, = internal energy of a system at the be-
led to the discovery that a very minute quantity of ginning of a process
matter is converted into energy; for example, about
0.00007 ounce of matter is converted into energy when U, = internal energy of the system atthe end
6 tons of carbon are burned with 16 tons of oxygen. of the process
In spite of the mutual convertibility of energy and
mass, the principle of the conservation of energy may Q = net heat flowing into the system during
still be regarded separately as the cornerstone of the the process
science of thermodynamics. Machinery designed under
this principle alone still functions in an orderly and W = net work done by the system during the
predictable fashion. process
172
Another common statement of the first law else.’’43 Such flexibility of definition is entirely
of thermodynamics is that a perpetual motion reasonable for most purposes. When we must
machine of the first class is impossible. To account for energy, however, we will find it
understand the significance of this statement, it necessary to rigidly define and limit the sys-
is necessary to understand the classification of tem or systems under consideration. It is in
perpetual motion machines. Although no per- terms of energy accounting, then, that the con-
petual motion machine exists—or, indeed, has cept of a thermodynamic system is most useful.
ever been constructed—it is possible to conceive A thermodynamic system requires a work-
of three different categories. Aperpetual motion ing substance to receive, store, transport, and
machine of the first class is one which would put deliver energy. In most systems, the Working
out more energy in the form of work than it ab- substance is a fluid—liquid, vapor, or gas.1
sorbed in the form of heat. Since sucha machine The state of a thermodynamic system is speci-
would actually create energy, it would violate fied by giving the values of two or more prop-
the first law of thermodynamics and the principle erties. These properties, which are called state
of the conservation of energy. Aperpetual motion variables or thermodynamic coordinates,
in-
machine of the second class would permit the clude such common properties as pressure,
reversal of irreversible processes and would temperature, volume, and mass, as well as
thus violate the second law of thermodynamics, more complex properties such as enthalpy and
as discussed presently. A machine of the third entropy (discussed later), Although some sys-
class would be one in which absolutely no fric- tems are adequately described by giving the value
tion existed. Interestingly enough, there are no of only two variables, many systems require the
theoretical grounds for declaring that a machine specification of three or more variables.
of the third class is completely impossible; how-
ever, such a machine would be entirely contrary THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
to our experience and would violate some of our
profoundest convictions about the nature of A thermodynamic process may be definedas
energy and matter. any physical occurrence during which an effect
is produced by the transformation or redistri-
bution of energy. The occurrence of a thermo-
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS dynamic process is evidenced by changes in some
or all of the state variables of the system. The
A thermodynamic system may be defined as processes of most interest in engineering are
a bounded region which contains matter. The those involving heat and work.
boundaries may be fixed or they may vary in In connection with any process, it is usually
shape, form, and location. The matter within a necessary to consider the physical character of
system may be matter in any form—solid, the process; the manner in which energy is
liquid, or gas—or in some combination of forms. transformed or redistributed as the process
For some purposes, devices such as engines, takes place; the kind and amount of energy that
pumps, boilers, and so forth may be regarded is stored in the system before and after the
as being matter included within a thermodynamic process, and the location of such energy; and the
system; for other purposes, each such device changes which are brought about in the system
. may be considered as a system in itself. A
thermodynamic system may be entirely real,
entirely imaginary, or a mixture of real and 13Kiefer, Kinney, and Stuart, Principles of Engineer-
_ imaginary. A thermodynamic system may be ing Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
capable of exchanging energy, in the form of York, 1954 (p. 32).
heat and/or work, with its environs; or it may 14,,me writers use the term gas to indicatea gaseous
be an isolated system, in which case noheat can substance that can be liquefied only by very large
flow to or from the system and no work can be changes in pressure or temperature, reserving the
done on or by the system. term vapor for a gaseous substance that can be liqui-
fied more easily, by slight changes of pressure or
temperature. Other writers define a vapor as a gas
If a thermodynamic system appears to be a
which is in equilibrium with its liquid. For a great
flexible thing, consider the further statement that many purposes, the properties of a vapor are essen-
‘|. , a system may be said to be whatever one tially the same as the properties of real gases; hence
is talking about, and its environs are everythi..g the distinction is not always important.
173
as the result of the process. Itis also necessary a process involving elastic deformation, Suppose
to consider the energy exchanges that occur that a strong twisting force is applied to a shaft
between the system and its surroundings during at rest. The first part of this process will cause
the process, Since such energy exchanges will an elastic deformation of the shaft. The distance
have an effect on the final state of the system. between molecules in the shaft is changed, and
The lifting of an object—as, for example, the there is a storage of internal potential energy
lifting of a rock from the base of a cliff to the before the shaft begins to turn. When the applied
top of the cliff—is a simple example of a process force becomes great enough to turn the shaft,
involving work against gravity. Before the proc- there will also bea storage of mechanical kinetic
ess begins, the energy which will be requiredto energy. As long as the applied force remains
lift the rock is stored insome form in some other constant and the shaft. continues to turn, these
energy system. While the process is occurring, stored forms of energy will remain stored in
energy in the form of work flows from the ex- unchanging amount. Meanwhile, a great deal of
ternal system to the earth-rock system, At the mechanical energy in transition (work) will
end of the process, the energy is stored in the continuously flow through the shaft to some
earth-rock system in the form of mechanical other system,
potential energy. The change which has been When a solid body is dragged across arough
brought about by this process is manifested by horizontal surface, the process is one of work
the separation of the rock and the earth. against friction. The work done in moving the
Now suppose we push the rock off the top of object will be equal to the force required to
the cliff and allow it to fall freely toward the overcome the friction multiplied by the distance
base of the cliff. Disregarding the push (which through which the object is moved, In this proc-
is actually an input of energy from some external ess, the energy supplied as work is transformed
system), the process which now takes place is an very largely into internal kinetic energy, as evi-
example of work done by gravity. The work done denced by an increase in temperature. Some of
by gravity converts the mechanical potential the energy may be transformed into internal
energy of the system into mechanical kinetic potential energy because of molecular displace-
energy. Thus it is clear that energy in transi- ments in the object andinthe surface over which
tion—work, in this case—begins and ends as it is being moved.
stored energy. A propeller rotating in water is an example |
When the rock hits the earth, other processes of a process in which work causes fluid turbu-
occur. Some work will be expended in compress- lence. The first effect of the movement of the
ing the earth upon which the rock falls, and some propeller is to impart various motions to the
energy will then be stored as internal kinetic water, thus causing turbulence. For a short
energy in the rock andinthe earth. The increase time this movement of the water represents
in internal kinetic energy will be manifested by mechanical kinetic energy, but the energy is
a rise in the temperature of the rock and of the rapidly transformed into internal kinetic energy,
earth, and still another process will then take as evidenced by a rise in the temperature of the
place as heat flows from the rock and from the water.
earth. Some energy may also be stored as in- The addition of thermal energy to a piece of |
ternal potential energy because of molecular metal is a simple example of a process involv-
displacements in the rock and the earth. ing heat. As the metal is heated, thetemperature |
The compression of a spring provides an rises, indicating a storage within the metal of —
example of a process involving elastic defor- internal kinetic energy. Also, the metal expands; |
mation. As force is applied to compress the thus we know that some part of the energy de- |
spring, work is done. The major effect of the livered as heat is transformed into work as the
energy thus supplied as work is to decrease the metal expands against the resistance of its sur-
distance between molecules in the spring, thus roundings. If we continue heating the metal toits
increasing the amount of internal potential melting point, we will note a process in which
energy stored in the spring. If we suddenly the flow of heat results in a change in the physi- |
release the spring, the stored internal potential cal state of the substance but does not, at this
energy is suddenly released and the spring shoots point, result in a further rise in temperature.
away. Because of the enormous number and variety
The turning of a shaft—as, for example, a of processes that may occur, some basic clas-
propeller shaft of a ship—is another example of sification of processes involving heat and work is
174
a hr
desirable. We will consider first a classification is thus entirely without friction. The aspects
of processes according to the type of flow and of this process that we might want to know about
then consider a classification according to the are (1) the heat added or removed in the course
type of state change. Discussion of processes as of the process; (2) the work done onthe working
‘“‘reversible’’ or ‘‘irreversible’’ is reserved for fluid or by the working fluid; and (3) the net
a later section. change in the internal energy of the working
substance.
Type of Flow From the general energy equation, we know
that energy in must equal energy out. For the
When classified according to type of flow of non-flow process, the general energy equation
the working fluid, thermodynamic processes may may be written as
be considered under the general headings of (1)
non-flow processes, and (2) steady-flow proc- Wk
12
esses.
A non-flow process is one in whichthe work-
Qi Uy THU pit T Bt u
ing fluid does not flow into or out of its container where
in the course of the process, The Same molecules
of the working fluid that were present atthe be- Qi2~- total heat transferred, in Btu (positive if
ginning of the process are therefore present at heat is added during process, negative if
the end of the process. Non-flow processes occur heat is removed during process)
in reciprocating steam engines, air compres-
sors, internal combustion engines, and other U, =total internal energy, in Btu, at state 1
kinds of machinery. Since a piston-and-cylinder
arrangement is typical of most non-flow proc- Uo = total internal energy, in Btu, at state 2
esses, let us examine a non-flow process such
as might occur in the cylinder shown in figure Us — U, = net change in internal energy from
8-7. state 1 to state 2
Suppose that we move the cylinder from
position 1 to position 2, thereby compressing
WED = work done between state 1 and state 2,
the fluid contained in the cylinder above the
in ft-lb (positive if work is done by the
piston. Suppose, further, that we imagine this
working substance, negative if work is
to be a completely ideal process, and one which
done on the working substance)
J = the mechanical equivalent of heat, 778 ft-lb

per Btu
Wk,
aT aie total work done by or on the working
substance, in Btu (positive if workis
done by the substance, negative if
PISTON
work is done on the substance)
This equation deals with total heat, total

work, and total internal energy. If it is more
convenient to make calculations in terms of 1
pound of the working Substance, we would write
the equation as
wk
2) ® Qi5 = (Ug —u,)+ —z— Btu per Ib
; 147.16.0
Figure 8-7.—Piston-and-cylinder arrangement where the value of J remains the same and
for non-flow process. where q, u, and wk have the general meanings
175
er a es ee ee ee
noted above but refer to the values for 1 pound Again, the negative answer indicates that
of the working substance rather than to the work is done on the working substance rather
values for the total quantity of the working sub- than by the working substance.
stance. In both equations, it should be noted A steady-flow process is one in which a
that the subscripts 1 and 2 refer toa separation working substance flows steadily and uniformly
in time rather than to a Separation in space. through some device. Boilers, turbines, con-
densers, centrifugal pumps, blowers, and many
EXAMPLE: Four pounds of working sub- other actual machines are designed for steady-
stance are compressed in the cylinder shown flow processes. In anideal steady-flow process,
in figure 8-7. The process is accomplished the following conditions exist:
without the addition or removal of any heat but 1. The properties—pressure, temperature,
with a net increase in total internal energy of specific volume, etc.—of the working fluid re-
120 Btu. Find the work done on or by the work- main constant at any particular cross section
ing substance, in Btu per pound and in foot- in the flow system, although the properties ob-
pounds per pound, viously must change as the fluid proceeds from
section to section.
SOLUTION: First arrange the equation tofit 2. The average velocity of the working fluid
the problem, as follows: remains constant at any selected cross section
in the flow system, although it may change as
the fluid proceeds from section to section,
3. The system is always completely filled
Bh AP ipa gate with the working fluid, and the total weight of
the fluid in the system remains constant. Thus,
for each pound of working fluid that enters the
Since no heat is added or removed, qj9 = 0. system during a given period of time, there is
Since Up — Uj, or the net increase in total in- a discharge of 1 pound of fluid during the same
ternal energy, is equal to 120 Btu, and since we period of time.
are dealing with 4 pounds of the working sub- 4. The net rate of heat transfer andthe work
120 performed on or by the working fluid remain
stance, Ug — Uy = arn = 30 Btu per pound. constant.
In actual machinery designed for steady-flow
The work done on or by the working sub- processes, some of these conditions are not
stance, in Btu per pound, is given by the ex- entirely satisfied at certaintimes. For example,
Wky 9 a steady-flow machine such as a boiler or a
pression J Thus, turbine is not actually going through a steady-
flow process until the warming-up period is
over and the machine has settled down to steady
WED operation. For most practical purposes, minor
“aie = (— 30) + O Btu perlb fluctuations of properties and velocities caused
by load variations do not invalidate the use of
— 30 Btu per lb steady-flow concepts. In fact, even suchpiston-
and-cylinder devices as air compressors and
reciprocating steam engines may be considered
as steady-flow machines if there are enough
The answer is negative, indicating that the cylinders or if some other arrangement is used
work is done on the working substance rather to smooth out the flow so that it is essentially
than by the working substance, uniform at the inlet and the outlet.
To find the work done on the working sub- The equations for steady-flow processes are
stance in foot-pounds per pound,
merely we based on the general energy equation—that is,
wk energy in must equal energy out. Steady-flow
solve the equationfor wk 12 rather than for t equations are written in various ways, depend-
ing upon the forms of energy that are involved
and substitute. Thus, in the process under consideration. The forms
of energy which, to greater or lesser degree,
wk 19 = (—30) (778) = —23, 340 ft-Ib per Ib enter into any general equation for steady-flow
176
processes are (1) internal energy, (2) heat, (3) Vv total volume, in cubic feet
mechanical potential energy, (4) mechanical J yon the mechanical equivalent of heat, 778
kinetic energy, (5) work, and (6) flow work. ft-lb per Btu
The first five of these energy terms are
familiar, but the last one may be new. Flow Since it is frequently more convenient in
work, sometimes called displacement energy, is thermodynamics to make calculations in terms
the mechanical energy necessary to maintain of 1 pound of the working substance, we should
the steady flow ofastream of fluid. The numeri- note also the equation for specific enthalpy:
cal value of flow work may be calculated by
finding the product of the absolute pressure (in pv
h=u+ J Btu per lb
pounds per square feet) and the volume of the
fluid (in cubic feet). Thus,
here h, u, andv are specific enthalpy, specific
flow work = pV ft-lb internal energy, and specific volume, respec-
tively. When it is desired to calculate enthalpy
or, more conveniently, using specific volume in foot-pounds, rather than in Btu, it is only
rather than total volume, necessary to drop the J from the equations.
The terms heat content and total heat are
flow work = pv ft-lb per lb sometimes used to describe this property which
we have designated as enthalpy. However, the
The product pv will, of course, have a nu- terms heat content and total heat tendtobe mis-
merical value even when there is no flow of leading because the change in enthalpy of awork-
fluid. However, this value represents flow work ing fluid does not always measure the amount of
only when there is a steady, continuous flow of energy transferred as heat, nor is it necessarily
fluid. Flow work may also be expressed in caused by the transfer of energy in the form of
terms of Btu per pound, as heat. Also, the transferred energy that causes
a change in enthalpy is not entirely ‘‘contained’’
pv in the working fluid, as the terms heat content
flow work = Btu per lb
J and total heat tend to imply; although the internal
energy, u, is stored in the working fluid, the pv
As mentioned before, the steady-flow equa-
cannot in any way be considered as ‘‘contained’’
tions take various forms, depending upon the
in the fluid.
nature of the process under consideration. How-
ever, the terms for internal energy and flow
Type of State Change
work almost invariably appear in any steady-
flow process. For convenience, this combination
Thus far we have considered processes class-
of internal energy and flow work has been
ified as non-flow or steady-flow. The nature of
given a name, a symbol, and units of measure-
the state changes undergone by a working fluid
ment. The name is enthalpy (accent on second
provides us with another useful way of classify-
syllable). The symbol is H for total enthalpy
ing processes. The terms used to identify cer-
or h for specific enthalpy—that is, enthalpy per
tain common types of state changes are defined
pound. Total enthalpy, H, may be measured in
briefly in the following paragraphs.
‘Btu or in foot-pounds. Specific enthalpy (en-
thalpy per pound), h, may be measured in Btu
ISOBARIC STATE CHANGES.—An isobaric
per pound or in foot-pounds per pound. The
state change is one in which the pressure of and
enthalpy equation may be written as
on the working fluid is constant throughout the
change. In other words, an isobaric change is a
H = PY + Btu constant-pressure change. Isobaric changes oc-
cur insome piston-and-cylinder devices in which
where the piston operates in such afashionasto main-
tain a constant pressure. Isobaric state changes
H = total enthalpy, in Btu are not typical of most steady-flow processes,
U = total internal energy, in Btu but they are approximated in some steady-flow
p = absolute pressure, in pounds per square processes in which friction and shaft work are of
foot insignificant magnitude,
177
a ee te ee
An isobaric state change involves changes of ADIABATIC STATE CHANGES.

—An adiabatic
enthalpy. One equation which has frequent appli- state change is one which occurs in such a way
cation to isobaric state changes is written as that there is no transfer of heat to or from the
system while the process is occurring. Inmany
real processes, adiabatic changes are produced
(QyQ)p = hg — hy by performing the process rapidly. Since heat
where transfer is relatively slow, any rapidly per-
formed process can approach being adiabatic.
(dy 9) = heat transferred between state 1 and Compression and expansion of working fluids are
P state 2, with subscript p indicating frequently achieved adiabatically. For an adia-
constant pressure 7 batic process, the energy equation may be written
as
hy = enthalpy of working fluid at state 1
U, - U, = W
hy = enthalpy of working fluid at state 2
where
ISOMETRIC STATE CHANGES.—A state
Uy = internal energy of working fluid at
change is said to be isometric when the volume
state 1
(and the specific volume) of the working fluid is
maintained constant. In other words, an isomet-
Uy = internal energy of working fluid at
ric change isa constant-volume change, Isomet-
state 2
ric changes involve changes in internal energy,
in accordance with the equation
W = work performed on or by the work-
ing fluid
Son? a il
In words, we may say that the net change of
where
internal energy is equal to the work performed
in an adiabatic process. The work term may be
a, = heat transferred, with subscript v
either positive or negative, depending upon
indicating constant volume
whether work is done on the working substance,
as in compression, or by the working substance,
Uy = specific internal energy of working
as in expansion.
substance at state 1
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
Uy = specific internal energy of working
substance at state 2
A thermodynamic cycle isa recurring series
of thermodynamic processes through which an
ISOTHERMAL STATE CHANGES.—An iso- effect is produced by the transformation or re-
thermal change is one in which the temperature distribution of energy. In other words, a cycle
of the working fluid remains constant throughout is a series of processes repeated over and over
the change. again in the same order.
All thermodynamic cycles may be classified
ISENTHALPIC STATE CHANGES. —When the as being open cycles or closed cycles. An open
enthalpy of the working fluid does not change eycle is one in which the working fluid is taken
during the process, the change is saidto be isen- in, used, and then discarded. A closed cycle is
thalpic. Throttling processes are basically isen- one in which the working fluid never leaves the
thalpic—that is, hy = ho. cycle, except through accidental leakage; in-
stead, the working fluid undergoes a Series of
ISENTROPIC STATE CHANGES.—An isen- processes which are of such a nature that the
tropic state change is one in which there is no fluid is returned periodically to its initial state
change in the property known as entropy. The and is then used again.
significance of entropy and of isentropic state The open cycle is exemplified by the internal
changes is discussed in a later section of this combustion engine, in which atmospheric air
chapter. supplies the oxygen for combustion and in which
178
the exhaust products are returned to the atmos-

phere. In fact, another way to describe an open
cycle is to say that it is one which includes the {PR WORKING SUBSTANCE <-sepupies: HEAT
SOURCE
atmosphere at some point.
The closed cycle is exemplified by the con-
densing steam power plant used for ship pro-
pulsion on many naval ships. Insucha cycle, the
working substance (water) is changed to steam in
the boilers. The steam performs work as it ex- UNHEATED
ENGINE
pands through the turbines, and is then condensed
to water again in the condenser. The water is
returned to the boilers as boiler feed, and is
thus used over and over again.
Thermodynamic cycles are also classified HEAT
as heated-engine cycles or as unheated-engine RECEIVER
cycles, depending upon the point in the cycle at

which heat is added tothe working substance, !
In a heated-engine cycle, heat is added to the 147.62
working substance in the engine itself. An in- Figure 8-8,.—Essential elements of closed,
ternal combustion engine has a heated-engine unheated-engine cycle.
cycle. In an unheated-engine cycle, the working
substance receives heat in some device which In an open, heated-engine cycle such as that
is separate from the engine. The condensing of an internal combustion engine, the essential
steam power plant has anunheated-engine cycle, elements are all present but are arranged ina
since the working substance is heated separately somewhat different order. In this type of cycle,
in the boilers and then piped tothe engines (steam atmospheric air and fuel are both drawn into the
turbines). cylinder of the engine. Combustion takes place
There are five basic elements in any thermo- in the cylinder, either by compression or by
dynamic cycle: (1) the working substance, (2) the Spark, and the resulting internal energy of the
engine, (3) a heat source, or high-temperature working substance is transformed into work by
region, (4) a heat receiver, or low-temperature which the piston is moved. Since the space above
region, and (5) a pump. the piston is ahighpressure area when the piston
The working substance is the medium by is near the top of its stroke and a low pressure
which energy is carried through the cycle. The area when the piston is near the bottom, the
engine is the device which converts the thermal piston may be thought of as a pump in the sense
energy of the working substance into useful me- that it ‘‘pumps’’ the working fluid from the low
chanical energy in the form of work. The heat pressure to the high pressure side of the system.
source supplies heat to the working substance. Thus, in terms of function, the piston-and-
The heat receiver absorbs heat from the working cylinder arrangement may be thought of as in-
substance. The pump moves the working sub- cluding the heat source, the engine, and the pump.
stance from the low pressure Side of the cycle An open, heated-engine cycle might therefore be
to the high pressure side. represented as shown in figure 8-9.
The essential elements of aclosed, unheated-
engine cycle are shown in figure 8-8. This is THE CONCEPT OF REVERSIBILITY
the basic plan of the typical condensing steam
power plant. When we put a pan of water on the stove and
turn on the heat, we expect the water to boil
rather than to freeze. After we have mixed hot
19 The terms heated engine and unheated engine should and cold water, we do not expect the resulting
not be confused with the term heat engine. Any ma- mixture to resolve itself into two separate
chine which is designed to convert thermal energy to batches of water at two different temperatures.
mechanical energy in the form of work is known as a
When we open the valve ona cylinder of com-
heat engine. Thus, both internal combustion engines
and steam turbines are heat engines; but the first has pressed air, we expect compressed air to rush
a heated-engine cycle and the second has an unheated- out; we would be quite surprised if atmospheric
engine cycle. air rushed into the cylinder and compressed
179
WORKING energy and thermal energy are mutually con-

SUBSTANCE
(MIXTURE OF HEAT RECEIVER vertible, but it says nothing about the direction
(ATMOSPHERE)
ATMOSPHERIC
AIR AND FUEL)
of such conversions. If we consider only the first
law, all the improbable actions just mentioned
are perfectly possible and all processes could be
thought of as being reversible. In an absolute
sense, perhaps, we cannot guarantee that water
(LOW PRESSURE OR will never freeze instead of boil when it is placed
HIGH PRESSURE SIDE HEAT SOURCE
OF THE CYCLE, (COMPRESSION OR SPARK) on a hot stove; but we are certainly safe in saying
DEPENDING UPON that this or any other completely reversible
POSITION OF PISTON
IN THE CYLINDER) HEATED ENGINE thermodynamic process is at the outer limits of
(PISTON AND
CYLINDER) probability. For all practical purposes, then,
we will say that there isnosuchthing as a com-
pletely reversible process.
Nevertheless, the concept of reversibility is
extremely useful in evaluating real thermody-
namic processes. At this point, therefore, let us
define a reversible thermodynamic process as
one which would have the following characteris-
tics: (1) the process could be made to occur in
precisely reverse order, so that the energy sys-
147.63 tem and all associated systems would be re-
Figure 8-9.—Essential elements of open, turned from their final condition to the conditions
heated-engine cycle. that existed before the process started; and (2)
all energy that was transformed or redistributed
itself. When a shaft is rotating, we expect a tem- during the process would be returned from its
perature rise in the bearings; whenthe shaft has final to its original form, amount, and location.
been stopped, we would be truly amazed to ob-
serve internal energy from the bearings flowing THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
to the shaft and causing it to start rotating again.
When we drag a block of wood across a rough Since the first law of thermodynamics does
surface, we expect some of the mechanical energy not deal with the direction of thermodynamic
expended in this act to be converted into thermal processes, and since experience indicates that
energy—that is, we expect a storage of internal actual processes are not reversible, it is ap-
energy in the wooden block and the rough surface, parent that the first law must be supplemented by
as evidenced by temperature rises in these ma- some statement of principle that will limit the
terials. But if this stored internal energy should direction of thermodynamic processes. The
suddenly turn to and move the wooden block back second law of thermodynamics is such a state-
to its original position, our incredulity would ment. Although the second law is perhaps more
know no bounds. empirical than the first law, and perhaps Some-
All of which merely goes to show that we have thing less of a “‘law’’ in an absolute sense, it is
certain expectations, based on experience, as to of enormous practical value in the study of
the direction in which processes will move. The thermodynamics,16
reasonableness of our expectations is attested by The second law of thermodynamics may be
the fact that in all recorded history there is no stated in various ways. One statement, known as
report of water freezing instead of boiling when the Clausius statement, is that no process is
heat is applied; there is noreport ofa lukewarm possible where the sole result is the removal of
fluid unmixing itself and separating into hot and heat from a low temperature reservoir and the
cold fluids; there is noreport of agas compress- absorption of an equal amount of heat by a high
ing itself without the agency of some external temperature reservoir. Among other things, this
force; there is no report of the heat of friction
being spontaneously utilizedto perform mechan- 16 the interested student will find anexcellent discus-
ical work. sion of the second law of thermodynamics in Max
Are these actions really impossible? The Planck, Treatise on Thermodynamics, Dover Publi-
first law of thermodynamics says that mechanical cations, New York, 1945. (A. Ogg, trans.)
180
statement indicates that water will not freeze temperature region to alowtemperature region.
when heat is applied. Note that the Clausius The concept of the unavailability of a certain
statement includes and goes somewhat beyond portion of the energy supplied as heat to any
the common observation that heat flows only thermodynamic system is clearly implied inthe
from a hotter to a colder substance. second law, Since it is apparent that some heat
The statement that no process is possible must always be rejected to a receiver which is
where the sole result is the removal of heat at a lower temperature than the source, ifthere
from _a single reservoir and the performance is to be any conversion of heat to work. The
of an equivalent amount of work is known as the heat which must be so rejected is therefore
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law. unavailable for conversion into mechanical work.
Among other things, this statement says that Entropy is an index of the unavailability of
we cannot expect the heat of friction to reverse energy. Since heat can never be completely con-
itself and perform mechanical work. More verted into work, we may think of entropy as a
broadly, this statement indicates a certain one- measure or an indication of how much heat
sidedness that is inherent in thermodynamic must be rejected to a low temperature receiver
processes, Energy in the form of work can be if we are to utilize the rest of the heat for the
converted entirely to energy in the form of heat; production of useful work. We may also think of
but energy in the form of heat can never be entropy as an index or measure of the reversi-
entirely converted to energy in the form of bility of a process. All real processes are
work, irreversible to some degree, and all real proc-
A very important inference to be drawn esses involve a ‘‘growth’’ or increase of en-
from the second law is that no engine, actual tropy. Irreversibility and entropy are closely
or ideal, can convert all the heat supplied to it related; any process in which entropy has in-
into work, since some heat must always be re- creaSed is an irreversible process.
jected to a receiver which is at a lower tem- The entropy of an isolated system is at its
perature than the source. In other words, there maximum value when the system is ina state
can be no heat flow without a temperature dif- of equilibrium. The concept of an absolute
ference and there can be no conversion to work minimum—that is, an absolute zero—value of
without a flow of heat. A further inference from entropy is sometimes referred to as the third
this inference is sometimes givenas a statement law of thermodynamics (or Nernst’s law). This
of the second law: No thermodynamic cycle can principle states that the absolute zero of en-
have_a_ thermal efficiency of 100 percent. tropy would occur at the absolute zero of tem-
We must say, then, that the first law of perature for any pure material inthe crystalline
thermodynamics deals with the conservation of state. By extension, therefore, it should be
energy and with the mutual convertibility of possible to assign absolute values tothe entropy
heat and work, while the second law limits the of pure materials, if such absolute values were
direction of thermodynamic processes and the needed. For most purposes, however, we are
extent of heat-to-work energy conversions. interested in knowing the values of the changes
in entropy rather than the absolute values of
entropy. Hence an arbitrary zero point for
THE CONCEPT OF ENTROPY entropy has been established at 32° F,
Entropy changes depend upon the amount of
The concept of reversibility and the second heat transferred to or from the working fluid,
law of thermodynamics are closely related to upon the absolute temperature of the heat source,
the concept of entropy. In fact, the second law and upon the absolute temperature of the heat
may be stated as: No process can occur in which receiver. Although actual entropy calculations
the total entropy of an isolated system de- are complex beyond the scope of this text, one
creases; the total entropy of an isolated system equation is given here to indicate the units in
can theoretically remain constant in some re- which entropy iS measured and to give the
versible (ideal) processes, but in all irreversible relationship between entropy and heat and tem-
(real) processes the total entropy of an isolated perature. Note that this equation applies only to
system must increase. a reversible isothermal process in which Tj =
From other statements of the second law, we T2.
know that the transformation of heat to work is
always dependent upon a flow of heatfroma high
181
where theoretically be achieved by a heat engine oper-

Sj = total entropy of working fluid at state ating without friction and without any other of the
1, in Btu per° R irreversible processes that must occur in all
real machines?
S5 = total entropy of working fluid at state To answer this question, Carnot, a French
2, in Btu per°R engineer, developed an imaginary and completely
reversible cycle. In the Carnot cycle, all heat
Q = heat supplied, in Btu is supplied at a single high temperature and all
heat that must be rejected is rejectedata single
absolute temperature at which proc- low temperature. The cycle is fully reversible.
ess takes place, in° R When proceeding in one direction, the Carnot
cycle takes in a certain amount of heat, rejects
The fact that the total entropy of an isolated a certain amount of heat, and puts out a certain
system must always increase does not mean that amount of work. When the cycle is reversed, the
the entropy of all parts of the system must al- quantity of work that was originally the output
ways increase. In many real processes, we find of the cycle is now put intothe cycle; the amount
increases in entropy in some parts of a system of heat that was originally taken in is now the
and, at the same time, decreases in entropy in amount rejected; and the amount of heat that was
other parts of the system. But the important originally rejected is now the amount taken in.
thing to note is that the increases in entropy are When thus reversed, the cycle is called a Carnot
always greater than the decreases; therefore, refrigeration cycle.
the total entropy of an isolated system must al- Obviously, no real machine is capable of
ways increase. such complete reversibility, but the concept of
Each increase in entropy is permanent. Ina the Carnot cycle is nonetheless an extremely
universal sense, entropy can be created but it useful one. By analysis of the Carnot cycle, it
can never be destroyed or gotten rid of, although can be proved that no engine, actual or ideal,
it may be transferred from one system to an- can be more efficient than an ideal, reversible
other. Every natural process that occurs in the engine operating on the ideal, reversible Carnot
universe increases the total entropy of the uni- cycle. The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle
verse, and this increase in entropy is irrever- is given by the equation
sible. The concept of the universe eventually
‘‘running down’’ might be expressed in terms of T_-—T
work output_ s r
entropy by saying that the entropy of the uni- thermal SER UCY reat ainpie a
oe
verse is constantly ‘‘building up.’’ The so-called s
“heat death of the universe’’ is envisioned as
the ultimate result of all possible natural proc- where T, equals the absolute temperature at
esses having taken place and the universe being which heat flows from the source to the working
in total equilibrium, with entropy at the absolute fluid and T;, equals the absolute temperature at
maximum. Such a statement need not imply a which heat is rejected to the receiver.
total lack of energy remaining in the universe; The implications of this statement are of
but any energy that might remain would be profound importance, since it establishes the
completely unavailable and therefore completely fact that thermal efficiency depends only upon
useless. the temperature difference between the heat
source and the heat receiver. Thermal efficiency
THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE does not depend upon the properties of the work-
ing fluid, the type of engine used in the cycle,
According to the second law of thermo- or the nature of the process—combustion, nu-
dynamics, no thermodynamic cycle can have a clear fission, etc.—that produces the heat atthe
thermal efficiency of 100 percent—that is, no heat heat source. The basic principle thus established
engine can convert into work all of the energy by analysis of the Carnot cycle is called the
that is supplied as heat. The question now arises Carnot principle, and may be stated as follows:
as to how much heat must be rejected to a re- The motive power of heat is independent of the
ceiver which is at a lower temperature than the agents employed to realize it, its quantity being
source? Or, looking at it another way, what is fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies
the maximum thermal efficiency that could between which the transfer of heat occurs.
182
WORKING SUBSTANCES treated as perfect gases over quite a wide range

of pressures and temperatures without any ap-
As previously noted, a thermodynamic sys- preciable error being introduced. Values of the
tem requires a working substance to receive, gas constant for some common gases are:
store, transport, and deliver energy. The work-
ing substance is almost always a fluid and is PALES spransHamsinehretsyeriniteteFe 53.3
therefore frequently referred to as the working ORV GEN sh jy ectys: elle wilehys 48.3
fluid. Water (together with its vapor, steam) is NIUE OLENA sor ened iol) 6 5050
one of the most commonly used working fluids, HY ALOR sys cn ten @l° 766.0
although air, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and a Helium... cudeys « 386.0
wide variety of other fluids are used in certain
kinds of systems. A working substance may Liquids and Their Vapors
change its physical state during the course of a
thermodynamic cycle or it may remain in one When heat is transferred to a liquid, the
state, depending upon the nature of the cycle average velocity of the molecules is increased
and the processes involved. and the amount of internal kinetic energy stored
To understand the behavior of working fluids, in the liquid is increased. As the average veloc-
we should have some understanding of the laws ity of the molecules increases, some molecules
of perfect gases, of the relationships between which are at or near the surface of the liquid
liquids and their vapors, and of the ways in momentarily achieve unusually high velocities;
which the properties of working fluids may be and some of these escape from the liquid and
represented and tabulated. These topics are enter the space above, where they exist in the
discussed in the following sections. vapor state. As more and more of the molecules
escape and come into the vapor state, the prob-
Laws of Perfect Gases ability increases that some of the vapor mole-
cules will momentarily have unusually low
The relationships of the volume, the absolute velocities; these molecules will be captured by
pressure, and the absolute temperature in the the liquid. As a result of this exchange of
hypothetical substances known as ‘‘perfect molecules between the liquid and the vapor, a
gases’’ were stated by the physicists Boyle and condition of equilibrium is reached and an
Charles in the form of various gas laws. The equilibrium pressure is established. The equi-
laws thus established may be combined and librium pressure depends upon the molecular
summarized in the general statement: For a structure of the fluid and upon its temperature.
given weight of any gas, the product of the For any given fluid, therefore, there is a definite
absolute pressure and the volume, divided by relationship between the temperature and the
the absolute temperature, is a constant. Or, in pressure at which a liquid and its vapor may
equation form, exist in equilibrium contact with each other.
As long as the vapor is in contact with the
BMid BylpetaN
2 liquid from which it is being generated, the
liquid and the vapor will remain at the same
temperature. If the liquid and the vapor are in
where a closed container (such as a boiler with all
steam stop valves closed) both the temperature
p = absolute pressure and the pressure of the liquid and its vapor will
V = total volume increase as heat is added. If the vapor is per-
T= absolute temperature mitted to leave the steam space at a rate equal
R= the gas constant to the evaporation rate, an equilibrium will be
established at the equilibrium pressure for the
Although the laws of perfect gases were particular temperature.
developed on the basis of experiments made The pressure and the temperature whichare
with air and other real gases, later experiments related in the manner just described are known
showed that these relationships do not holdpre- as the saturation pressure and the saturation
cisely for real gases over the entire range of temperature. Thus, for any specified pressure
pressures and temperatures. However, air and there is a corresponding temperature of vapo-
other gases used as working fluids may be rization known as the saturation temperature;
183
and for any specified temperature there is a exceeds the temperature of a saturated vapor
corresponding saturation pressure. at the same pressure is known as the degree of
A liquid which is under any specified pres- superheat. For example, if saturated steam ata
sure and at the saturation temperature for that pressure of 600 psia and a corresponding satu-
particular pressure is called a saturated liquid. ration temperature of 486°F is superheated to
A liquid which is at any temperature below its 786° F, the degree of superheat is 300°F.
saturation temperature is said to be subcooled For any substance there is a critical point
liquid. For example, the saturation temperature at which the properties of the saturated liquid
which corresponds to atmospheric pressure are exactly the same as the properties of the
(14.7 psia) is 212°F for water. Therefore, water saturated vapor. For water, the critical point
at 212°F and under atmospheric pressure is said is reached at 3206.2 psia (critical pressure)
to be a saturated liquid. Water flowing ina river and 704.40°F (critical temperature). At the
or standing in a pond is also under atmospheric critical point, the vapor and the liquid are
pressure, but it is at amuchlower temperature; indistinguishable, No change of physical state
hence, this water is said to be subcooled. occurs when the pressure is increased or when
A vapor which is under any specified pres- additional heat is supplied; the vapor cannot be
sure and at the saturation temperature corre- made to liquefy and the liquid cannot be made
sponding tothat pressure is saidto be a saturated to vaporize as long as the substance is at or
vapor. Thus, water at 14.7 psia and 212°F pro- above its critical pressure and critical tem-
duces a vapor known as saturated steam. As perature. At this point, we could nolonger refer
previously noted, it is impossible to raise the to ‘‘water’’ and ‘‘steam’’, since we cannot tell
temperature of a vapor above the temperature the water and the steam apart; instead, the
of its liquid as long as the two are in contact. substance is now merely called a ‘‘fluid’’ or
If the vapor is drawn off into a separate con- a ‘‘working fluid.’’ Boilers designed to operate
tainer, however, and additional heat is supplied above the critical point are called supercritical
to the vapor, the temperature of the vapor is boilers. Supercritical boilers are not used at
raised. A vapor which has been raisedtoa tem- present in the propulsion plants of naval ships;
perature that is above its saturation tempera- however, some boilers of this type are used in
ture is called a superheated vapor, and the stationary steam power plants.
vessel or container in whichthe saturated steam
is superheated is called a superheater. The ele- Representation of Properties
mentary boiler and superheater illustrated in
figure 8-10 show the general principle of gen- The condition of a working fluid at any point
erating and superheating steam. Practically all within a thermodynamic cycle or system is
naval propulsion boilers have superheaters for established by the properties of the substance
superheating the saturated steam generated in at that point. The properties that are of special
the generating sections of the boiler; the steam interest in engineering thermodynamics include
is then called superheated steam. The amount pressure, temperature, volume, enthalpy, en-
by which the temperature of a superheated vapor tropy, and internal energy. These properties
FEED WATER ——>
GENERATING SUPERHEATER
FURNACE FURNACE
38.3
Figure 8-10.—Elementary boiler and superheater.
184
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM

= Se
SPECIFIC VOLUME ENTHALPY ENTROPY INTERNAL ENERGY
SAT SAT.
EVAP VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR
b hb Ss Ss u u
fg 2 f 8 i g
0.01833 846.8 1197.6 0.5381 1.5497 350.15 1113.1

200 0.01839 843.0 1198.4 0.5435 1.0018 1.5453 354.68 1113.7
250 0.01865 825.1 1201.1 0.5675 0.9588 1.5263 375.14 1115.8
(3) (7) (8) | (9) (10) | (1) | (12)
147.64X
Figure 8-11.—Excerpts from Keenan and Keyes steam tables.
have been discussed at some length in this The information given in each column of the
chapter and in the chapter dealing with prin- Keenan and Keyes table for the properties of
ciples of measurement; at this point we are saturated steam is described briefly below. Note
concerned less with the properties themselves that the subscriptf is commonly used to denote
than with the way in which they are tabulated properties of the saturated liquid, g to denote
and the way in which they are represented properties of the saturated vapor, and fg to de-
graphically. note property changes between the two states.
Column 1 gives the saturation pressure of
STEAM TABLES.—In the region near a
the saturated water and the saturated steam at
change of physical state, the behavior of a gase-
the temperature given in column 2. Note that the
ous substance becomes too complex for the
pressure is absolute pressure, not gage pres-
relatively simple energy calculations that apply
sure.
to perfect gases and to many real gases over a
wide range of pressures and temperatures. Column 2 gives the saturation temperature
Because of the complicated equations needed for the pressure shown in column 1. This tem-
to describe the properties of vapors, engineers perature is what is commonly referred to as
customarily depend upon tables of vapor prop- ‘the boiling point’’ of the liquid at the pressure
erties for information concerning the properties shown in column 1, In the steam tables, the
of liquids and their vapors. The vapor tables temperature is usually given in degrees Fahren-
that are perhaps most commonly used are those heit rather than in degrees of an absolute
which give the thermodynamic properties of temperature scale. However, the absolute tem-
steam. The most authoritative tables of thermo- perature can always be obtained by simple com-
dynamic properties of steam are those prepared putation if it should be needed.
by Keenan and Keyes under the title of Thermo- Column 3 gives the specific volume of the
dynamic Properties of Steam. Figure 8-11 is saturated liquid (water) at the pressure shown in
excerpted from Table III of the Keenan and Keyes column 1 and the temperature shown in column
steam tables; it is included here chiefly toshow 2. Specific volume is expressed in cubic feet per
the general arrangement of information inthese pound.
tables, rather than to provide any significant Column 4 gives the specific volume of the
amount of data concerning the thermodynamic saturated vapor (steam) at the pressure and
properties of saturated steam. temperature shown.
It should be noted that some portions of the
Keenan and Keyes steam tables have another
17 column for the increase in specific volume that
Joseph H. Keenan and Frederick G. Keyes, Thermo-
dynamic Properties of Steam, New York, John Wiley occurs during evaporation. This column is la-
& Sons, Inc., 1937. Excerpts from Table III are re- belled Specific Volume, Evapo., symbolized by
printed through the courtesy of the publisher. Vig °
185
Column 5 gives the enthalpy per pound ofthe The relationships among pressure, volume,
saturated liquid at the pressure and temperature and temperature of a perfect gas are sometimes
shown, The enthalpy of saturated water at 32°F represented by a three-dimensional diagram of
and the corresponding saturation pressure of the type shown in figure 8-12. The p-v-T sur-
0.08854 psis is taken as zero; hence, all enthalpy face of a real substance may also be represented
figures indicate enthalpy with respect to this in this way, but the diagrams become much more
arbitrarily assigned zero point. For example, complex because the relationships among the
the enthalpy of 1 pound of saturated water at 190 properties are more complex. A simplified
psia and 377.51°F is 350.79 Btu more than the p-v-T surface for water is shown in figure 8-13.
enthalpy of 1 pound of saturated water at 0.08854
psia and 32°F.
Column 6 gives the enthalpy of evaporation,
per pound of working fluid—that is, the change in
enthalpy that occurs during evaporation. This
column is of particular significance since it in-
dicates the Btu per pound that must be supplied
to change the saturated liquid (water) to the
saturated vapor (steam) at the pressure and
temperature shown. In other words, the enthalpy
of evaporation is what we formerly described
as the latent heat of vaporization.
Column 7 gives the enthalpy per pound ofthe
saturated vapor at the pressure and temperature PRESSURE
————~
shown. Note that this is the sum of the enthalpy of
the saturated liquid and the enthalpy of evapora-
tion.
Column 8 gives the entropy per pound of the
saturated liquid at the pressure andtemperature
shown. The zero point for entropy, like the zero
point for enthalpy, is arbitrarily established at 147.65
32°F and the corresponding saturation pressure Figure 8-12.—Three-dimensional representa-
of 0.08854 psia. tion of p-v-T surface for perfect gas.
Column 9 gives the entropy of evaporation
per pound of working fluid at the indicated pres-
sure and temperature. In other words, this
column shows the change of entropy that occurs
during evaporation.
Column 10 gives the entropy per pound of the
saturated vapor at the pressure andtemperature
shown. Note that this is the sum of the entropy of
the saturated liquid and the entropy of evapora-
tion.
Columns 11 and 12 give the internal energy
of the saturated liquid and the internal energy
of the saturated vapor, respectively.
In addition to giving properties of the satu-
rated liquid and the saturated vapor, the Keenan "
ee@
and Keyes steam tables include data on the super-
heated vapor and other pertinent information.
PRESSURE
————_>>
SCP
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF PROP- oe

ERTIES.—It is frequently useful to show the
relationship between two or more properties of 147.66
a working fluid by means of thermodynamic Figure 8-13.—Three-dimensional representa-
graphs or diagrams. tion of p-v-T surface for water.
186
eS
I a aa a
The significance of some of the lines on this By plotting these values on graph paper, we
diagram will become clearer as we consider obtain the p-v diagram shown in figure 8-14.
some of the related two-dimensional diagrams. The curve applies only tothe indicated tempera-
Three-dimensional diagrams are extremely ture—that is, it is an isothermal curve. The
useful in giving an overall picture of the p-v-T values of p and v may be calculated for the same
relationships, but they are difficult to construct process at other temperatures, and plotted as
and are somewhat difficult to use for detailed before; in this case we obtain a Series of iso-
analysis. Two-dimensional graphs are fre- thermal curves (or isotherms) such as those
quently projected from the three-dimensional shown in figure 8-15.
p-v-T surfaces. Even on atwo-dimensional dia- A p-v diagram for water and steam is shown
gram, a great many relationships of properties in figure 8-16. This diagram—and, in fact, most
can be indicated by means of contour lines or diagrams for real substances in the region of a
superimposed curves. state change—is not drawn to scale because of the
The p-v diagram is made by plotting known very great difference in the specific volume of
values of pressure (p) along the ordinate and the liquid and the specific volume of the vapor.
values of specific volume (v) along the ab- Even though it is not drawn to scale, the p-v
scissa. To illustrate the construction of a diagram serves a useful purpose in indicating
p-v diagram, let us consider the isothermal the general configuration of the saturated liquid
compression of 1 pound of air from an initial line and the saturated vapor line. These lines,
pressure of 1000 pounds per square foot absolute which are called process lines, blend smoothly
to a final pressure of 6000 psfa. Let us assume at the critical point. The shape formed by the
that the air is at a temperature of 90°F, or 550° process lines is characteristic of water and will
R. Since we may treat airasaperfect gas under be observed on all p-v diagrams of this sub-
these conditions of pressure and temperature, we stance.
may use the laws of perfect gases andthe equa- A two-dimensional pressure-temperature
tion (p-T) diagram of the type shown in figure 8-17
is useful because it indicates the way in which
pv
= RT
the phase of a substance depends upon pressure
where and temperature. The solid-liquid curve, for
p = absolute pressure, psfa example, indicates the effects of pressure on
v = specific volume, cu ft per lb
R = gas constant (53.3 for air)
T = absolute temperature, °R
IE
Since the compression is isothermal, T is
constant and the expression RT is equal to
53.3 x 550, or 29,315. It is apparent from the
equation that p and v must.vary inversely—that
is, aS p goes up, v goes down. Hence, for any
given value of p we “may findavalue of v merely
by dividing 29,315 by p. Choosing six values of
p and computing the values of v, we obtain the
following values:
STATE A: p= 1000, v = 29.3

(PSFA)
PRESSURE
STATE B: p= 2000, v = 14.7
STATE C: p= 3000, v= 9.8
STATE D: p= 4000, v= 7.3
STATE E: p=5000, v= 5.9
STATE F: p-6000, v= 4.9 5 10 15 20=«25 30 35 «40 45
VOLUME (CUBIC FT PER LB)
147.67
18 rhe p-v diagram, as it applies to internal combus-
tion engines, is discussed further in chapter 22 of this Figure 8-14.—Constant temperature (isothermal)
text. line on p-v diagram.
187
CRITICAL POINT
SOLID-LIQUID
CURVE
LIQUID
(PSFA)
PRESSURE2000 T-=800°R LIQUID-VAPOR
T=700°R CURVE
1000 T=550°R
T-400°R
TRIPLE POINT
GAS
SOLID-VAPOR
CURVE
PRESSURE
VOLUME (CUBIC FT PER LB)
147.68
Figure 8-15.—Group of isothermal curves on
p-v diagram. TEMPERATURE See
the melting (or freezing) point; the liquid-vapor 147.70

curve indicates the effects of pressure on the Figure 8-17,—A p-T diagram.
boiling point; and the solid-vapor indicates the
effects of pressure on the sublimation point. The intersection of these three equilibrium
curves shows the triple point—that is, the single
pressure and temperature at which all three
phases can coexist. The termination of the liquid-
vapor equilibrium curve indicates the critical
point—that is, the point at which the liquid and
the vapor are no longer distinguishable because
their properties are identical.
Other two-dimensional diagrams that find
application in engineering include the tempera-
ture-entropy (T-s) diagram; the enthalpy-
entropy (h-s) diagram, also called the Mollier
diagram; the pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram;
and the enthalpy-volume (h-v) diagram. Of these,
the Mollier diagram is probably of major im-
portance in the study of steam engineering.
Mollier diagrams are included in many steam
(=) tables and are also available in engineering
=]
Ss handbooks and some thermodynamics texts.
ST
(=)
Ww
ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS IN THE
=
<=
4
SHIPBOARD PROPULSION CYCLE
em
3 At the beginning of this chapter it was stated

PRESSURE|
2
that the shipboard engineering plant may be
thought of as a series of devices and arrange-
ments for the exchange and transformation of
VOLUME energy. Many of these transformations and
energy exchanges have been discussed in this
147.69 chapter, but they have not been taken up in se-
Figure 8-16.—A p-v diagram for water. quence. Figure 8-18 illustrates the basic
SATURATED STEAM
WORK OUT: THERMAL

<e ENERGY OF STEAM
CONVERTED TO MECHANICAL
ENERGY IN TURBINES
GENERATING
HIGH- TUBES |
| | PRESSURE
TURBINE
MAIN
REDUCTION
GEARS
FURNACE
LOW- HEAT IN: CHEMICAL ENERGY OF
PRESSURE FUEL CONVERTED TO THERMAL ENERGY
TURBINE IN BOILER FURNACE
HEAT OUT: CONDENSER

TO
CIRCULATING
THERMAL ENERGY OF
AUXILIARY STEAM
CONVERTED TO
MECHANICAL ENERGY
AIR EJECTOR
CON FEED
BOOSTER
PUMP.
CONDENSATE
PUMP
no FEED WATER) 9 ates
THERMAL ENERGY OF
AUXILIARY STEAM THERMAL ENERGY OF
CONVERTED TO AUXILIARY EXHAUST STEAM
MECHANICAL ENERGY USED HERE TO HEAT AND
DEAERATE FEED WATER
38.2
Figure 8-18.—Energy relationships in the basic propulsion cycle of conventional steam-driven ship.
propulsion cycle of a conventional steam-driven the high pressure of the steam causes it to flow
ship with geared turbine drive and shows some to the turbines. The pressure of the steam thus
of the major energy transformations that take provides the potential for doing work; the actual
place. conversion of heat to work takes place in the
The first energy transformation occurs when turbines. The changes in internal energy be-
fuel oil is burned in the boiler furnace. By the tween the boiler and the condenser (as evidenced
process of combustion, the chemical energy by changes in pressure and temperature) indicate
stored in the fuel oil is transformed into thermal that heat has been converted to work in the tur-
energy. Thermal energy flows from the hot combines. The work output of the turbines turns the
bustion gases to the water in the boiler. While shaft and so drives the ship.
the boiler stop valves are still closed, steam Two main energy transformations are in-
begins to form in the boiler; the volume of the volved in converting thermal energy to work in
steam remains constant but the pressure and the turbines. First, the thermal energy of the
temperature increase, indicating a storage of steam is transformed into mechanical kinetic
internal energy. When operating pressure is energy as the steam flows through one or more
reached and the steam stop valves are opened, nozzles. And second, the mechanical kinetic
189
energy of the steam is transformed into work energy is always lost as steam travels through
as the steam impinges upon the projecting blades piping. Friction losses occur in all machinery
of the turbine and thus causes the turbine to and piping. Some heat must be wasted as the
turn. The turning of the turbine rotor causes combustion gases go up the stack. Some heat
the propeller shaft to turn also, although ata must be lost at the condenser as the steam ex-
slower speed, since the turbine is connected to hausted from the turbines gives up heat to the
the propeller shaft through reduction gears. The circulating sea water. We cannot expect all
steam exhausts from the turbine to the con- of the heat supplied to be converted into work;
denser, where it gives up its latent heat of con- even in the most efficient possible cycle, we
densation to the circulating sea water. know that some heat must always be rejected
For the remainder of this cycle, energy is to a receiver which is at a lower temperature
required to get the water (condensate and feed than the source. Thus, each Btu that is theoreti-
water) back to the boiler where it will again be cally put in at the boiler furnace must be
heated and changed into steam. The energy used divided up a good many ways before the energy
for this purpose is generally the thermal energy can be completely accounted for. But the energy
of the auxiliary steam. In the case of turbine- account will always balance. Energy in mustal-
driven feed pumps, the conversion of thermal ways equal energy out.
energy to mechanical energy occurs inthe same Designers of engineering equipment use
way as it does in the case ofthe propulsion tur- energy balances to analyze energy exchanges
bines. In the case of motor-driven pumps, the and to compute the energy requirements for
energy conversion is from thermal energy to proposed equipment or plants. Operating engi-
electrical energy (in a turbogenerator) and then neers use energy balances to evaluate plant
from electrical energy to mechanical energy performance. The engineer officer of a naval
(work) in the pumps. ship may find it necessary to make energy
balances in order to find out whether the plant
is operating at designed efficiency or whether
ENERGY BALANCES defects are causing unnecessary waste of steam,
fuel, and energy.
From previous discussion, it should be An energy balance for an entire engineering
apparent that putting 1 Btu in at the boiler plant is usually made up in the form of a flow
furnace does not mean that 778 foot-pounds of diagram similar to (but more detailed than) the
work will be available for propelling the ship one shown in figure 8-18. Anumber of numerical
through the water. Some of the energy put in at values are entered on the flow diagram, the most
the boiler furnace is used by auxiliary machin- important of which are the quantities of the
ery such as pumps and forced draft blowers to working fluid flowing per hour at various points
supply the boiler with feed water, fuel oil, and and the thermodynamic states of the working
combustion air. Distilling plants, turbogenera- fluid at various points. The quantity of fluid
tors, steering gears, steam catapults, heating flowing per hour may be obtained by direct
systems, galley and laundry equipment, and measurement of flow through flow meters or
many other units throughout the ship use energy nozzles or by calculation; in some instances,
derived directly or indirectly from the energy it is necessary to estimate steam consumption
put in at the boiler furnace. of pumps and other units on the basis of avail-
In addition, there are many ‘‘energylosses’’ able test data. Data on the state of the working
throughout the engineering plant. As we have fluid is obtained from pressure and temperature
seen, energy cannot actually be lost. But when readings. Enthalpy calculations are made and
it is transformed into a form of energy which noted at various points on the diagram. The
we cannot use, we say there has been an energy complete energy balance includes tabular data
loss. Since no insulation is perfect, some thermal as well as the data shown on the flow diagram.
190
PART III-THE CONVENTIONAL STEAM TURBINE
PROPULSION PLANT
Chapter 9 Machinery Arrangement and Plant Layout

Chapter 10 Propulsion Boilers
Chapter 11 Boiler Fittings and Controls
Chapter 12 Propulsion Steam Turbines
Chapter 13 Condensers and Other Heat Exchangers
This part of the text deals with the major units of machinery in the
conventional steam turbine propulsion plant—a type of plant which is at
present widely used in naval ships. For the most part, the discussion is
concerned with geared-turbine drive; but some of the information is also
applicable to those few ships with turboelectric drive. The term ‘‘con-
ventional”? is used here to indicate that the plants under discussion
utilize conventional boilers, rather than nuclear reactors, as the source
of heat for the generation of steam.
Chapter 9 introduces the conventional steam turbine propulsion plant
by taking up the arrangement of propulsion machinery and the major
engineering piping systems found aboard conventional steam-driven ships.
Chapters 10 and 11 deal with propulsion boilers and their fittings and
controls. Chapter 12 describes propulsion steam turbines, Chapter 13
discusses the condensers and other heat transfer apparatus used in the
condensate and feed system of the conventional steam turbine propulsion
plant.
As may be noted, the sequence of presentation follows the sequence
of the thermodynamic cycle. The boiler is the heat source, or high-
temperature region; the turbine is the engine in which the thermal
energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy which drives
the ship; and the condenser is the heat receiver to which some heat
must always be rejected in order to allow the conversion of heat to work.
191
CHAPTER 9
MACHINERY ARRANGEMENT AND PLANT LAYOUT
To understand a shipboard propulsion plant, On most steam-driven surface ships other

it is necessary to visualize the general con- than oilers, tankers, and certain auxiliaries,
figuration of the plant as a whole and to the propulsion machinery is located amidships.
understand the physical relationships among the Turbogenerators and their auxiliary condensers
various units. This chapter provides general are usually located in the propulsion machinery
information on the distribution and arrangement spaces; other engineering equipment that is not
of propulsion machinery in conventional steam directly associated with the operation of the
turbine propulsion plants and on the arrange- major propulsion units may be located in or
ment of the major engineering piping systems near the propulsion machinery spaces or in
that connect and serve the various units of other parts of the ship, as space permits.
machinery. A word about terminology may be helpful
It is important to note that the information at this point. The boilers in a propulsion plant
given in this chapter is general rather than may be identified as propulsion boilers (or
specific. No two ships—not even sister ships— occasionally as main boilers) when it is neces-
are exactly alike in their arrangement of ma- sary to distinguish between propulsion boilers
chinery and piping. The examples given in this and the auxiliary boilers that are installed on
chapter are based on the arrangements used some ships. The turbines are identified as
in various kinds of ships, large and small, old propulsion turbines when it is necessary to
and new. The examples give some idea of the distinguish between them and the many auxiliary
variety of arrangements that may be found on turbines that are used on all steam-driven ships
steam-driven surface ships, and they indicate to drive pumps, forced draft blowers, and other
the basic functions of the machinery and piping; auxiliary units. The propulsion turbines are
but the examples cannot provide an exact also sometimes referred to as the main engines,
picture of the machinery and piping on any one although this usage is not considered parti-
ship. For detailed information concerning the cularly desirable. The term propulsion unit
arrangements on any particular ship, it is is correctly used to identify the combination
necessary to consult the ship’s blueprints, of propulsion turbines, main reduction gears,
various ship’s manuals, and the manufacturers’ and main condenser in any one propulsion plant;
technical manuals that cover the engineering however, the term propulsion unit may also
equipment and piping systems installed in the be used in a more general sense to indicate
ship. any major unit in the propulsion plant.
Each propulsion shaft has an identifying
ARRANGEMENT OF PROPULSION number which is based on the location of the
MACHINERY shaft, working from starboard to port. The
shaft nearest the starboard side is the No. 1
The propulsion machinery on conventional shaft, the one next inboard is the No. 2 shaft,
steam-driven surface ships includes (1) the and so forth. On recent ships, the propulsion
propulsion boilers, (2) the propulsion turbines, machinery that serves each shaft is given the
(3) the condensers, (4) the reduction gears, and same number as that shaft. For example, the
(5) the pumps, forced draft blowers, deaerating No. 2 shaft is served by the No. 2 propulsion
feed tanks, and other auxiliary machinery units unit and the No. 2 boiler. Where two similar
which directly serve the major propulsion units. units serve one shaft, the identifying number
193
ee ee Oe es ee ee ee ee
is followed by a letter. If two boilers serve the No matter what arrangement of machinery
No. 3 propulsion unit and the No. 3 shaft, for spaces is used, the propulsion machinery is
example, the boilers would be identified as No. usually on two levels. The condensers and the
3A and No. 3B. Where letters are used, they main reduction gears are on the lower level.
are used in sequence going from starboard to The propulsion turbines and the high speed
port and then from forward to aft. pinion gears to which they are connected are
On older ships, the practice of identifying on the upper level with the low pressure tur-
propulsion units by the number of the shaft bine exhaust directly over the condenser. The
they serve is slightly different. In general, each boilers occupy both the lower level and the up-
propulsion unit is numbered to correspond per level; the stations for firing the boilers
with the number of the shaft it serves; but (sometimes referred to as ‘‘the firing aisle’’)
the numbering of the boilers is generally not are on the lower level, while the stations for
the same as the numbering of the propulsion operating the valves that admit feed water to
units and the shafts. On an older ship, for ex- the boilers are on the upper level. The boil-
ample, the No. 1 boiler and the No. 2 boiler ers are usually located on the centerline of the
might serve the No. 1 propulsion unit and the ship or else they are distributed symmetrical-
No. 1 shaft, while the No. 3 boiler and the No. 4 ly about the centerline. The long axis of the
boiler would serve the No. 2 propulsion unit and boiler drums runs fore and aft rather than ath-
the No. 2 shaft. wartship. Other machinery, including the pro-
The functional relationships of the major pulsion auxiliaries, is arranged in various ways
propulsion units and of many auxiliaries are as space and weight considerations permit.
shown in figure 9-1. This illustration does not Figure 9-2 shows the general arrangement
indicate the actual location of the machinery of propulsion machinery on destroyers of the
units; indeed, the physical location is often DD 445 and DD 692 classes. The machinery is
surprisingly different from the location that arranged so that the forward fireroom and the
might be assumed from a diagram of this type. forward engineroom can be operated together as
In considering the physical arrangement of one completely independent plant, while the
machinery, however, we must keep the functional after fireroom and the after engineroom can
relationships clearly in mind. The three major be operated together as another completely
piping systems shown in figure 9-1 are the independent plant. All propulsion machinery,
main steam system, the auxiliary steam system, including auxiliaries, is duplicated in each
and the auxiliary exhaust system; again, a plant. The arrangement shown in figure 9-2 is
functional rather than a physical relationship typical of most destroyers, even the newer
is indicated. The three systems are discussed ones; however, the newer destroyers contain
in more detail later in this chapter; atthis point a non-machinery separation space between the
it is only necessary to note the relationships forward and after machinery plants.
of these vital systems to the propulsion units Figures 9-3, 9-4, 9-5, and 9-6 show the
and auxiliaries, arrangement of machinery in the No. 1 fire-
The propulsion machinery spaces may be room and the No. 1 engineroom of the frigates
physically arranged in several ways. Some ships DLG 14 and DLG 15. The arrangement shown
have firerooms, containing boilers and the stain these illustrations is also typical of that in
tions for operating them, and enginerooms, the frigates DLG 6-13. The forward (No. 1)
containing propulsion turbines and the stations fireroom and engineroom may be operated to-
for operating them. On some ships, one fire- gether as a Separate plant, as may the after
room serves one engineroom; on others, two (No. 2) fireroom and engineroom.
firerooms serve one engineroom. Instead of Figure 9-7 shows the general arrangement
firerooms and enginerooms, many large ships of propulsion machinery on the CA 68 class of
of recent design have spaces which are called heavy cruisers. This arrangement is typical
machinery rooms. Each machinery room con- of cruisers commissioned during World War
tains both the boilers and the propulsion turbines II. The two forward firerooms and the forward
that serve a particular shaft. On some recent engineroom constitute one plant; the two after
ships that have certain automatic controls, the firerooms and the after engineroom constitute
propulsion machinery is very largely operated the other plant. Cross-connections make it
from separate enclosed operating stations lo- possible for other operational arrangements
cated within the machinery room. to be used.
194
Sy
FORCED B08 FUEL OIL
DRAFT SERVICE
BLOWER KAS PUMP
(SK) ANAND)
QRS
HIGH-PRESSURE
WAIN TURBINE
REDUCTION AN
MAIN SHAFT GEARS ] OIL
| HEATERS
4 LOW- PRESSURE
MAIN - TURBINE
LUBE OIL
SM,
LOMINAAAAN
I
RY
oo”
,UTS
AUXILIARY
MAIN CONDENSER CONDENSER
AIR
EJECTOR
CONDENSER
DISTILLING
PLANT
ay: F AUXILIARY TURBINE eaeeoean MAIN STEAM (SUPERHEATED)

Bo
quammmmmmmmmmms §©TURBOGENERATOR STEAM (SUPERHEATED)
Qn
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
0 AUXILIARY STEAM (SATURATED)

wv SCREW-TYPE ROTARY PUMP
— a ne ae ot ae TURBOGEWERATOR STEAM (SATURATED)
quemmmememmme )§=—AUXILIARY EXHAUST STEAM
FORCED DRAFT BLOWER FAN

147.71
Figure 9-1.— Functional relationships of propulsion units, auxiliaries, main
steam system, auxiliary steam system, and auxiliary exhaust system
(Facing page 194).
is fol.
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Chapter 9—MACHINERY ARRANGEMENT AND PLANT LAYOUT
Ae
TURBOGENERATOR
_
* 2 MAIN ENGINE
fo i
*4 BOILER 73 BOILER
NO.2 *2 BOILER *) BOILER
SHAFT
NO.1
SHAFT TURBOGENERATOR
Ld
AFTER
ENGINEROOM
AFTER
FIREROOM
©] MAIN ENGINE
FORWARD
ENGINEROOM
FORWARD
FIREROOM
x
38.4
Figure 9-2.—Propulsion machinery arrangement, DD 445 and DD 692 classes.
Figure 9-8 shows the arrangement of pro- Piping system standard symbols are used
pulsion machinery on the USS Coral Sea, CVA to indicate machinery units, piping connections,
43. In some ways, this arrangement of machinery valves, gages, strainers, steam traps, andother
represents the ultimate in designed segregation items on engineering blueprints and drawings.
of propulsion equipment. The major units of Figure 9-10 illustrates some of the standard
machinery are duplicated, spread out, and com- symbols specified by the governing Military
partmented to provide for maximum resistance Standard (MIL-STD-17). In some cases, devia-
to damage from explosion, fire, or flooding. tion from these symbols occurs on blueprints
In recent years there has been a trend to- and drawings; but the basic principles of rep-
ward. using machinery rooms, rather than fire- resentation are usually followed. Most plans
rooms and enginerooms, on many of the larger or drawings that utilize special symbols in-
combatant ships. An example of the machinery clude a legend or list of symbols.
room type of arrangement is shown in figure Standard piping system markings are used
9-9. Each machinery room contains a separate to mark each shipboard piping system at suitable
propulsion plant which is capable of independent intervals along the entire length of the system.
operation. The arrangement shown in figure The markings may be applied with paint and
9-9 is that of a heavy cruiser of the CA 139 stencils or prepainted vinyl cloth markers
class; the same general arrangement is used may be used. The markings are in black letters
on many newer ships, including aircraft car- on a white background for all systems except
riers. : oxygen; oxygen systems are marked with white
letters on a dark background.
ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS The piping identification markings must in-
clude the functional name of the system and,
The various units of machinery and equip- where necessary, the specific service of the
ment aboard ship are connected by miles of system. Markings must also include arrows to
piping. Each piping system consists of sections show the direction of flow.
of pipe or tubing, fittings for joining the sec- The piping identification markings are not
tions, and valves for controlling the flow of required for piping in tanks, voids, cofferdams,
fluid. Most piping systems also include a number bilges, and other unmanned spaces. All other
of other fittings and accessories such as vents, piping must be marked at least once in each
drains, traps, strainers, relief valves, gages, manned space and at least twice in each ma-
and instruments. Piping system components are chinery space. Systems serving propulsion
discussed in chapter 14 of this text; inthe pres- plants and systems conveying flammable or
‘ent chapter, we are concerned with piping toxic fluids must be marked at least twice
system standard symbols, piping system mark- in each space. When feasible, piping identifi-
ings, general arrangement and layout of the cation markings are placed near the entry and
major engineering piping systems aboard ship. near the exit to any space and at the
195
er a
S.S. LOW PRESS. ENCLOSED ie Ons
AIR RECEIVER NO,1 STATION oo
LOCKER
Sl o CONT. LOW PRESS,
LOG AIR RECEIVER NO, 1
WORK BEE
BENCH :
Ret S.S. & CONT, L.P,
AIR COMP, NO. 1
COMBUSTION
ONTROL ‘
CONSOLE i,
|
AIN F.D. Ki
UP MANN F.D,
NO. \ a BLOWER
NO. 1A2
PORT USE FORCED

DRAFT BLOWER NO, 1B
BHD BOILER NO. 1B

88 BHD
68
BOILER NO. 1A
DN
PORT USE FORCED

DRAFT BLOWER NO. 1A
MAIN FEED
PUMP NO. 1C
Bu Ce Lea ree
MAIN FEED
PUMP NO. 1A
NO, 1
Ne
OXYGEN
ANALYZER et ee
OV Berratt
otal e x©
Figure 9-3.—Arrangement of machinery on upper level of No. 1 fireroom, 147.72

DLG 14 and DLG 15.
196
Chapter 9-MACHINERY ARRANGEMENT AND PLANT LAYOUT
|. F.O, SERVICE. Se 0.eee

PUNE NO. 1B PUMP N ia
F.O, TRANSFER
PUMP NO. 1
BILGE & F.O.

STRIPPING
PUMP NO, 1
PORT F.O.
SERVICE
PUMP NO. 1
BOILER NO. 1B BOILER NO. 1A
COOLING WATER
MN. PEED MN. FEED MN. FEED
BOOSTER - BOOSTER
PUMP NO. 1C . PUMP NO, 1A
FIRE PUMP NO, 2
EMERG.
ESCAPE TRUNK
POTABLE
WATER AUX. GLAND LEAK-OFF
PUMP NO. 1 Z CONDENSER NO, 1
RES. FEED AUX. GLAND LEAK-OFF

TRANSFER XHAUSTER NO, 1
PUMP NO. 1 POTABLE WATER
PUMP PRIMING
PUMP NO. 1
EMERGENCY FEED
WATER TANK
147.73
Figure 9-4.—-Arrangement of machinery on lower level of No. 1 fireroom, DLG
14 and DLG 15.
197
T'JRBO-GENERATOR
DEGAUSSING GLAND LEAK-OFF |
SWBD, EXHAUSTER NO, 1 |
A.C. GENERATOR S.S, TURBO-GENERATOR NO, 1B

A.C, GENERATOR
BUS TE & & DISTRIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION SECTION NO. 1SB
SECTION NO. 1SA
Ne
S.S. TURBO-GENERATOR NO. 1A
DISTILLER 8.W.
LOCKER LOCKER . HEATER DRAIN
\ PUMP NO. 1
P
ENCLOSED OPERATING STATION
t |
DISTILLING PLANT NO,1
CONTROL
N
L
CONSOLE
|
CONTROL CONSOLE
DISTILLER DISTILLER BRINE

DN DISTILLATE OVERBOARD PUMP
— PUMP NO. 1 NO. 1
LOG }
BHD |
L.P. TURBINE NO. 1 88 |
MAIN REDUCTION GEAR

NO. 1
H.P. TURBINE NO. =

EMERG.
ESCAPE
TRUNK
MS.KED.GEAR
TURNING GEAR
NO.1
MAIN CONDENSER
AIR EJECTOR NO, 1 f
>
=
|
H.P, AIR
' ' ‘ COM PRESSOR
j | ‘ NO. 1 }
LUBE. at eronsge TANKS serTiNG me Mnotenan cone
' I \ EXHAUSTER NO. 1
' 1 | — ——E —<_<$<_—_—_——_- |
y, VIN aa N
Figure 9-5.—Arrangement of machinery on upper level of No. 1 engineroom, 147.74 |

DLG 14 and DLG 15. |
198
8.8, TURBO-GEN, COND,

CONDENSATE PUMP.
NO, 1B
- Aa — eee
Ne
DEGAUSSING - =
u MG SET S.3. TURBO-GEN.
“ A" COIL CONDENSER NO, 1B
WORK DEGAUSSING MG UP
BENCH SET“ F1-Q1"' COIL ay
8.S. TURBO-GEN,
AIR EJECTOR
NO, 1B S.S. TURBO-GEN, COND,
CONDENSATE PUMP
NO, 1A
S.S. TURBO-GEN,
AIR EJECTOR
NO. 1A
AIR CONDITIONING
8.W. CIRC. PUMP
NO. 3 8.3. TURBO-GEN. 8.3. TURBO-GEN.
COND. CIRC. CONDENSER NO. 1A
PUMP NO. 1B
oeeeerts
8.3. TURBO-GEN. DISTILLER
FIRE PUMP NO. 3 COND, CIRC. :
PUMP NO. 1A Ene
AIR CONDITIONING MAIN CONDENSER
LOG S.W. CIRC. PUMP CIRCULATING PUMP HAND
DESK NO, 2 NO. 1 L.O.
V, SERV.
TANK
amor /
' LUBE OIL uP
STRAINER
{
NO. 1 / COOLER
= a
MN. LUBE OIL nee
SERVICE PUMP
NO. 1B
BHD
104
BILGE FRESH WATER

INJECTION DRAIN PUMP.
NO, 1
LM ?
MAIN LUBE OIL yay
ATTACHED MN. SERVICE PUMP.
LUBE OIL NO. 1A
SERVICE PUMP
NO. 1
MAIN CONDENSER NO. 1 MN. COND.

CONDENSATE
=|
PUMP NO. 1B
MAIN REDUCTION GEAR NO, 1 MN. COND. (

CONDENSATE j
PUMP NO. 1A
a 4,ERG. |
\, ESCAPE
TRUNK
LUBE OII,
PURIFIER
NO. 1
a
|| | =< oP oo
WORK
BENCH SS eal
fou th
Bee
LUBE OIL PURIFIER ;

HEATER NO. 1
‘Figure 9-6.—Arrangement of machinery on lower level of No. t engineroom, 147.75

DLG 14 and DLG 15.
199
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LAYOUT
PIPE FITTINGS, TYPES OF CAP STOP COCK, PLUG OR CYLINDER

CONNECTIONS
COUPLING | tI| VALVE, 3 WAY, 3 PORT
SCREWED ENDS 2 PLUG

STOP COCK, PLUG OR CYLINDER
FLANGED ENDS — REDUCER, CONCENTRIC
VALVE, 4 WAY, 4 PORT
BELL-AND-SPIGOT ENDS —>_—_

UNION, FLANGED RELIEF, REGULATING, AND SAFETY
WELDED AND BRAZED ENDS —__*—_
VALVES
——e——__ UNION, SCREWED
SOLDERED ENDS VALVE SYMBOL
HE
t+
I+
EXPANSION JOINT,
BELLOWS GENERAL SYMBOL
ELBOWS
EXPANSION JOINT,
FITTING SYMBOL
SLIDING
ELBOW, 90 DEGREES
VALVES, TYPES OF CONNECTIONS ANGLE, RELIEF
ELBOW, 45 DEGREES
SCREWED ENDS =<
FLANGED ENDS —— BACK PRESSURE
ELBOW, OTHER THAN 90 OR 45
DEGREES, SPECIFY ANGLE
eK BELL-AND-SPIGOT ENDS SS
4
WELDED AND BRAZED ENDS —(>><}e—
GLOBE, RELIEF
ELBOW, LONG RADIUS
SOLDERED ENDS <—<—P-
ELBOW, REDUCING STOP VALVES

GLOBE, RELIEF ADJUSTABLE, rs
VALVE SYMBOL
OR SPRING LOADED REDUCING
ELBOW, SIDE OUTLET,
OUTLET DOWN
GENERAL SYMBOL
ELBOW, SIDE OUTLET, PRESSURE REDUCING OR
OUTLET UP PRESSURE REGULATING,
ANGLE INCREASED ACTUATING
PRESSURE CLOSES VALVE
ELBOW, TURNED DOWN
PRESSURE REDUCING OR
sah
ELBOW, TURNED UP PRESSURE REGULATING,
INCREASED ACTUATING
GATE PRESSURE OPENS VALVE
ELBOW, UNION PRESSURE REGULATING,

WEIGHT-LOADED
GATE, ANGLE
SAFETY, BOILER
FITTING SYMBOL GLOBE
wi
CHECK VALVES
TEE, DOUBLE SWEEP GLOBE, AIR OPERATED,

VALVE SYMBOL
SPRING CLOSING
TEE, OUTLET DOWN

GENERAL SYMBOL a
GLOBE, DECK OPERATED
ee
TEE, OUTLET UP =
Pale
ae
CHECK, LIFT Se
GLOBE, HYDRAULICALLY
TEE, SINGLE SWEEP, OR OPERATED
PLAIN T-Y
>
CHECK, SWING ae
OTHER PIPE FITTINGS VALVE, 2 WAY
FITTING SYMBOL
BUSHING —_D-
VALVE, 3 WAY,2 PORT _2- (egueee Sica CHECK >=
11.330,.1(11A)
Figure 9-10.—Engineering symbols.
202
BUCKET TRAP VACUUM-PRESS

URE
OTHER VALVES
VALVE FLOAT TRAP THERMOMETER

AUTOMATIC, OPERATED BY
GOVERNOR P TRAP THERMOMETER, DISTANT READING,
BARE BULB TYPE
m9
9S9
DIAPHRAGM RUNNING TRAP THERMOMETER, DISTANT READING,
SEPARATE SOCKET TYPE
TRAP
AIR CHAMBER
FAUCET
POWER AND HEATING PLANT
EQUIPMENT BULKHEAD JOINT, EXPANSION
FLOAT OPERATED = |
UNIT SYMBOL
ANS1 CASE OR a BULKHEAD JOINT, FIXED
LOCK AND SHIELD METER, DISPLACEMENT TYPE

(OTHER THAN ELECTRICAL)
BLOWER a)
ORIFICE
MANIFOLD
BLOWER, SOOT
SEA CHEST, DISCHARGE
fio
Pht
|<4
PUMP GOVERNOR
on)
BOILER, STEAM GENERATOR SEA CHEST, SUCTION
(WITH ECONOMIZER)
SOLENOID CONTROL REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT

ENGINE, STEAM
UNIT
4.
THERMOSTATICALLY COIL, PIPE
CONTROLLED
EVAPORATOR, SINGLE EFFECT
COMPRESSOR (ALL TYPES)

STRAINERS
TYPE
PUMP, RECIPROCATING
bb
oe
BOX STRAINER
DUPLEX OIL FILTER PUMP, ROTARY AND SCREW

CONDENSING UNIT,
WATER COOLED
tt
DUPLEX STRAINER
TURBINE, STEAM SOE EN
STRAINER SWITCH, CUT-OUT, HIGH PRESSURE _-

fp]
GAGES, THERMOMETERS, AND
Y STRAINER MISCELLANEOUS SWITCH, CUT-OUT, LOW PRESSURE —CILP]
SYMBOL
ae VALVE, EVAPORATOR
PRESSURE REGULATING 3
LIQUID LEVEL SNAP-ACTION VALVE =
wide= VALVE, EXPANSION, AUTOMATIC —{}}—-

PRESSURE
AIR ELIMINATOR
VALVE, EXPANSION, b.
MANUALLY OPERATED
VACUUM
4a.
BOILER RETURN TRAP
VALVE, EXPANSION,
THERMOSTATIC
Figure 9- 10,—Engineering symbols—Continued.

11.330.2(11A)
203
junction of interconnecting systems. Short runs On newer ships, the system for marking
of piping which serve an immediately obvious valves in the vital engineering systems is slight-
purpose, such as short vents or drains, need not ly different, consisting of a three-part designa-
be marked. As arule, piping onthe weather decks tion in the following sequence: (1) anumber des-
does not require marking; if it does require ignating the shaft or plant number; (2) letters
marking, label plates (rather than stenciled designating the system; and (3) a number, or a
paint or prepainted vinyl labels) are used. combination of a number and a letter, indicating
Each valve is marked on the rim of the hand- the individual valve. Individual valve numbers
wheel, on a circular label plate secured by the are assigned in sequence, beginning at the origin
handwheel nut, or on a label plate attached to the of a system and going in order to the end of the
ship’s structure or to adjacent piping. The valve system, excluding branch lines. In other words,
label gives the name and purpose ofthe valve, if the first valve in the mainline is No, 1, the sec-
this information is not immediately apparent ond is No. 2, and so forth. Since parallel flow
from the piping system marking, and it gives the paths frequently exist, it is often necessary to
location of the valve. The location is indicated by assign a shaft number and a system designation
three numbers which give, in order, the vertical to the parallel flow paths as well asto the basic
level, the longitudinal position, and the trans- main line of the system. The valves inthe paral-
verse position. Consider, for example, a drain lel flow paths are then numbered in sequence;
bulkhead stop valve that is labelled: identical numbers are used for valves which per-
form like functions in each of the parallel flow
2-85-1 paths, but a letter suffix is added to distinguish
between the similar valves. This system of iden-
The location of this valve is indicated by these tification is illustrated for part of a‘mainsteam
numbers. The first number indicates the vertical system in figure 9-11.
position—in this case, the second deck. The sec-
It is of utmost importance that all engineer-
ond number indicates the longitudinal position by
ing personnel (officer and enlisted) become fa-
giving the frame number—in this case, frame 85.
miliar with the valve markings used in the vital
The third number indicates the transverse posi-
engineering systems. Use of the identification
tion—starboard side if the number is odd, port
numbers tends to prevent confusion and error
side if the number is even. The numbers indicat-
when the plant is being split or cross-connected
ing transverse position begin atthe centerline of
and when damaged sections are being isolated,
the ship and progress out toward the sides. For
since it provides a means of ordering any parti-
example, a second drain bulkhead stop installed
cular valve to be opened or closed without taking
on the same level and atthe same frame, but far-
time to describe the actual physical location of
ther to starboard, would be indentified as
the valve. However, the identification markings
cannot serve their intended purpose unless all
2-85-3
engineering personnel are throroughly familiar
with the physical location and the identification
In either case, of course, the valve would also
number of each valve they may be required
be identified as to system (DRAIN BULKHEAD
either to operate themselves or to order opened
STOP, in these examples) if the piping system
or closed.
identification did not make the system obvious.
A slightly different system of marking is used Most shipboard piping is paintedto matchand
for identifying main line valves, cross-connec- blend in with its surrounding bulkheads, over-
tion or split-plant valves, and remote-operated heads, or other structures. In a very few sys-
valves in vital engineering piping systems. In- tems, color is used in a specified manner to aid
stead of being identified by location, these valves in the rapid identification of the systems. For
are assigned casualty control identification num- example, JP-5 piping in interior spaces is
bers, by system, as painted purple. Gasoline valves in interior
Spaces are painted yellow, except for moving
WENN WGUERITG SanodGbaoe.s MS1, MS2, MS3, etc. parts of the valves; in exterior locations, part
Auxiliary steam....... AS1, AS2, AS3, AS4, etc. of the valve handwheel or the operating lever is
Auxiliary condensate... ACN1, ACN2, etc. painted yellow. Green is similarly used to iden-
Auxiliary exhaust...... AE1, AE2, AE38, etc. tify oxygen, and red is used for fireplugs and
Fuel oil service ...... FOS1, FOS2, etc. foam discharge valves.
204
NO. 2
NO. 2 SHAFT MAIN
ENGINE
BOILER BOILER
2B 2A
52 ENGINEROOM NO. 2. FIREROOM
147.82
Figure 9-11.—Principle of valve identification in engineering piping systems.
MAIN STEAM SYSTEMS basic purpose as a lower pressure system, and

differs only in minor details, as noted in subse-
The main steam system is the shortest and quent discussion. The major difference between
Simplest of all the major engineering piping high pressure main steam systems and lower
systems aboard ship. This statement is true pressure systems is in the materials used for
regardless of the steam pressures involved. piping and fittings; in general, the metals for
With the recent advent of the 1200-psi main 1200-psi systems must be designed to withstand
steam system,! there is a tendency to regard operating temperatures approximately 100° to
high pressure main steam systems as basically 200° F higher than the operating temperatures
different from (and mysteriously more complex of the lower pressure systems.
than) the lower pressure systems. In reality, a On most ships, any piping which carries su-
1200-psi main steam system serves the same perheated steam is considered as part of the main
steam system. On many ships, the main steam
system includes only the piping that carries su-
perheated steam from the boilers to the propul-
sion turbines, the turbogenerators, andthe boiler
1oJassification of main steam systems according to
pressure is based on the operating pressure of the
boilers. Boiler operating pressures are discussed in
chapter 10 of this text; at this point, it is merely nec-
essary to note that main steam systems are frequent- 2 although the main steam systems are approximately
ly referred to as 1200-psi systems, 600-psi systems, the same for a 1200-psi system and fora lower pres-
or 400-psi systems, depending upon the operating pressure system, it should not be inferred that the plant
sure of the boilers. It should be noted, also, that such as a whole is identical. Important differences between
pressure classifications are approximate rather than 1200-psi plants and lower pressure plants are noted
exact, in appropriate places throughout this text.
205
soot Blowers On some recent ships (both 600- Note that superheated steam for the soot
psi and 1200-psi) the main steam system sup- blowers goes from the superheater outlet pip-
plies superheated steam to several other units ing into a soot blower steam header.4 Branches
as well. For example, some carriers use Su- go from the header tothe individual soot blowers.
perheated steam to supply steam catapult sys- A 600-psi main steam system is shown in
tems; also, some carriers and other ships use figure 9-13. This is the main steam system for
superheated steam to operate forced draft the two forward plants (No. 1 and No. 4) ona
blowers, main feed pumps, main circulating heavy cruiser of the CA 139 class. Although this
pumps, and other auxiliaries. The soot blowers drawing is more complicated, the system itself
are not supplied from the main steam system is still basically simple.
on some ships that have 1200-psi main steam A 600-psi main steam system for destroyers
systems; instead, steam for the soot blowers is of the DD 445 and DD 692 classes is shown in
taken from the 1200-psi auxiliary steam system, figure 9-14, A later modification was made on
as discussed later in this chapter. these ships to provide a separate superheated
Figure 9-12 illustrates the main steam sys- steam supply to the turbogenerators. With this
tem for the forward plant (No. 1 fireroom and modification, this main steam system is typical
No, 1 engineroom) of a steam-driven destroyer of most destroyers, even those that are consid-
escort. The after plant (No. 2 fireroom and No. erably more recent than the DD 445 and DD 692
2 engineroom) main steam system is very sim- classes.
ilar. For comparison, figure 9-15 shows a 1200-
There is one boiler in each fireroom. Each psi main steam system for the forward plant of
boiler is provided with a boiler stop valve which the frigates DLG 14 and DLG 15. Note that the
can be operated either locally from the fire- 1200-psi main steam system does not supply
room or remotely from the main deck. A sec- steam to the soot blowers but that itdoes supply
ond line stop valve in each fireroom provides steam to the main feed pumps. In both of these
two-valve protection for the boiler when it is respects, the 1200-psi system differs from the
not in use, and permits effective isolation in DD 445 and DD 692 main steam system described
case of damage. This type of two-valve protec- above.
tion is standard for all boilers installed in U.S.
Navy ships. AUXILIARY STEAM SYSTEMS
For ahead operation, the superheated steam
passes through a main steam Strainer, a guard- Auxiliary steam systems supply steam at the
ing valve, and a throttle valve before entering pressures and temperatures required for the op-
the high pressure turbine. From the high pres- eration of many systems and units of machinery,
sure turbine, the steam passes througha cross- both inside and outside the engineering spaces.
over pipe to the low pressure turbine; then it Although auxiliary steam is often called ‘‘satu-
exhausts to the condenser. For astern opera- rated’’ steam, it has some degree of superheat
tion, the superheated steam passes through the in some auxiliary steam systems. Constant and
steam strainer and through a stop valve; then intermittent service steam systems, steam
it goes to the steam chest of the astern element, smothering systems, whistles and sirens, fuel
which is located at one end of the low pressure oil heaters, fuel oil tank heating coils, air ejec-
turbine. tors, forced draft blowers, and a wide variety of
The forward and after main steam systems pumps are typical of the systems and machinery
are connected by cross-connection piping be-
tween the forward engineroom and the after
fireroom. By means of this piping, either boiler
can be used with either or both propulsion units
and turbogenerators. Thus the two propulsion +The term header is commonly used in engineeringto
plants can be operated either independently describe any tube, chamber, drum, or similar piece to
which a series of tubes or pipes are connected in such |
(split-plant) or together (cross-connected).
a way as to permit a flow of fluid from one tube (or |
group of tubes) to another. In essence, a header is a
kind of manifold. In common usage, a distinction is |
3 Soot blowers are devices for removing soot from the made between drums and headers on the basis of size: |
boiler firesides while the boiler is steaming. Soot a large piece of this kindis likelyto be called a drum,
blowers are discussed in chapter 11 of this text. a smaller one a header,
206
SUPERHEATED
TURBOGENERATOR —URBOGENERATOR
Danae: I}
& ATI
MAIN STEAM =
4
CROSS-CONNECTION =3% AINE
STIBAINER te 7
PIPING CONNECTING \V UT iw SUPERHEATED STEAM TO
FORWARD PLANT AND & pp SOOT BLOWER HEADER
AFTER PLANT |[Bellnaall a lA, ~~
1a —
z
NO.2 &
re a acme amment lame 7 SE) Sk eee Ee
FIREROOM = =
ig =e. ile ooAie
2 REDUCTION 5 LOW ul SATURATED
Py GEARS ==] PRESSURE || & pes: a
= r\ TURBINE a
= a /; us SUPERHEATER
a Ht tL TIE)z Ss ;x SAFETY VALVE
(iaa he CONNECTION
A HIGH = SUPERHEATED
Wha PRESSURE STEAM TO
y TU!) eS TURBINE DESUPERHEATER
bf Lr MAIN STEAM STOP
poll a
MAIN STEAM Ww
AFTER ||FORWARD ee eoBinEn = SUPERHEATED STEAM TO
PLANT || PLANT = MAIN STEAM STOP
<-> oo
NO. ! ENGINEROOM
38.8
Figure 9-12.—Main steam system, destroyer escort.
that receive their steam supply from auxiliary drum at steam drum pressure andtemperature.
steam systems on most steam-driven ships. As Since this steam is not superheated, it does not
’ previously noted, the units are not the same on require desuperheating before it can be used as
all ships. Some recent ships use main steam auxiliary steam. On ships having single-furnace
instead of auxiliary steam for the forced draft boilers, all steam generated in the boiler goes
blowers and for some pumps. On some ships, through the superheater; the steam required for
turbine gland sealing systems receive their auxiliary steam systems is then desuperheated
steam supply from an auxiliary steam system; to some extent. On ships having 600-psi main
on other ships, the source of supply is the aux- steam systems, auxiliary steam is desuper-
iliary exhaust system, In general, anincreasing heated so that it is approximately at steam drum
use of electrically driven (rather than turbine temperature (or very slightly above). On ships
driven) auxiliaries has led to the simplification having 1200-psi main steam systems, the desu-
of auxiliary steam systems on recent ships. perheated auxiliary steam may still have quitea
bit of superheat—that is, it may be ata consider-
On ships having double-furnace boilers, aux- ably higher temperature than the water and steam
iliary steam is taken directly from the steam in the steam drum,
207
MACHINERY ROOM NO. 4
H-P TURBINE NO.4 7”

AHEAD GUARDIAN BYPASS
C3 AHEAD GUARDIAN
REDUCTION | }/ ~
GEAR NO4 apesG AHEAD NOZZLE VALVES
MAIN _GAGEBOARD
L-P & ASTERN
TURBINE NO. 4
ASTERN THROTTLE
ASTERN THROTTLE Bypass §
bX] | afte = om =
MSIO PROPULSION TURBINE
CROSS- CONNECTION
STEAM TO
SOOT BLOWERS
I" AIR PRESSURE

EQUALIZING LINE
TO BILGE
wee eeoeeoepey
SUPERHEATER ’
ee @@ee@eee@2eae
ROOM
MACHINERY
AUXILIARY @ ms!3
6" SPARE CONN
TURBOGENERATOR CROSS~CONNECTION
——- oe = eo SS =@
3"
3," DRAIN
(P)
5 ‘| HO 1500 KW
TURBOGENERATOR
THROTTLE NO. 4
VALVE
GLOBE STOP VALVE

ANGLE STOP VALVE
ANGLE STOP VALVE, HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED
GLOBE STOP VALVE, LOCKED SHUT
GLOBE STOP VALVE, Ye HOLE DRILLED IN VALVE PARTITION
GATE VALVE
SWING CHECK VALVE
xRY
BLEB RELIEF VALVE
38.9.1
Figure 9-13.—Main steam system, CA 139 class.
208
MACHINERY ROOM NO.|
%%" DRAIN
oO
~ [| THROTTLE
<<]
MS4 3" MS2 ee
34" DRAIN
3"
3"-654 PS!
a
"SPARE CONN 2 ' \g"
"6
Bb
@ mss . Ate © I! |
AK @nm2e @eee2 eee oe
| - SUPERHEATER \ ||
Fy eee eee Pee a= «4
t4 a
MS5 0
a
. MS 9
TO BILGE
y"
bea
("AIR PRESSURE
EQUALIZING LINE TO BILGE
ROOM
PUMP
STEAM TO 2
SOOT BLOWERS
po
ASTERN THROTTLE BYPASS
ASTERN THROTTLE
| REDUCTION
GEAR NO.!I MAIN GAGEBOARD
ie see i AHEAD NOZZLE VALVES
AHEAD GUARDIAN
AHEAD GUARDIAN BYPASS
©®-—
PRESSURE GAGE
o=
SUPERHEATER PROTECTION DEVICE
-—
THERMOCOUPLE
@- THERMAL ALARM
@— THERMOMETER, DISTANT READING
(a THERMOMETER, DIRECT READING
a= ORIFICE
rH, STRAINER
Figure 9-13,—Main steam system, CA 139 class—Continued. rps
| 209
Most ships that have 600-psi main steam it also supplies augmenting steam at 12 psig
systems have a 600-psi auxiliary steam system to the auxiliary exhaust system, when necessary.
and a 150-psi auxiliary steam system, plus The 600-psi auxiliary steam system supplies
some lower pressure service systems. The steam at 600 psig and approximately 650°F to
600-psi auxiliary steam system serves some both fireroom and engineroom equipment. In
machinery directly and also supplies the 150-psi the fireroom, the 600-psi system supplies
system through reducing valves or reducing steam to the fuel oil service pumps, the main
stations. The 150-psi auxiliary steam system feed booster pump, the fire pump, and the
serves some units directly and also provides reducing stations that reduce the pressurefrom
auxiliary steam for units or systems that re- 600 to 150 psig. In the engineroom, the 600-
quire auxiliary steam at even lower pressures. psi system supplies steam to the standby lube
Figure 9-16 shows part of a600-psi auxiliary oil service pump, the main condensate pump,
steam system for the two forward plants (No. 1 the main circulating pump, and a reducing
and No. 4) on a heavy cruiser of the CA 139 station that reduces the pressure from 600 to
class. Note that the system is arranged in 150 psig.
loop form, with cross connections at required The 150-psi and the 50-psi auxiliary steam
intervals and with branch lines serving the systems for the after plant of the DLG 14 and
various units and systems. Note, also, that DLG 15 are shown in figure 9-18. The forward
the auxiliary steam system is, like the main plant has similar systems.
steam system, basically rather simple. The 150-psi auxiliary steam system in each
Ships that havea 1200-psi main steam system plant provides all machinery, equipment, and
have a 1200-psi auxiliary steam system, a connections which require 150-psi steam. This
600-psi auxiliary steam system, a 150-psi system also supplies steam to other reduced
auxiliary steam system, and several constant pressure systems, via reducing stations, and
and intermittent steam service systems. The may deliver steam to other ships or receive
auxiliary steam systems of the DLG 14 and steam from outside sources through special
DLG 15 are described here in some detail as piping and deck connections. Another function
examples of auxiliary steam systems on ships of the 150-psi system is to augment the auxi-
having 1200-psi main steam systems. liary exhaust system; in fact, this function is
normally performed by the 150-psi system,
The 1200-psi and the 600-psi auxiliary steam
although it may be performed directly by the
systems for the forward plant of the DLG 14
1200-psi auxiliary steam system when neces-
and DLG 15 are shown in figure 9-17.A similar
sary.
arrangement exists in the after plant. The
Steam for the 150-psi system in the fireroom
1200-psi auxiliary steam system for each plant
is supplied from the reducing stations that
is entirely separate and independent; the 600-
reduce the pressure from 600 to 150 psig. There
psi systems can be cross-connected but are
are two such stations in eachfireroom.A spray-
not normally operated that way. Each plant has
type desuperheater reduces the temperature
two boilers, both of which supply steam to the
of the fireroom 150-psi system to 400°F. Ser-
1200-psi auxiliary steam system of that plant.
vices and auxiliaries operated from the 150-
The steam comes from the desuperheater out-
psi system in the fireroom include superheater
let of each boiler; it is desuperheated from
protection steam,° service steam systems,
approximately 950° F (the operating temperature
oil heating systems, boiler casing steam
at the superheater outlet) to approximately
smothering systems, fireroom bilge steam
700° F. Note that the steam in this auxiliary
smothering system, bilge and fuel oil tank
steam system still has something more than
stripping pumps (in No. 1 fireroom and No. 2
200° F of superheat, so it is not strictly
engineroom only), steam for burner cleaning
“‘saturated’’ steam. The 1200-psi auxiliary
service, and hose connections for boiling out
steam lines from each boiler are interconnected
boilers. In emergencies, the fireroom 150-psi
so that either boiler can provide steam for
auxiliary steam system can also supply steam
everything served by this system.
for some units that are normally supplied by
The 1200-psi auxiliary steam system sup- the engineroom 150-psi system.
plies steam directly to the soot blowers, the
forced draft blowers, and the reducing stations °Superheater protection steam is discussed
in chapter
that reduce the pressure from 1200 to 600 psig; 10 of this text.
The reducing station that reduces steam from and other auxiliaries which do not exhaust di-
600 to 150 psig in the engineroom supplies rectly to a condenser. Auxiliary exhaust steam
steam at 150 psig and 610°F to the main and is used in various units, including deaerating
auxiliary air ejectors, the distilling plant air feed tanks, distilling plants, and (on many ships)
ejectors, and the turbine gland seal systems. turbine gland seal systems.
Line desuperheaters are not installed in the The pressure in the auxiliary exhaust system
150-psi system in the engineroom. is maintained at about 15 psig. If the pressure
In the No. 2 engineroom, a reducing station becomes too high, automatic unloading valves
reduces steam pressure from 150 psig to 100 (dumping valves) allow the excess steam to go
psig and supplies steam at 100 psig and 385°F to the main or auxiliary condensers; in the
to the ship’s laundry and tailor shop equipment. event of failure of these unloading valves, relief
This 100-psi auxiliary steam system is called valves allow the steam to escape to atmosphere.
the 100-psi constant service system. If the pressure in the auxiliary exhaust system
The 150-psi system also supplies two 50-psi drops too low, makeup steam is supplied from
systems—one a constant service system, one an an auxiliary steam system (usually the 150-psi
intermittent service system. Both of these sys- system) through augmenting valves.
tems are shown in figure 9-18. The auxiliary exhaust system must be clearly
distinguished from the various auxiliary steam
AUXILIARY EXHAUST SYSTEMS systems. Even though the auxiliary exhaust
system is a steam system, it is not considered
The auxiliary exhaust system receives ex- an auxiliary steam system. A reexamination of
haust steam from pumps, forced draft blowers, figure 9-1 may be helpful at this point to clarify
#2 ENGINEROOM #2 FIREROOM #1 ENGINEROOM #1 FIREROOM
STRAINER _ #2
To Astern
Turbine :
S
BH! Turbines
: : BOILER
To :
Turbines
:To Astern
% Turbine
STRAINER To Generators
@ DECK OPERATED VALVE
147.76
Figure 9-14.—Main steam system, DD 445 and DD 692 classes.
211
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212
the relationships between the auxiliary exhaust to the boilers and from the feed tanks to the
system and the main and auxiliary steam boilers. The condensate system includes the
systems. main and auxiliary condensers, the condensate
pumps, and the piping. The boiler feed system
STEAM ESCAPE PIPING includes the feed booster pump, the main feed
pump, and the piping required to carry water
Steam escape piping is installed to provide from the deaerating feed tank to the boilers.
an unobstructed passage for the escape of steam Together, the condensate and feed systems
from boiler safety valves and from the relief begin at the condenser and end at the economizer
valves installed on steam-driven auxiliaries. A of the boiler.
line is also provided from the auxiliary exhaust It is a little hard to say whether the deae-
system to the escape piping to allow the aux- rating feed tank is part of the condensate system
iliary exhaust to unload to atmosphere if the or part of the boiler feed system, since the
pressure becomes excessively high. Steam es- tank is generally taken as the dividing line be-
cape piping is usually shown on the same plans tween the two systems. The water is called
or drawings as the ones that show the auxiliary condensate between the condenser and the
exhaust piping. deaerating feed tank. It is called feed water or
boiler feed between the deaerating feed tank
GLAND SEAL AND GLAND and the economizer of the boiler. Since the
EXHAUST SYSTEMS condensate and feed systems actually form
one continuous system, the terms feed system
Gland sealing steam is supplied to the shaft and feed water system are quite commonly
glands® of propulsion turbines and turbogen- used to include both the condensate system
erator turbines to seal the shaft glands against and the boiler feed system.
two kinds of leakage: (1) air leakage into the Four main types of feed systems have been
turbine casings, and (2) steam leakage out of used on naval ships: (1) the open feed system,
the turbine casings. These two kinds of leakage (2) the semiclosed feed system, (3) the vacuum-
may seem contradictory; however, each kind closed system, and (4) the pressure-closed sys-
of leakage could occur under some operating tem. The development of these systems, in the
conditions if the shaft glands were not sealed. sequence listed, has gone along with the deve-
Pressures in the gland seal system are low, lopment of boilers. As boilers have been de-
ranging from about 3/4 psig to 2 psig, depending signed for higher operating pressures and
upon the conditions of operation. Gland exhaust temperatures, the removal of dissolved oxygen
piping carries the steam and air from the tur- from the feed water has become increasingly
bine shaft glands to the gland exhaust condenser, inportant, since the higher pressures and tem-
where the steam is condensed and returned to peratures accelerate the corrosive effects of
the condensate system. dissolved oxygen. Each new type of feed system
On most ships, gland sealing steam is sup- represents an improvement over the one before
plied from the auxiliary exhaust system, although in reducing the amount of oxygen dissolved or
on some ships it is supplied from the 150-psi suspended in the feed water.
auxiliary steam system. In either case, the
steam is supplied through reducing valves or Since practically all modern naval ships
have pressure-closed feed systems, this is
reducing stations. Figure 9-19 illustrates a
the only type discussed here. Pressure-closed
typical gland seal and gland exhaust system for systems are used on all naval ships having
propulsion turbines on an older type of destroyer. boilers operating at 600-psi and above; they
are also used on some ships that have lower
CONDENSATE AND FEED SYSTEMS boiler operating pressures.
Condensate and feed systems include all the In a pressure-closed system, all condensate
piping that carries water from the condensers and feed lines throughout the system (except
for the very short line between the condenser
6Shaft glands are devices for holding various kinds and the suction side of the condensate pump)
of packing at the point where the shaft extends through are under positive pressure. The system is
the turbine casing. Shaft glands and shaft gland pack- closed to prevent the entrance of air. A pres-
ing are discussed in chapter 12 of this text. sure-closed system is shown in figure 9-20.
213
MACHINERY ROOM NO. 4

MAIN AIR
EJECTOR
FO BOOST &
TRANS PUMP
Yq (CAI34 @148) , P ' (cal34 8148)
2"(cAI39) Xasizs p H Meer
TO 150 PSI
STEAM LINE
BysB
S119 |
ASII3
x ASIIT 15
B ¥ B
ROOM
MACHINERY
AUX ASIIIJASIO9 ASIOI
ti
FO HEATERS
ASIT9
600-275 PSI
EMERG
PUMPFEED BILGE & FO TANK
DRAIN PUMP
GLOBE STOP VALVE

GLOBE STOP VALVE,LOCKED SHUT
ANGLE STOP VALVE
GATE VALVE
%EDwWX NEEDLE VALVE
Figure 9-16.—Part of 600-psi auxiliary steam system, CA 139 class. 38 .10.1
214
MACHINERY ROOM NO.|
EMERG FEED AUX AIR

PUMP y'-205 Psi EJECTOR
600-275 PSI
DISTILLER
AIR EJECTORS
BILGE
DRAIN& FO TANK
PUMP 2 (CAI34 & 148)
2'6' (cal39)
FO HEATERS
MAIN FEED
BOOST. PUMP
FORCED DRAFT =
BLOWER 8
a
a
=
=)
a
4" TO ESCAPE
PIPING
pM GOVERNOR VALVE
ko REDUCING VALVE
om RELIEF VALVE
HH STEAM STRAINER
@®- PRESSURE GAGE
38.10.2
Figure 9-16.—Part of 600-psi auxiliary steam system, CA 139 class--Continued.
215
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CRUISING G
PRESSURE |_\@ TURBINE@
CROSSOVER TURBINE
PIPE
AFTER —+------<€---
PACKING
GLAND iO.oax=ob
2moo
CASING
OF LOW 1
PRESSURE
LOW PRESSURE
TURBINE
|
TO GLAND
== eb ee — — Ge —
EXHAUST@
CONDENSER
wus GLAND SEAL

STEAM
— ——-— GLAND LEAK- OFF
STEAM
t
ks WEIGHT-LOADED
REGULATING
VALVE FROM
AUXILIARY
EXHAUST
SYSTEM
38.12
Figure 9-19.—Gland seal and gland exhaust system for propulsion turbines (destroyer).
Following this illustration, let us trace the con- water is heated by direct contact with auxiliary
densate and feed system.7 exhaust steam and is deaerated; the water (now
The main condenser is the beginning of the called feed water) is pumped to the boiler by the
condensate system. The main condenser is a main feed pump, with the feed booster pump pro-
heat exchanger in which exhaust steam from the viding a positive suction for the main feed pump.
propulsion turbines is condensed as it comes in Meanwhile, the air ejectors are being used to
contact with tubes through which cool sea water remove air and other noncondensable gases from
is flowing. The condenser is maintained under the condenser. Condensate, on its way from the
vacuum. Condensate is pumped from the con- main condenser to the deaerating feed tank, is
denser to the deaerating feed tank by the con- used in the air ejector condensers and in two
densate pump. In the deaerating feed tank, the other exchangers (the gland exhaust condenser
and the vent condenser) to cool and condense the
steam from steam—air mixtures and return the
resulting water to the feed system. Note that the
air ejectors remove air only from the condenser,
7The main condenser, the air ejectors, the deaerating
not from this condensate which passes through
feed tank, and other major units in the condensate and
feed system are discussed in detail in chapter 13 of the air ejector condensers, the gland exhaust
this text. The description given in the present chapter condenser, and the vent condenser.
is intended merely to provide an overall view of the Makeup feed water from reserve feed tanks
condensate and feed system. or from a makeup feed tank is brought into the
218
STEAM TO
AIR EJECTORS
TO VAPOR FROM
ATMOSPHERE TURBINE GLANDS ECONOMIZER
VENT H.P.DRAINS
VENT CONDENSER VENT +t
nas
AUXILIARY
BOILER
DEAERATING
FEED TANK
|GLAND exdaust!
| CONDENSER | RECIRCULATING
Some FS VALVE
)
|
|
Y
‘ |
: |
|
:ae |
|
><] 2 FEED BOOSTER
MAIN --—~+ —— — ~~ 2 — PUMP.
CONDENSER | , ;i
| FRESH WATER ! =
\ DRAIN | MAKEUP & EXCESS
| COLLECTING | vy , FEED VALVES
| TANK | .j#¥t--
Te |
|
\ \ RESERVE FEED TANK
4
\ {Se a eg oe
CONDENSATE PUMP \-—— -<« —
38.16
Figure 9-20.—Pressure-closed feed system.
system when necessary. A manually operated system arrangements do permit this transfer to
makeup feed valve is provided for this purpose. be made when necessary.
Makeup feed is brought into the condenser by In discussing the condensate andfeed system,
vacuum drag. Another manually operated valve we have not included the auxiliary condenser and
allows excess condensate to be discharged from its associated equipment. It should be noted that
the condensate line to the reserve feed tanks. the auxiliary condenser functions in the same way
as the main condenser and returns water to the
Practically all naval ships have more than
condensate and feed system. The chief difference
one feed water system, with cross-connecting
between main and auxiliary condensers is that
lines and valves arranged so that the systems
main condensers have larger capacity.
may be operated either split-plant or cross-
connected. When warming up or securing one
' plant, it is often necessary to transfer feed wa- STEAM AND FRESH WATER DRAINS
ter from one plant to another. For example, it
might be necessary to transfer feed water from
Most of the feed water in a shipboard steam
one plant to another so that one plant will not
plant is recovered sothat it canbe used over and
have to take on cold makeup feed while another
over again for the generation of steam. AS we
plant is discharging hot excess feed.
have seen, steam is condensed in the main and
Since reserve feed tanks are normally filled auxiliary condensers and the condensate is re-
by discharge from the distilling plant, it is sel- turned to the feed system. Also, the auxiliary
dom necessary to transfer feed water from one exhaust steam is uSed in the deaerating feed
reserve feed tank to another. However, piping tank and thus becomes part of the feed system.
219
ee ree Aan 1 hdnares aes. I,ce eee eae Ae A Lake ee
But steam is used throughout the ship ina and to the bilge sump tank located in the same
good deal of machinery, equipment, and piping space.
which does not exhaust either to a condenser or Note that the service steam drainage system
to the auxiliary exhaust system. Therefore, collects only clean drains which are suitable for
steam and fresh water drain systems are pro- use as boiler feed. Contaminated service steam
vided so that water can be recovered and put drains (such as those from laundry presses, for
back into the feed system after it has been used example) are discharged overboard,
(as steam) in fuel oil heaters, distilling plants,
The oil heating drainage system collects
steam catapult systems, water heaters, whistles,
drains from the steam side of fuel oil heaters,
and many other units and systems throughout the
fuel oil tank heating coils, lubricating oil heaters,
ship. The systems of piping which carry the wa-
and other steam equipment used to heat oil. Since
ter to the feed systems, and also the water car-
leakage in the heating equipment could cause oil
ried in the systems, are known as drains.
contamination of the drains, and so eventually
On ships built to Navy specifications, there cause oil contamination of the boilers, these
are four steam and fresh water drain systems drains are collected separately and are inspected
which recover feed water from machinery and before being discharged to the feed system.
piping: (1) the high pressure steam drainage sys- The oil heating drains are collected in oil
tem, (2) the service steam drainage system, (3) heating drain mains and are then discharged to
the oil heating drainage system, and (4) the fresh inspection tanks. In ships that have separate en-
water drain collecting system. In addition, a ginerooms and firerooms, there is one inspec-
fifth system is provided for collecting contami- tion tank in the fireroom and one in the engine-
nated drains which cannot be returned to the feed room. On ships that have machinery rooms,
system. These five systems are described inthe rather than firerooms and enginerooms, each
following paragraphs. machinery room has one or more inspection
The high pressure steam drainage system tanks for the oil heating drains. The inspection
generally includes drains from superheater tanks have small gage glasses or glass strips
headers, throttle valves, main and auxiliary along the side to permit inspection of the drains.
steam lines, steam catapults (on carriers), and The inspection tanks normally discharge to the
other steam equipment or systems which operate deaerating feed tank, but they have connections
at pressures of 150 psi or above. On many ships, which allow the drains to be discharged to the
the high pressure drains are led directly into fresh water drain collecting tank.
the deaerating feed tank. On some newer ships,
The fresh water drain collecting system,
the high pressure drains go into the auxiliary ex-
often called low pressure drainsystem, collects
haust line just before the auxiliary exhaust steam
drains from various piping systems, machinery,
enters the deaerating feed tank. In either case,
and equipment which operate at steam pressures
of course, the high pressure drains end up in the
of less than 150 psi. As previously noted, both the
same place—that is, in the deaerating feed tank.
service steam drainage system and the oil
The service steam drainage system collects heating drainage system can discharge to the
uncontaminated drains from low pressure (below fresh water drain collecting tank, although they
150 psi) steam piping systems and steam equip- normally discharge more directly to the feed
ment outside of the machinery spaces. Space system. In general, the fresh water drain collec-
heaters and equipment used in the laundry, the ting system collects gravity drains (open-funnel
tailor shop, and the galley aretypical sources of or sight-flow drains), turbine gland seal drains,
drains for the service steam drainage system. auxiliary exhaust drains, air ejector after con-
On some ships, these drains are discharged into denser drains, and a variety of other low pres-
the most convenient fresh water drain collecting sure drains that result from the condensation of
tank. On other ships, particularly onlarge com- steam during the warming up or operating of
batant ships such as carriers, the service steam steam machinery and piping.
drains discharge to special service steam drain Fresh water drains are collected in fresh
collecting tanks located inthe machinery spaces. water drain collecting tanks located in the ma-
The contents of the service steam drain collec- chinery spaces. The contents of these tanks may
ting tanks are discharged to the condensate sys- enter the feed system in two ways: they may be
tem; in addition, eachtank has gravity drain con- drawn into the condenser by vacuum drag, or in
nections to the fresh water drain collecting tank some installations they may be pumped to the
220
condensate system just ahead of the deaerating burnable oil remaining inthe tanks is thentrans-
feed tank. ferred to a storage tank or a Service tank.
A contaminated drainage system is installed The contaminated oil settling tanks also
in each main and auxiliary machinery space serve to receive and store oil or oily water un-
where dry bilges must be maintained. The con- til it can be discharged overboard without viola-
taminated drainage system collects oil and water tion of the Oil Pollution Acts.8 These Acts pro-
from machinery and piping which normally has hibit the overboard discharge of oil and of
some leakage, and also collects drainage from water containing oil in port and in prohibited
any other services which may at times be con- zones in Oceans and seas throughout the world.
taminated. The contaminated drains are collec- It is standard practice, therefore, to empty the
ted in a bilge sump tank located inthe machinery contaminated oil settling tanks before coming in-
space from which the drains are being collected. to port or into a prohibited zone so that the
The contents of the bilge sump tank are removed tanks will be available for storing oil and oily
by the bilge drainage system; they do not go to water until such time as it can be discharged
the feed system. overboard or to barges.
Fuel oil tanks are vented to atmosphere by
FUEL OIL SYSTEMS pipes leading from the top of the tank to a loca-
tion above decks. The vent pipes allow the es-
Boiler fuel oil systems aboard ship include cape of vapor when the tank is being filled and
fuel oil tanks, fuel oil piping, fuel oil pumps, and allow the entrance of air when the tank is being
the equipment used for heating, straining, meas- emptied. Most fuel oil tanks are equipped with
uring, and burning fuel oil. manholes, overflow lines, sounding tubes, liquid
Three main kinds of tanks are used for hold- level indicators, heating coils, and lines for
ing boiler fuel oil: (1) storage tanks, (2) service filling, emptying, and cross-connecting.
tanks, and (3) contaminated oil settling tanks. The fuel oil piping system includes (1) the
fuel oil filling and transfer system, (2) the fuel
The main fuel oil storage tanks are an inte-
oil tank stripping system, and (3) the fuel oil
gral part of the ship’s structure. They may be
Service system. The fuel oil systems are ar-
located forward and aft of the machinery spaces,
ranged in such a way that different fuel oil pumps
abreast of these spaces, and in double-bottom
take suction from the tanks at different levels.
compartments. However, fuel oil storage tanks
Stripping system pumps have low level suction
are never located in double-bottom compart-
connections. Fuel oil service pumps have high
ments directly under boilers. Some fuel oil stor-
suction connections from the fuel oil service
age tanks, called fuel oil storage or ballast tanks,
tanks. Fuel oil booster and transfer pumps take
have connections that allow them to be filled ei-
suction above the stripping system pumps.
ther with fuel oil or with sea water from the bal-
The fuel oil filling and transfer system is
lasting system. Other fuel oil storage tanks are
used for receiving fuel oil and filling the fuel oil
designated as fuel oil overflow tanks; these tanks
storage tanks; filling the fuel oil service tanks;
receive the overflow from fuel oil storage tanks
changing the list of the ship by transferring oil
which are not fitted with independent overboard
between port tanks and starboard tanks; changing
overflows. Overflow tanks which can also be
the trim of the ship by transferring oil between
. filled with sea water from the ballasting system
forward tanks and after tanks; discharging oil
are called fuel oil overflow or ballast tanks.
for fueling other ships; and, in emergencies,
Fuel oil is taken aboard by means of fueling
transferring fuel oil directly to the suction side
_ trunks or special connections and is piped into
of the fuel oil service pumps.
the storage tanks. From the storage tanks, oilis
The filling system on small ships such as
pumped to the fuel oil service tanks. All fuel oil
destroyers consists of a trunk filling and tank
for immediate use is then drawn from the service
Sluicing arrangement. Larger steam-driven
tanks. The fuel oil service tanks are considered
ships have pressure filling systems which are
part of the fuel oil service system.
Contaminated oil settling tanks are used to
hold oil which is contaminated with water or oth-
er impurities. After the oil has settled, the un- 8the Oil Pollution Act of 1924 (as amended) and the
burnable material such as water and sludge is Oil Pollution Act of 1961 are both in effect. The 1961
pumped out through low suction connections. The Act broadens and extends the 1924 Act.
221
a
connected to the transfer mains so that the the temperature of the returned fuel oil below
filling lines and deck connections can be used the flash point,
both for receiving and for discharging fuel oil. In any type of fuel oil service system, the
Pressure filling systems operate with a mini- suction arrangements for oil service pumps
mum pressure of approximately 40 psi at the allow rapid changes of pump suction from one
deck connections. Service tank (or one tank group manifold) to
In general, the filling and transfer system another. The pump suction piping is arrangedto
consists of large mains running fore and aft; minimize contamination that might result from
transfer mains; cross-connections; risers for one service pump taking suction from a service
taking on or discharging fuel oil; fuel oil booster tank that is contaminated with water.
and transfer pumps; and lines and manifolds
arranged so that the fuel oil booster and trans- Three classes of fuel oil service pumps are
commonly used: main fuel oil service pumps,
fer pumps can transfer oil from one tank to
port and cruising fuel oil service pumps, and
another and, when necessary, can deliver fuel
hand or emergency fuel oil service pumps.
oil to the suction side of the fuel oil service
Main fuel oil service pumps are usually
pumps.
screw-type rotary pumps! that are driven by
The fuel oil tank stripping system serves to
steam turbines. However, other types of pumps
clear fuel oil storage tanks and fuel oil service
are used for this purpose on some ships.
tanks of sludge and water before oil is pumped
Port and cruising fuel oil service pumps on
from these tanks by fuel oil booster andtransfer
pumps or by fuel oil service pumps. The strip-
recent ships are very Similar to the main fuel
oil service pumps except that they are driven
ping system is connected through manifolds to
by two-speed electric motors. The capacity of
the bilge pump or, in some installations, to
these pumps can be adjusted by selecting the
special stripping system pumps. The stripping
required speed of the motor and also by using a
system discharges the contaminated oil, sludge,
and water overboard or to the contaminated oil
bypass arrangement to recirculate unused oil
from the pump discharge to the pump suction.
settling tanks.
On older ships, the port and cruising fuel oil
The fuel oil service system includes the fuel
service pumps may be rotary pumps or they may
oil service tanks, a service main, manifolds,
be axial-piston variable-stroke pumps; in either
piping, fuel oil service pumps, meters, heaters,
case, they are normally driven by electric mo-
strainers, burner lines, and other items needed
tors rather than by steam turbines.
to deliver fuel oil to the boiler fronts at the re-
Hand or emergency fuel oil service pumps
quired pressures and temperatures. The fuel oil
are used on some ships when boilers must be
service system uSed on any peng depends partly
lighted offand neither steam nor electric power
on the type of fuel oil burners” installed on the
is available. Most hand or emergency fuel oil
boilers. Figure 9-21 illustrates schematically
service pumps are herringbone gear pumps. On
a fuel oil service system typically found on ships
recent ships, other means of lighting off without
having double-furnace boilers and straight-
steam or power are uSed, andthe hand or emer-
through-flow atomizers in the fuel oil burners.
gency fuel oil service pump is not required.
Figure 9-22 shows the fuel oil service system
for the forward plant of the frigates DLG14 and The fuel oil service system contains a num-
DLG 15, which use return-flow atomizers inthe ber of valves, all of which are important to the
fuel oil burners. As may be seen infigure 9-22, safe and efficient operation of the boiler. The
a system of this type requires fuel oil return major valves in the fuel oil service system
lines as well as fuel oil supply lines. Also, the shown in figure 9-20 are listed here bothto give
use of return-flow atomizers in these burners some idea of the complexity of the fuel oil ser-
requires a fuel oil cooler to cool the oil returned vice system and to indicate the degree of preci-
from the burners. The cooler (which is not part sion required of operating personnel in lining
of the fuel oil service system on ships that do up, operating, Securing, and controlling casual-
not have return-flow atomizers) serves to keep ties in the fuel oil service system.
9 Fuel oil burners are discussed in chapter 10 of this 10pasic types of pumps are discussed inchapter 15 of
text. this text.
222
EMERGENCY MAIN FUEL OIL

MICROMETER VALVES (ONE TO
VALVE THERMOMETER EACH, BOILER }
TO
OTHER
BOILER
BURNER
ROOT ATOMIZER
vaAves VALVES
SUPERHEATER-
SIDE BURNER
MANIFOLD
RECIRCULATING
VALVE SATURATED -SIDE
BURNER MANIFOLD
TO OVERBOARD OR
TQ CONTAMINATED
>
OIL SETTLING TANK
DUPLEX
STRAINER
RECIRCULATING
LINE
THERMO-
METER
METER
REMOTE -OPERATED
QUICK-CLOSING VALVE
HAND OR
yy EMERGENCY
’ _ F.O.SERVICE
CHECK PUMP. ee PUMP
VALVE
FO.BOOSTER
AND TRANSFER PUMP
TO FILLING AND DISCHARGE

DECK So FUEL OIL SERVICE
TANK
><)
38.63
Figure 9-21.—Fuel oil service system on ship with double furnace boilers
having straight-through-flow atomizers.
Suction and discharge valves allow the pumps from two places: (1) from the fuel oil pump
to be lined up for the delivery of fuel oil. The itself, and (2) from the fireroom escape trunk
remote-operated quick-closing valve inthe sup- or from the deck above and near the access
ply main on the discharge side of the fuel oil to the space. Fuel oil meter and meter bypass
service pump provides a means for rapidly valves allow the fuel oil meter to be used or
shutting off the fuel oil from a remote location. to be bypassed, as the situation requires; the
The remote operating gear for this valve is fuel oil meter is bypassed when oil is being
arranged so that the valve may be operated recirculated. A fuel oil heater bypass valve
223
PRESSURE
SWITCH
STOPS PUMP
AT 800 PSIG
MAIN FUEL PORT FUEL

OIL SERVICE OIL SERVICE
PUMPS PUMP
FUEL OIL
HEATER
cr hy, DRAIN TO) FROM DIESEL
FROM FUEL = FUEL OIL - OIL SYSTEM
F.O. DUPLEX OIL TRANSFER STRIPE SYS.
SYSTEM l
STRAINER
FUELOIL |
SUPPLY METER
LO} DEEP
TANK
“9
Wassee FUEL OIL
SERVICE
F.O.
Oke
DEEP
TANK
TO SMOKE
MAKER SERVICE
F.O.
147.80
Figure 9-22.—Fuel oil service system for forward plant, DLG 14 and DLG 15.
is installed to permit bypassing the fuel oil of oil being burned in the boiler furnace. From
heaters in unusual operating situations. Fuel the burner manifold, a small flexible line goes
oil heater valves control the flow of oil into to each burner. A small valve called a burner
the heaters and permit shifting from one heater root valve is installed in each burner line to
to another. permit shutting off the supply of oil to any burner
The main fuel oil valve controls the flow that is not in use. And finally, an atomizer
of fuel oil in the line leading to each boiler. valve is installed on each burner at the atomizer
The emergency quick-closing valve can be connection. This valve allows oil to go through
operated from both the upper level and the the atomizer and be sprayed out into the boiler
lower level at the boiler front. Insome installa- furnace in such a way that combustion takes
tions, a latched-open solenoid valve, arranged place.
for local tripping, is installed adjacent to each At the lower end of each burner manifold,
burner supply manifold; where a solenoid valve a recirculating valve is installed. By means of
of this type is installed, it takes the place of these valves and the recirculating line, fuel oil
the emergency quick-closing valve. can be returned from the burner manifold to
A micrometer valve is installed at the top the suction side of the fuel oil service pump.
of each burner manifold. The micrometer valve The recirculating line is used to circulate oil
is used for the manual control of fuel oil pres- through the fuel oil heaters and thus bring the
sure; thus it isthe valve that controls the amount oil up to the proper temperature for lighting
224
i
off. A clearing line branches off from the re- On aircraft carriers, JP-5 aviation fuel can
circulating line. Valves in the recirculating also be used as boiler fuelincaseof emergency.
line and in the clearing line permit fuel oil to The JP-5 system is separate from the boiler
be discharged to the suction side of the fuel oil fuel oil system but can be connected so as to
service pump or to the contaminated oil settling discharge JP-5 to the fuel oil service system.
tank (or overboard). A check valve in the re-
circulating line prevents the back flow of oil DISTILLATE FUEL SYSTEM
from the fuel oil suction main; another check
valve at the connection of the clearing line and The Department of Defense has authorized
the contaminated oil settling tank prevents back the Navy to convert to an all-distillate marine
flow from the contaminated oil settling tank type diesel fuel (Navy Special Distillate Fuel)
through the clearing line and into the recirculat- (NSDF) to replace the Navy Special Fuel Oil
ing line. (NSFO) now in use on steam-driven ships.
The valves just listed are typically found in Testing is now being conducted on gas tur-
fuel oil service systems on ships which use bines and diesel engines for the feasibility of
straight-through-flow atomizers. Where return- converting the Navy to a ‘‘one fuel’’ Navy for
flow atomizers are used, additional valves are logistic simplicity and reduction of overall
required in the fuel oil service system to con- operating costs.
trol the return flow of oil and (in some installa- Piping system conversion and changes will
tions) to control the flow of oilthrougha cooler. require the upgrading and validation of the
Where automatic boiler controls are installed, existing systems on all ships using NSFO.
still more valves are required in the fuel oil Therefore, all instructions issued by NavShips
service system; these include fuel oil supply and NavSec shall be followed in upgrading and
and return valves which are operated by the validation of the existing NSFO systems before
boiler control system. NSDF can be introduced into the system.
Stability and buoyancy will also be affected
BALLASTING SYSTEMS due to the variation in specific gravity of NSFO
(7.9 lbs/gal average) verses NSDF (7.2 lbs/gal
The ballasting system allows the controlled average), therefore, solid ballast will be re-
flooding of certain designated tanks, when such quired in those ships which are now near the
flooding is required for stability control. All naval architectural limits for stability. The
tanks that are designated as fuel oil and ballast existing liquid loading instructions which specify
tanks (and also certain voids) may be flooded sea water ballasting of empty fuel tanks will
by the ballasting system. Sea water is used for still remain in effect.
ballasting; it may be taken from the firemain
or it may be taken directly from sea chests. MAIN LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEMS
Combined ballasting and drainage systems
are arranged so that all designated compart- Main lubricating oil systems on steam-
ments and tanks can be ballasted either separate- driven ships provide lubrication for the turbine
ly or together and drained either separately or bearings and the reduction gears. The main
together. Drainage pumps or eductors are used lube oil system usually includes a filling and
to remove the ballast water. transfer system, a purifying system, and
separate service systems for each propulsion
DIESEL OIL AND JP-5 SYSTEMS plant. On most ships, each lube oil service
system includes three positive-displacement
Diesel oil systems are found even on steam- lube oil service pumps: (1) a shaft-driven pump,
driven ships. Ships that carry large supplies (2) a turbine-driven pump, and (3) a motor-
of diesel oil have fairly complex diesel oil driven pump. The shaft-driven pump, attached
systems which are quite similar to the boiler to and driven by either the propulsion shaft or
fuel oil systems already described. Although the quill shaft of the reduction gear, is used
the diesel oil systems are separate from the as the regular lube oil service pump when the
boiler fuel oil systems, they are arranged so shaft is turning fast enough so that the pump
that the diesel oil can be discharged to the fuel can supply the required lube oil pressure. The
oil service system and burned in the boiler fur- turbine-driven pump is used while the ship is
nace in case of emergency. getting underway and is then used as standby
225
ee
SS ee eee eee eee eee Eee
at normal speeds. The motor-driven pump is designed to provide air at various tempera-
serves as standby for the other two lube oil tures (50° to 500° F) and pressures (48 psia to
service pumps. 62 psia) by gas turbine. The system supplies
Figure 9-23 illustrates the lube oil supply compressed air to meet the conditions of starting
and lube oil drain piping of the service system and cooling aircraft being served.
on the frigates DLG 14 and DLG 15. Combustion control air systems (more pro-
perly called boiler control air systems) are
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS installed on some ships to provide supply air
for the pneumatic units in automatic boiler
Completely independent compressed air sys- control systems. A boiler control air system
tems with individual compressors include the usually consists of an air compressor, an air
high pressure air system, the ship’s service receiver, and the piping required to supply
air system, the aircraft starting and cooling air to all units of the boiler control system
air system, the combustion control air system, On some older ships, compressed air for the
the air deballasting system, and the oxygen- operation of the boiler controls is taken from
nitrogen producer air system. For other ser- the ship’s service air system, through reducing
vices, air is taken from the high pressure valves.
system or from the ship’s service air system, An air deballasting system is provided on
as required. Air is provided by high pressure, some ships for deballasting by air. This system
medium pressure, or low pressure air com- is designed to provide large quantities of air
pressors, as appropriate. (7500 cubic feet per minute) at low pressure
The high pressure air system is designed (200 psi). All compressors discharge to a com-
to provide air above 600 psi and up to 5000 psi mon air loop distribution which feeds all ballast
for charging air banks and, at required pres- tanks.
sures, for services such as missiles, diesel Oxygen-nitrogen producer air systems are
engine starting and control, torpedo charging, installed on aircraft carriers and submarine
and torpedo workshops. When air is required tenders. The air is supplied by high pressure
for these services at less than the system pres- air compressors, via oil filters and moisture
sure, the outlet from the high pressure air separators, directly to the oxygen-nitrogen
system is equipped with a reducing valve. producer.
Air for diesel engine starting and control
is provided on some ships by a medium range FIREMAIN SYSTEMS
compressure at a pressure of 600 psi or from
the high pressure system, through appropriate The firemain system receives water pumped
reducing valves. from the sea and distributes it to fireplugs,
The ship’s service compressed air system is sprinkling systems, flushing systems, auxiliary
a low pressure system that is installed on machinery cooling water systems, washdown
practically all surface ships. This system pro- systems, and other systems as required.
vides compressed air at the required pressure There are three basic types of firemain
for the operation of pneumatic tools, the opera- systems used on naval ships: the single main
tion of oil-burning forges and furnaces, the system, the horizontal loop system, and the
charging of pump air chambers, the cleaning vertical loop system. The type of firemain
of equipment, and a variety of other uses. The system installed in any particular ship depends
ship’s service air system is normally designed upon the characteristics and functions of the
for a working pressure of 100 psi; on ships ship. Small ships generally have single main
such as tenders and repair ships, however, firemain systems; large ships usually have
where there is a greater demand for air, the one of the loop systems or a composite system
system is designed for a higher working pres- which is some combination or variation of the
sure (usually about 125 psi). The ship’s service three basic types.
air system is normally supplied from a low The single main firemain system consists
pressure air compressor; on some ships, how- of one main which extends fore and aft. The
ever, the system may be supplied froma higher main is generally installed near the centerline
pressure system, through reducing valves. of the ship, extending as far forward and as far
An aircraft starting and cooling air system aft as necessary. The horizontal loop firemain
is installed on aircraft carriers. This system system consists of two single fore-and-aft
226
DUP
LUBE OIL SERVICE g
PUMP (MOTOR) meV Sse
ERa Op
600 PSIG STEAM

LUBE OIL
SUCTION FROM
STORAGE AND
SETTLING TANKS
LUBE OIL SERVICE

PUMP (TURBINE)
LUBE OIL SERVICE

PUMP (ATTACHED)
(Lalr
TURBINE
LUBE OIL
SUMP
TO PURIFIER DRAIN TO BUCKET -

SUCTION arent SSS DUPLEX MAGNETIC
STRAINER
onan TO
SUMP
DRAIN TO SUMP
FROM JOURNAL
AND THRUST
LUBE OIL SERVICE

PUMP (ATTACHED)
__— L.-P. TURBINE
LUBE OIL i yess ote, - erg) & H.P. TURBINE
SUMP TANK : hae 2
MAIN REDUCTION PE cans Aba Dieta Cits tte FROM JOURNAL

GEAR by athe oS AND THRUST
FROM SPRAY
AND JOURNAL
ALONG SHAFTS
LUBE OIL DRAIN PIPING
: ee ; F 147.81
Figure 9-23.—Lubricating oil service system, DLG 14 and DLG 15.
227
ee eS ee eee eee
cross-connected mains. The two mains are Plumbing and deck drains are divided into
installed in the same horizontal plane but are two groups—soil drains and waste drains. Soil
separated athwartships as far as practicable. drains convey fluids from urinals and water
In general, the two mains are installed on the closets. Waste drains convey fluids from all
damage control deck. The vertical loop firemain other plumbing fixtures and deck drains.
system consists of two single fore-and-aft
cross-connected mains. The two mains are SPRINKLING SYSTEMS
separated both athwartship and vertically. As
a rule, the lower main is located below the Sprinkling systems are installed aboard ship
lowest complete watertight deck and the upper in magazines, turret handling rooms, hangar
main is located below the highest complete decks, missile spaces, and other spaces where
watertight deck. flammable materials are stowed. Water for
these systems is supplied from the firemain
FLUSHING SYSTEMS through branch lines.
Most sprinkling systems aboard ship are
The shipboard flushing system is supplied of the dry type—that is, they are not charged
with sea water by a branch from the firemain. with water beyond the sprinkling control valves
On very small ships, a separate sanitary and except when they are in use. Sprinkling systems
flushing pump is provided which takes suction in magazines which contain missiles are of the
from the sea. When the flushing system is wet type. The sprinkling control valves in
suppliedfrom the firemain, the branch is taken magazine sprinkling systems are operated auto-
as near the top of the main as possible so that matically by heat-actuated devices. Other
sediment from the firemain will not enter the sprinkling control valves are operated manually
flushing system. Since the firemain pressure is or hydraulically, either locally or from remote
too high for a flushing system, the water is stations. In those areas of the ship in which
led through a strainer to a reducing valve which major flammable liquid fires could occur,
reduces the pressure to 35 psi. Air chambers such as in aircraft hangars, foam sprinkling
are installed in the flushing system where it systems are provided.
runs to urinals and water closets; the air
chambers absorb water hammer caused by the WASHDOWN SYSTEMS
quick closing of the flush valves and spring-
closing faucets. Washdown systems are installed aboard ship
for the purpose of removing radioactive con-
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS tamination from the topside surfaces of a ship.
Essentially, a washdown system is a dry-pipe
The drainage system aboard ship is divided sprinkler system, with nozzles especially de-
into two parts: (1) the main and secondary sys- signed to throw a large spray pattern on all
tems, and (2) the plumbing and deck drains. weather decks. For ships under construction
Between them, these systems collect and dispose or conversion, a permanent washdown system
overboard all the shipboard waste fluids. is installed; for ships already in service,
The main drainage system consists of piping interim washdown system kits are provided
installed low in the ship, with suction branches for installation by ship’s force. In either case,
to spaces to be drained and direct connections water for the washdown system is supplied
to eductors or drainage pumps. This system from the firemain.
generally serves the main machinery spaces
and a few other spaces. POTABLE WATER SYSTEMS
The secondary drainage system supplements
the main drainage system wherever the main Potable water systems are designed to pro-
drainage system cannot be extended because of vide a constant supply of potable water for all
interference of spaces through which the passage ship’s service requirements. Potable water is
of piping is prohibited or because the length of stored in various tanks throughout the ship.
piping would be too great for efficient drainage. The system is pressurized either by a pump
Each secondary drainage system is independent and pressure tank or by a continuously opera-
of the main drainage system and has its own ting circulating pump. The potable water system
pumps or eductors and its own sea connections. supplies scuttlebutts, sinks, showers, scullery,
228
and galley, as well as providing makeup water ted either independently (split-plant) or together
for various fresh water cooling systems. (cross-connected). In cross-connected opera-
tion, boilers may supply steam to propulsion
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS turbines which they do not serve when the plant
is split. In split-plant operation, the boilers,
Hydraulic systems are used aboard ship to turbines, pumps, blowers, and other machinery
operate steering gear, anchor windlasses, hy- are so divided that there are two or more
draulic presses, remote control valves, and separate and complete engineering plants.
other units.11 Hydraulic systems operate on the Cross-connected operation was formerly
principle that, since liquids are noncompres- standard for peacetime steaming, and split-
sible, force exerted at any point on an enclosed plant operation was used only when maximum
liquid is transmitted equally in all directions. reliability was required—as, for example, when
Hence a hydraulic system permits the accom- a ship was operating in enemy waters in time
plishment of a great amount of work with re- of war, operating in heavy seas, maneuvering
latively little effort on the part of shipboard in restricted waters, or engaged in underway
personnel. fueling. However, the greater reliability of
The medium used to transmit and distribute split-plant operation has led to its increasing
forces in hydraulic systems may bea petroleum- use. At the present time, split-plant operation
base product (hydraulic oil) or a pure phosphate is the standard method of underway operation
ester fluid. Phosphate ester fluid is more re- for most naval ships; cross-connected opera-
sistant to fire and explosion than the petroleum- tion is used for in-port steaming but is rarely
base oil that was used in all hydraulic systems used for underway steaming.
until fairly recently. Phosphate ester fluid is On some ships the engineering plants can be
now used in aircraft carrier elevators, surfac operated by a method known as group operation.
ship missile systems, jet blast deflectors, For example, the USS Forrestal, CVA 59, has
seaplane servicing booms, high pressure sub+ four separate propulsion plants. The two for-
marine systems, and all hydraulic systems ward plants (No. 1 and No. 4) constitute the
operating at pressures of more than 500 psi forward group and the two after plants (No. 2
in new construction and conversion surface and No. 3) constitute the after group. Although
ships. each of these four plants is normally used for
the independent (split-plant) operation of one
shaft, the boilers in any one plant canbe cross-
METHODS OF PROPULSION connected to supply steam to the turbines in the
PLANT OPERATION other plant in the same group. While underway,
therefore, the boilers in the No. 1 plant can be
The major engineering systems on most cross-connected to supply steam to the No. 4
naval ships are provided with cross-connections plant, although they cannot be cross-connected
which allow the engineering plants to be opera- to supply steam to the two plants in the other
group. For in-port operation, any boiler can be
cross-connected to supply steam to any turbo-
11Many hydraulically operated units are discussed in generator and to all other steam-driven auxili-
- chapter 21 of this text. aries.
229
CHAPTER 10
PROPULSION BOILERS
In the conventional steam turbine propulsion the boiler, and a number of superheater tubes
plant, the boiler is the source or high tempera- which communicate with the headers. Saturated
ture region of the thermodynamic cycle. The steam from the steam drum is led through the
steam that is generated in the boiler is led to superheater; since the steam is now no longer
the propulsion turbines, where its thermal in contact with the water from whichit was gen-
energy is converted into mechanical energy erated, the steam becomes superheated without
which drives the ship and provides power for any appreciable increase in pressure as addi-
vital services. tional heat is supplied. In some boilers, there is
In essence, a boiler is merely a container a separate superheater furnace; in others, the
in which water can be boiled and steam gen- superheater tubes project into the same furnace
erated. A teakettle on a stove is basically a that is used for the generation of saturated
boiler, although a rather inefficient one. In steam.
designing a boiler to produce a large amount Some question may arise concerning the need
of steam, it is obviously necessary to find some for both saturated steam and superheated steam.
means of providing a larger heat transfer sur- Many steam-driven auxiliaries—particularly if
face than is provided by a vessel shaped like a they have reciprocating engines—require satu-
teakettle. In most modern boilers, the steam rated steam for the lubrication of the moving
generating surface consists of between one and parts of the driving machine. The propulsion
two thousand tubes which provide a maximum turbines, on the other hand, and many auxiliaries
amount of heat transfer surface in a relatively as well, perform much more efficiently when
small space. As a rule, the tubes communicate superheated steam is used. There is more avail-
with a steam drum at the top of the boiler and able energy in superheated steam than in satu-
with water drums and headers at the bottom of rated steam at the same pressure, andthe use of
the boiler. The tubes and part of the drums are higher temperatures vastly increases the ther-
enclosed in an insulated casing which has space modynamic efficiency of the propulsion cycle
inside it for a furnace. As we will see presently, Since the efficiency of a heat engine depends upon
a boiler appears to be afairly complicated piece the absolute temperature at the source (boiler)
of equipment when it is considered with all its and at the receiver (condenser). In some in-
fittings, piping, and accessories. It may be help- stances, the gain in efficiency resulting
from the
ful, therefore, to remember that the basic com- use of superheated steam may be as muchas 15
ponents of a saturated-steam boiler are merely percent for 200 degrees of superheat. This in-
the tubes in which steam is generated, the drums crease in efficiency is particularly important for
and headers in which water is contained and naval ships because it allows substantial savings
steam is collected, and the furnace in which in fuel consumption and in space and weight re-
combustion takes place. quirements. A further advantage in using super-
Practically all boilers used inthe propulsion heated steam for propulsion turbines is that it
plants of naval ships are designed to produce causes relatively little erosion or corrosion
both saturated steam and superheated steam. Since it is free of moisture.
To our basic boiler, therefore, we must now add
BOILER DEFINITIONS
another component: the superheater. The super-
heater on most boilers consists of headers, In order to ensure accuracy and uniformity
usually located at the back or at the bottom of in the use of boiler terms, the Naval Ship Systems
230
Chapter 10—PROPULSION BOILERS
Command has established a number of standard DESIGN PRESSURE.—Design pressure is the

definitions relating to boilers. Since these terms pressure specified by the boiler manufacturer
are quite widely used, the student will find it as a criterion for boiler design. It is often
helpful to understand the following terms and approximately 103 percent of steam drum pres-
to use them correctly. sure. Operating personnel seldom have occasion
to be concerned with design pressure; the term
BOILER FULL-POWER CAPACITY.—The is noted here because there is a good deal of
total quantity of steam required to develop con- confusion between design pressure and operating
tract shaft horsepower of the ship, divided by pressure. The two terms do not mean the same
the number of boilers installed inthe ship, gives thing.
boiler full-power capacity. Boiler full-power
capacity is expressed as the number of pounds DESIGN TEMPERATURE. —Design tempera-
of steam generated per hour ata specified pres- ture is the intended maximum operating tem-
sure and temperature. Boiler full-power capac- perature at the superheater outlet, at some
ity is listed in the design data section of the specified rate of operation. The specified rate
manufacturer’s technical manual for the boilers of operation is normally full-power capacity for
on each ship; it may be listed as capacity at full combatant ships.
power or as designed rate of actual evaporation
per boiler at full power. OPERATING TEMPERATURE.—Operating
temperature is the actual temperature at the
BOILER OVERLOAD CAPACITY.—Boiler superheater outlet. As a rule, operating tem-
overload capacity is usually 120 percent of perature is the same as design temperature
boiler full-power capacity. Boiler overload only when the boiler is operating at the rate
capacity is listed in the design data section of specified in the definition of design temperature.
the manufacturer’s technical manual for the
boilers; it may be listed as boiler overload BOILER EFFICIENCY.—The efficiency of a
capacity or as full power plus 20 percent. boiler is the ratio of the Btu per pound of fuel
absorbed by the water and steam to the Btu per
SUPERHEATER OUTLET PRESSURE.—Su- pound of fuel fired. In other words, boiler effi-
perheater outlet pressure is the actual steam ciency is output divided by input, or heat uti-
pressure carried at the superheater outlet. lized divided by heat available. Boiler efficiency
is expressed as a percentage.
STEAM DRUM PRESSURE.—Steam drum
pressure is the pressure actually carried inthe FIREROOM EFFICIENCY.—Boiler Efficien-
boiler steam drum. cy corrected for blower and pump steam con-
sumption is called fireroom efficiency. Note:
OPERATING PRESSURE.—Operating pres- Fireroom efficiency is NOT boiler plant effi-
sure is the constant pressure at whichthe boiler ciency or propulsion plant efficiency.
is operated in service. Depending upon various
factors, chiefly design features ofthe boiler, the STEAMING HOURS.—The term steaming
constant pressure may be carried at the steam hours is used to include all time during which
drum or at the superheater outlet. Operating the boiler has fires lighted for raising steam
pressure is specified in the design of the boiler and all time during which steam is being gen-
and is given in the manufacturer’s technical erated. Time during which fires are not lighted
manual, Operating pressure is the same as is not included in steaming hours.
superheater outlet pressure or steam drum
pressure (depending upon which is used as the HEATING SURFACES.—The total heating
controlling pressure) only when the boiler is surface of a boiler includes all parts of the
operating at full-power capacity, for combatant boiler which are exposed on one side tothe gases
ships, or some other specified rate, for other of combustion and on the other side tothe water
ships. When the boiler is operating at less than and steam being heated. Thus the total heating
full-power capacity (or other specified rate), surface equals the sum of the generating surface,
the actual pressure at the steam drum or at the the superheater surface, and the economizer
superheater outlet will vary from the designated surface. All heating surfaces are measured on
Operating pressure. the combustion gas side.
231
The generating surface is that part of the Fire-tube boilers! were once used extensively
total heating surface in which water is being in marine installations and are still used in the
heated and steam is being generated. The gen- propulsion plants of some older merchant ships.
erating surface includes the generating tubes, However, fire-tube boilers are not suitable for
the water wall tubes, the water screen tubes, use as propulsion boilers in modern naval ships
and any water floor tubes that are not covered because of their excessive weight and size, the
by refractory material. excessive length of time required to raise steam,
The superheater surface is that part of the and their inability to meet demands for rapid
total heating surface in which the steam is changes in load. The only fire-tube boilers cur-
superheated after leaving the boiler steam drum. rently in naval use are some small auxiliary
The economizer surface is that portion of the boilers.
total heating surface in which the feed water is
heated before it enters the generating part of the Type of Circulation
boiler.
Water-tube boilers are further classified
DESUPERHEATERS.—On boilers with non- according to the cause of water circulation. By
controlled superheaters, all steam is super- this mode of classification, we have natural
heated but a small amount is redirected through circulation boilers and controlled circulation
a desuperheater line. The desuperheater can be boilers,
located in either the water drum or the steam In natural circulation boilers, the circulation
drum; most generally, the desuperheater will be of water depends on the difference between the
found in the steam drum below the normal water density of an ascending mixture of hot water and
level. The purpose of the desuperheater is to steam and a descending body of relatively cool
lower the superheated steam temperature back and steam-free water. The difference in density
to or close to saturated steam temperature for occurs because the water expands as it is heated
the proper steam lubrication of the auxiliary and thus becomes less dense. Another way to
machinery. The desuperheater is most generally describe natural circulation is to say that it is
an ‘‘S’’ shaped tube bundle that is flanged to the caused by convection currents which result from
superheater outlet on the inlet side and the the uneven heating of the water contained in the
auxiliary steam stop on the outlet side. boiler.
Natural circulation may be either free or
BOILER CLASSIFICATION accelerated. Figure 10-1 illustrates free natural
circulation. Note that the generating tubes are
Although boilers vary considerably in details
installed at a slight angle of inclination which
of design, most boilers may be classified and
allows the lighter hot water and steam to rise
described in terms of a few basic features or
and the cooler and heavier water to descend.
characteristics. Some knowledge of these meth-
When the generating tubes are installed at a
ods of classification provides a useful basis for
greater angle of inclination, the rate of water
understanding the design and construction of the
circulation is definitely increased. Therefore,
various types of modern naval boilers.
boilers in which the tubes slope quite steeply
from steam drum to water drum are said to
Location of Fire and Water Spaces
have accelerated natural circulation. This type
One basic classification of boilers is made of circulation is illustrated infigure 10-2.
according to the relative location of the fire and Most modern naval boilers are designed for
water spaces. By this method of classification, accelerated natural circulation. In suchboilers,
all boilers may be divided intotwo classes: fire- large tubes (3 or more inches in diameter) are
tube boilers and water-tube boilers. Infire-tube
boilers, the gases of combustion flow through the
tubes and thereby heat the water which sur-
rounds the tubes. In water-tube boilers, the Cy for example, the old "Scotch marine boiler."
water flows through the tubes and is heated by
2 auxiliary boilers (Some water-tube, some fire-tube)
the gases of combustion that fill the furnace and
are installed in diesel-driven ships and in many steam-
heat the outside metal surfaces of the tubes. driven combatant ships. They are used to supply steam
All boilers used in the propulsion plants of or hot water for galley, and other "hotel'' services
modern naval ships are of the water-tube type. and for other auxiliary requirements in port.
232
Arrangement of Steam and

Water Spaces
Natural circulation boilers are classified as

drum-type boilers or as header-type boilers,
depending upon the arrangement of the steam
HHH
ZZLLLLA
and water spaces. Drum-type boilers have one
or more water drums (and usually one or more
water headers as well). Header-type boilers
have no water drum; instead, the tubes enter a
great many water headers.
ata
aelt What is a header, and what is the difference
between aheader andadrum? The term HEADER
= <=
is commonly used in engineering to describe any
TEAM tube, chamber, drum, and similar piece to which
at
:
a series of tubes or pipes are connected in such a
way as to permit the flow of fluid from one tube
(or group of tubes) to another. Essentially, a
i
aAsi
a7
baSS
header is a type of manifold. As far as boilers
are concerned, the only distinction between a
drum and a header is the distinction of Size.
147.83 Drums are larger than headers, but both serve
Figure 10-1.—Natural circulation (free type). basically the same purpose.
Drum-type boilers are further classified
installed between the steam drum and the water according to the overall configuration of the
drums. These large tubes, called downcomers, boiler, with particular regard to the shape
are located outside the furnace and away from formed by the steam and water spaces. For
the heat of combustion, thereby serving as path- example, double-furnace boilers are often called
ways for the downward flow of relatively cool ‘“‘M-type boilers’’ because the arrangement of
water. When a sufficient number of downcomers tubes is roughly M-shaped. Single-furnace
are installed, all small tubes can be generating boilers are often called ‘‘D-type boilers’’ be-
tubes, carrying steam and water upward, andall cause the tubes form (roughly) the letter D.3
downward flow can be carried by the down-
comers. The size and number of downcomers Number of Furnaces
installed varies from one type of boiler to an-
other, but some are installed on all modern naval All boilers that are now commonly used in
boilers. the propulsion plants of naval ships may be
classified as being either single-furnace boilers
Controlled circulation boilers are, as their or double-furnace boilers. The D-type boiler is
name implies, quite different in design from the a single-furnace boiler; the M-type boiler is a
boilers that utilize natural circulation. Con- double-furnace (or divided-furnace) boiler.
trolled circulation boilers depend upon pumps,
rather than upon natural differences in density, Furnace Pressure
for the circulation of water within the boiler.
Because controlled circulation boilers are not Recent developments in naval boilers make it
limited by the requirement that hot water and convenient to classify boilers on the basis of the
steam must be allowed to flow upward while
cooler water flows downward, a great variety of
arrangements may be found in controlled circu- 3an interesting variation in this terminology occurred
lation boilers. when the single-furnace or D-type boiler became
standard for steam-driven destroyer escorts andthus
subsequently became known as a "DE-type boiler."
Controlled circulation boilers have been used
The term 'DE-type boiler" is still used rather freely;
in a few naval ships during the past few years. its use should be discouraged, however, as this gen-
In general, however, they are still considered eral type of boiler is now installed on many ships
more or less experimental for naval use. other than destroyer escorts.
233
exposed directly to the radiant heat of the fur-

nace. Superheaters of this kind are called
radiant-type superheaters. Although radiant-
COOL WATER
FLCWS DOWN type superheaters are rarely used at present, it
is possible that they may come into use again in
future boiler designs.
MIXTURE OF
COOLER HOT WATER Control of Superheat
Ss AND STEAM
VA FLOWS UP
A boiler which provides some means of con-
trolling the degree of superheat independently of
the rate of steam generation is said to have
controlled superheat. A boiler in which such
separate control is not possible is said to have
uncontrolled superheat.
Until recently, the term superheat control
boiler was used to identify a double-furnace
139.17 boiler and the term uncontrolled superheat
Figure 10-2.—Natural circulation boiler (or no control superheat boiler) was used
(accelerated type). to identify a single-furnace boiler. Most double-
furnace boilers now in use do, in fact, have
air pressure used in the furnace. Most boilers controlled superheat, and most single-furnace
now in use in naval propulsion plants operate boilers do not have controlled superheat. How-
with a slight air pressure (seldom over 10 psig) ever, recent developments in boiler design make
in the boiler furnace. This slight pressure, which superheat control independent of the number of
results from the use of forced draft blowers to furnaces in the boiler. Single-furnace boilers
supply combustion air to the boilers, is not suf- WITH controlled superheat and double-furnace
ficient to warrant calling these boilers ‘‘pres- boilers WITHOUT controlled superheat are both
surized-furnace boilers.’’ However, a new type possible. The time has come, therefore, to stop
of boiler has recently appeared on the scene and relating the number of furnaces in a boiler to
is being installed in some ships. This new boiler the control (or lack of control) of superheat.
is truly a pressurized-furnace boiler, since the
Operating Pressure
furnace is maintained under a positive air pres-
sure of approximately 65 psia (about 50 psig) For some purposes it is convenient to clas-
when the boiler is operating at full power. The sify boilers according to operating pressure.
air pressure in the furnace is maintained by a Most classifications of this type are approximate
Special air compressor. Hence we must now rather than exact. Header-type boilers and some
make a distinction between this new pressurized- older drum-type boilers are often called ‘‘400-
furnace boiler, on the one hand, and all other psi boilers’’ eventhough the operating pressures
naval propulsion boilers, on the other hand, with may range from 300 psi (or evenlower) to about
respect to the pressure maintained in the fur- 450 psi. The term ‘‘600-psi boiler’’ is often
nace. applied to various double-furnace and single-
furnace boilers with operating pressures ranging
Type of Superheater
from about 435 psi to about 700 psi.
On almost all boilers currently used in the The term ‘‘high pressure boiler’’ is at pres-
propulsion plants of naval ships, the superheater ent used rather loosely to identify any boiler
tubes are protected from radiant heat by water that operates at substantially higher pressure
screen tubes. The water screen tubes absorb than the so-called ‘‘600-psi boilers.’’ In gen-
the intense radiant heat of the furnace, and the eral, we will consider any boiler that operates
Superheater tubes are heated by convection at 751 psi or above as a high pressure boiler.
currents rather than by radiation. Hence, the A good many boilers recently installed on naval
superheaters are referred toas convection-type ships operate at approximately 1200 psi; for
superheaters. some purposes, it is convenient to group these
On a few older ships, the superheater tubes boilers together and refer to them as ‘‘1200-psi
are not screened by water screen tubes but are boilers.’’
234
Chapter 10O—PROPULSION BOILERS
As may be seen, classifying boilers by oper-

ating pressure is not very precise, since actual
operating pressures may vary widely within one WRAPPER
SHEET
group. Also, any classification based on operat-
ing pressure may easily become obsolete. What
is called a high pressure boiler today might well
be called a low pressure boiler tomorrow.
BOILER COMPONENTS
WELD
Most propulsion boilers now used by the
Navy have essentially the same components: TUBE SHEET
steam and water drums, generating and circu-
lating tubes, superheaters, economizers, fuel
oil burners, furnaces, casings, supports, and a
number of accessories and fittings required for
boiler operation and control. The basic com- 38.19
ponents of boilers are described here. In later Figure 10-3.—Boiler steam drum.
sections of this chapter we will see how the
components are arranged to form various com- The steam drum either contains or is con-
mon types of naval propulsion boilers. nected to many of the important fittings and
instruments required for the operation and
Drums and Headers control of the boiler. These fittings and controls
are discussed separately in chapter 11 of this
Drum-type boilers are installed in the ship text.
in such a way that the long axis of the boiler Water drums and water headers equalize the
drums will run fore and aft rather than athwart- distribution of water to the generating tubes and
ships, so that the water will not surge from one provide a place for the accumulation of loose
end of the drum to the other as the ship rolls. scale and other solid matter that may be present
The steam drum is located at the top of the in the boiler water. In drum-type boilers, the
boiler. It is cylindrical in shape, except that on water drums and water headers are at the
some boilers, it may be slightly flattened along
its lower curved surface. The steam drum re-
ceives feed water and serves as a place for the WELD
accumulation of the saturated steam that is gen- /
erated in the tubes. The tubes enter the steam \
DRUMHEAD DRUM SHELL
drum below the normal water level of the drum.
( WRAPPER SHEET)
The steam and water mixture from the tubes
goes through separators which separate the
water from the steam.
Figure 10-3 shows the way in which a steam
drum is constructed. Two sheets of steel are
rolled or bent to the required semicircular PLATE
shape and then welded together. The upper sheet

is called the wrapper sheet; the lower sheet is
called the tube sheet. Notice that the tube sheet
is thicker than the wrapper sheet. The extra
thickness is required in the tube sheetto ensure DRUM SHELL
( TUBE SHEET)
adequate strength of the tube sheet after the
holes for the generating tubes have been drilled.
The ends of the drum are enclosed with drum-
heads which are welded to the shell, as shown in
figure 10-4. One drumhead contains a manhole 38.20
which permits access to the drum for inspec- Figure 10-4.—Drumhead secured to steam drum
tion, cleaning, and repair. shell.
235
bottom of the boiler. Water drums are usually certain advantages can be achieved in design
round in cross section; headers may be round, characteristics.
oval, or square. Headers are provided with
access openings of the type shown in figure What purpose do all these generating and
10-5. Water drums are usually made with man- circulating tubes serve? The generating tubes
holes similar to the manholes in steam drums. are the ones in which most of the saturated
steam is generated, The water wall tubes serve
primarily to protect the furnace refractories,
HANDHOLE PLATE thus allowing higher heat release rates than
would be possible without this protection. How-
GASKET
ever, the water wall tubes are also generating
tubes at high firing rates. Water screen tubes
protect the superheater from direct radiant heat.
Water screen tubes, like water wall tubes, are
generating tubes at high firing rates. Down-
A
HEADER SHELL
comers are installed between the inner and outer
casings of the boiler to carry the downward flow
of relatively cool water and thus maintain the
boiler circulation. Downcomers are not designed
to be generating tubes under any conditions.
38.21 In addition to the four main types of gen-

Figure 10-5.—Header handhole and handhole erating and circulating tubes just mentioned,
plate. there are a few large superheater support tubes
which, in addition to providing partial support for
Generating and Circulating Tubes the steam drum and for the superheater, serve
as downcomers at low firing rates and as gen-
Most of the tubes in a boiler are generating erating tubes at high firing rates.
or circulating tubes. There are four main kinds
of generating and circulating tubes: (1) gener- Since a modern boiler is likely to contain
ating tubes in the main generating tube bank; (2) between 1000 and 2000 tubes, some system of
water wall tubes, (3) water screen tubes, and tube identification is essential. Generating and
(4) downcomers. The tubes are made of steel circulating tubes are identified by LETTERING
similar to the steel used for the drums and the rows of tubes and NUMBERING the indi-
headers. Most tubes in the main generating vidual tubes in each row. A tube row runs from
bank are about 1 inch or 1 1/4 inches in outside the front of the boiler to the rear of the boiler.
diameter. Water wall tubes, water screentubes, The row of tubes next to the furnace is row A,
and the two or three rows of generating tubes next the next is row B, the next is row C, and so
to the furnace are generally a little larger. forth. If there are more than 26 rows in a tube
Downcomers are larger still, being onthe aver- bank, the rows after Z are lettered AA, BB, CC,
age about 3 to 11 inches in outside diameter. DD, EE, and so forth. Each tube in each row is
Since the steam drum is at the top of the then designated by a number, beginning with 1
boiler and the water drums and headers are at at the front of the boiler and numbering back
the bottom, it is obvious that the generating and toward the rear.
circulating tubes must be installed more or less
vertically. Each tube enters the steam drum and The letter which identifies a tube row is
the water drum (or water header) at right angles often preceded by an R or an L, particularly
to the drum surfaces. This means that all tubes in the case of water screen tubes, superheater
in any one row are curved in exactly the same support tubes, and furnace division wall tubes.
way, but the curvature of different rows is not When an R or an L is used AFTER the regular
the same. Tubes are installed normal to the letter and number identification of atube, it may
drum surfaces in order to allow the maximum indicate either that the tube is bent for a right-
number of tube holes to be drilled in the tube hand or left-hand boiler or that the tube is
sheets with a minimum weakening of the drums. studded or finned on the right-hand side or on
However, nonnormal installation is permitted if the left-hand side.
236
Figure 10-6 shows a Boiler Tube Renewal naval use, but the details of tube identification
Sheet for a double-furnace boiler and illustrates are necessarily different in different types of
the method used to identify tubes. boilers.
The water wall tube row is not identified by
Superheaters
a letter in figure 10-6. Thetubes inthis row are
often identified by the letter W and a following Most propulsion boilers now innaval service
letter which indicates the type of tube or its have convection-type superheaters, with water
position in the row. Still another letter (an R or screen tubes installed between the superheater
an L) may be added to indicate that the tube is and the furnace to absorb the intense radiant
studded or finned on the right-hand side or on heat and thus protect the superheater.
the left-hand side. Most convection-type superheaters have
The tubes which screen the superheater from U-shaped tupes which are installed horizonally
direct radiant heat are identified in figure 10-6 in the boiler and two headers which are in-
as the LA, LB, and LC rows. Within each row, stalled more or less vertically at the rear of
the individual tubes are numbered: LA-1, LA-2, the boiler. One end of each U-shaped tube enters
LA-3, and so forth. one superheater header, and the other end
Figure 10-6 identifies the superheater sup- enters the other header. The superheater head-
port and drum support tubes as the LD row. ers are divided internally by one or more divi-
Note that these are NOT superheater tubes. sion plates which act as baffles to direct the
The superheater tubes in this boiler, as inmost flow of steam. In some cases the superheater
boilers, are installed horizontally. The super- headers are divided externally as well as in-
heater support tubes and the drum support tubes ternally.
are installed vertically; they are identified as Figure 10-7 illustrates some convection-
LD-1, LD-2, LD-3, and so forth. type superheater arrangements that are used
The first row of division wall tubes is iden- on double-furnace boilers. Part A is aplanview
tified in figure 10-6 as the LE row. The second of the superheater tubes, showing how the tubes
row of division wall tubes may be identified as enter the headers. Part B shows a superheater
the LF row or as the D row. Identification of in which each header is divided into two sec-
tubes in this row is usually made by using the tions, and illustrates the flow of steam through
row identification (LF, D, or whatever row the superheater. Part C illustrates the flow of
identification is used for the particular boiler) steam through a superheater in which one header
followed by a letter to indicate the type of tube has one internal division and the other header
or its position in the row; still another letter has two internal divisions. As may beseenfrom
(an R or an L) may be added to indicate that the figure 10-7, the steam makes several passes
tube is studded or finned on the right-hand side through the furnaces. The number of passes is
or on the left-hand side. determined by the number of header divisions
Tubes in the main generating bank are iden- and by the relative locations of the steam inlet
tified by lettering the rows and numbering the and the steam outlet.
individual tubes, as shown in figure 6-6. The The superheater tubes are installed so that
two rows nearest the saturated-side furnace are their U-shaped ends project forward toward the
slightly larger than the rest of the generating front of the boiler. In a double-furnace boiler,
tubes; they serve as water screen tubes. These the superheater tubes project forward into a
two rows are often called the RA and the RB space between the water screen tubes and some
rows. Individual tubes in these rows are identi- tubes called furnace division wall tubes. The
fied by number in the same way that the rest of superheater tubes and the surrounding water
the generating tubes are identified. screen and division wall tubes are thus together
Note that the superheater tubes are also the dividing line between the superheater-side
identified in figure 10-6. Identification of super- furnace and the saturated-side furnace. In a
heater tubes is discussed in the section that single-furnace boiler, the superheater tubes
deals with superheaters. project forward into a space in the main bank
The discussion of boiler tube identification of generating tubes. The tubes between the
given here is based on one particular type of superheater tubes and the furnace Serve as
boiler—that is, a double-furnace boiler. The water screen tubes,
same general principles of tube identification Some recent boilers have walk-in or cavity-
apply to most other drum-type boilers now in type superheaters. In this type of superheater,
237
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have U-shaped tubes. Others, such as the one
SUPERHEATER
HEADERS
shown in figure 10-8, have W-shaped tubes.
| VENT
A few boilers of recent design have vertical,
\ SUPERHEATER baie es rather than horizontal, convection-type super-
TUBES |
Ya nei A oo fe rm5) NET
heaters. In these boilers, the U-bend super-
26° (oy Mi
iSt t PASS ° [oy. .O heater tubes are installed almost vertically,
(ome) nto} DRAIN
(oye) of with the U-bends near the top of the boiler; the
(oye) aaa
oo 0 tubes are approximately parallel to the main
oe °
2nd d PASS Q
oot bank of generating tubes and the water screen
(oom) tubes. Two superheater headers are near the
vent FOC bottom of the boiler, running horizontally from
v 2). the front of the boiler to the rear.
3rd pass
Superheater tubes are generally identified by
loop number, name of tube bank, and number of
SUPERHEATED
STEAM tube within the bank. In the case of horizontal
OUTLET
superheater tubes, as shown in figure 10-6, you
count from the bottom toward the top to get the
tube number. In the case of vertical superheater
tubes, you count from the front of the boiler
toward the rear.
Desuperheaters
SUPERHEATER
HEADERS
On boilers with noncontrolled superheaters,

all steam is superheated, but a small amount of
steam is redirected through a desuperheater
line, the desuperheater can be located in either
the water drum or the steam drum, most gen-
erally the desuperheater will be found in the
#7 steam drum below the normal water level. The
purpose of the desuperheater is to lower the
super-heated steam temperature back to or
close to saturated steam temperature for the
proper steam lubrication of the auxiliary ma-
chinery. The desuperheater is most generally
an ‘‘S’’ shaped tube bundle that is flanged to the
superheater outlet on the inlet side and the
auxiliary steam stop on the outlet side.
Economizers
An economizer is installed on practically

every boiler used in naval propulsion plants.
The economizer is an arrangement of tubes
installed in the uptake space from the furnace;
38.23 thus the economizer tubes are heated by the
Figure 10-7.—Convection-type superheater rising gases of combustion. All feed water flows
(double-furnace boiler). through the economizer tubes before entering
the steam drum, and the feed water is warmed
an access space or cavity is provided in the by heat which would otherwise be wasted as
middle of the superheater tube bank. The cavity, combustion gases pass up the stack. In general,
which runs the full length and height of the boilers operating at high pressures and tem-
superheater, greatly increases the accessibility peratures have larger economizer surfaces than
of the superheater for cleaning, maintenance, boilers operating at low pressure and tempera-
and repair. Some of the walk-in superheaters tures.
239
REAR OF BOILER
SUPPORT
CHANNEL
SUPPORT CHANNELS
1:07 ataMetatahata%ataMarstiOasrOreTe” el
PLAN VIEW
VERTICAL CENTERLINE
OF WATER DRUM
ELEVATION
38.27
Figure 10-8.—Arrangement of W-tube walk-in superheater.
Economizer tubes may be of various shapes.

Most commonly, perhaps, they are a continuous
loop of U-shaped elements from inlet to outlet
header. Almost all economizer tubes have some
sort of metal projections from the outer tube eh
surface. These projections, which are of alumi- ma

ws
num, steel, or other metal, are shaped in various
ways. Figure 10-9 shows a U-bend economizer PE EBEE AHEM ddl
tube with aluminum gill rings that are circular qi t Haaeae Haye
in cross section, Other types of projections in

use include rectangular fins and star-shaped
disks, In all cases, the projections serve to ex- 38.28
tend the heat transfer surface of the economizer Figure 10-9.—U-bend economizer tube
tubes on which they are installed. with aluminum gill rings.
240
Fuel Oil Burners which prevent spillage of oil when an atomizer

assembly is removed from the burner while the
Almost all fuel oil burners used on naval burner root valve is still open.
propulsion boilers are mounted on the boiler
front. Special openings called burner cone open- ATOMIZERS.—Three main kinds of atomiz-
ings are provided in the furnace front for the ers are now in use on naval boilers. Straight-
burners, through-flow atomizers are used on most boil-
The two main parts of a fuel oil burner are ers, Return-flow atomizers are used on many of
the atomizer assembly and the air register as- the newer ships, particularly those equipped with
sembly. The atomizers divide the fuel oil into automatic combustion controls. Steam-assist
very fine particles; the air registers permit atomizers are used on boilers in some of the
combustion air to enter the furnace in sucha newest ships.
way that it mixes thoroughly with the finely A fuel oil burner with a straight-through-
divided oil. In addition to the atomizer assembly flow atomizer is shown in cross section in
and the air register assembly, a fuel oil burner figure 10-10. Figure 10-11 shows how burners
includes various valves, fittings, connections, of this type look when installed at the boiler
and (on new construction) burner safety devices front.
INNER CASING
BURNER OUTER CASING
BARREL
STATIONARY
AIR FOILS
Y, ia
|BURNER CONE OPENING |”
a SS =
DISTANCE PIECE
MOVABLE AIR DOORS

DIFFUSER
INNER CASING PLATE ~~ OUTER CASING (BOILER FRONT)
BURNER (SIDE VIEW)
BURNER BARREL
AIR DOOR HANDLE
ATOMIZER VALVE
BURNER (FRONT VIEW)
38.69
Figure 10-10.—Cross-sectional view of fuel oil burner with straight-through-flow atomizer.
241
In a Straight-through-flow atomizer, all oil

pumped to the atomizer is burned in the boiler
furnace. The fuel oil is forced through the
atomizer barrel at a pressure between 125 and
300 psi. With this type of atomizer, the firing
rate is controlled by changing the number of
burners in use, the fuel oil pressure, and the
size of the sprayer plates. BURNER
A straight-through-flow atomizer assembly BARREL
consists of a goose neck, a burner barrel (also

called an atomizer barrel), a nozzle, a sprayer
plate, and a tip. These parts are shown in
figure 10-12. The fuel oil goes through the
nozzle, which directs the oil to the grooves nazal~
of the sprayer plate. These grooves are shaped [SPRAVER PLATE]? § a (TIP
so as to give the oil a high rotational velocity
as it discharges into a small cylindrical whirl-
ing chamber in the center of the sprayer plate. 38.71
The whirling chamber is coned out at the end Figure 10-12.—Parts of a straight-through-
and has an orifice at the apex of the cone. As flow atomizer assembly.
the oil leaves the chamber by way of the ori-
fice, it is broken up into very fine particles The sprayer plates most commonly used
which form a cone-shaped foglike spray. A are called standard sprayer plates. Two types
strong blast of air, which has been given a of standard sprayer plates are shown in figure
whirling motion in its passage through the 10-13. Standard sprayer plates may be either
burner register, catches the oil fog and mixes flat-faced or dished and rounded, and they may
with it. The mixture of air and oil enters the have four, six, or eight oil grooves. Standard
furnace and combustion takes place. Sprayer plates with four grooves are most
common.
Now that the Defense Department has au-
thorized the conversion to a new distillate fuel
(NSDF), sprayer plates for burning this type of
fuel will be of the 6, 4, and 3 slot type. Sizes
will also be changed as the viscosity of the
new fuel is less than that of Navy Special fuel
oil (NSFO). Therefore, each class of ship will
need the correct size sprayer plates to permit
them to burn the correct amount of fuel for full
power and overload conditions.
In a return-flow (also called a variable-
capacity) atomizer, part of the oil supplied to
the atomizer is burned in the boiler furnace and
part is returned. Several types of return-flow
atomizers are in use. One type (Todd) is de-
signed to operate with a constant fuel oil supply
pressure of 300 psig and a minimum return
pressure of 25 psig. Another return-flow ato-
mizer (Babcock & Wilcox) operates with a
variable fuel oil supply pressure (up to 1000
psi) and a variable return pressure. Still an-
other type (also Babcock& Wilcox) operates with
a constant supply pressure of 1000 psi and a
38.70 variable return pressure.
Figure 10-11.—Fuel oil burners installed on The return-flow atomizer shown in figure
boiler front. 10-14 operates with a constant fuel oil supply
242
ORIFICE SPRAYER ATOMIZER DISTRIBUTOR NOZZLE

PLATE PLATE N UT HEAD BODY
m7
NY y
UMMM
inaanoninnnn
4Y
Wr. Ls OIL LEAVING WHIRLING OIL RETURN OIL ATOMIZER
FLAT FACE DISHED AND ROUNDED FACE ORIFICE CHAMBER SUPPLY BARREL
38.74 38.75
Figure 10-13.—Two kinds of standard sprayer Figure 10-14.—Return-flow atomizer.
plates.
pressure. The amount of oil burned in the fur- straight-through-flow atomizers and return-
nace is controlled by regulating the oil return flow atomizers.
pressure. The supply oil enters through the One reason why steam-assist atomizers have
tube-like opening down the middle of the atomizer not been used for naval propulsion boilers until
barrel and passes through the sprayer plate. quite recently is that they use a considerable
The tangential slots or grooves in the sprayer amount of steam which cannot be recovered and
plate cause the oil to enter the whirling chamber returned to the feed system. However, they have
with a rotary motion. As the oil reaches the some advantages that tend to make up for this
return annulus, centrifugal force causes a cer- disadvantage. A major advantage is that the fir-
tain amount of the oil to enter the return an- ing range of steam-assist atomizers is much
nulis. The amount of oil thus returned is deter- greater than the firing range of other types of
mined by the back pressure in the return line; atomizers. This characteristic makes. the
the back pressure is in turn determined by the steam-assist atomizer particularly useful for
extent to which the return line control valve is naval service, since it means that large changes
open. The oil which is not returned emerges of load can be made merely by varying the fuel
from the orifice in the form of a hollow conical oil supply pressure, without cutting burners in
spray of atomized oil. The amount of oil burned and out. The fuel oil supply pressure can be
is the difference between the amount of oil sup- varied between 8 and 350 psi.
plied and the amount returned.
The straight-through-flow atomizers and the AIR REGISTERS.—The main parts of an air
return-flow atomizers just described are both register are (1) the movable air doors, (2) the
considered to be mechanical atomizers of the diffuser, and (3) the stationary air foils. These
pressure type. The steam-assist atomizer, now parts are shown in figure 10-10. The movable
in use on some new ships, operates on different air doors allow operating personnel to open and
principles. The fuel oil enters a steam-assist close the register. When the air doors are open,
atomizer at relatively low pressure and is very air rushes in and is given a whirling motion by
finely atomized by a jet of steam. Combustion air the diffuser plate. The diffuser thus serves to
is supplied by forced draft blowers, just asit is make the air mix evenly with the oil, and also
in other installations. to prevent flame being blown back from the
A steam-assist atomizer has two supply lines atomizer. The stationary air foils guide the
coming into it, one for fuel oil and one for steam. major quantity of air and cause it to mix with
These two lines make the atomizer look a good the larger oil spray beyond the diffuser.
deal like a return-flow atomizer. However, the
Furnaces and Refractories
steam-assist atomizer does not return any fuel
oil; instead, all oil supplied to the atomizer is A boiler furnace is a space provided for the
burned in the boiler furnace. Sprayer plates and mixing of air and fuel and for the combustion of
other parts are somewhat differently shaped in the fuel. A boiler furnace consists of a more or
steam-assist atomizers than they are in less rectangular steel casing which is lined on
243
the floor, front wall, side walls, and rear wall or header. The bottom flanges, which are flat,
with refractory material. The refractory lining rest on huge beams built up from the ship’s
serves to protect the furnace casing and topre- structure. The bottom flange of one saddle is
vent loss of heat from the furnace. Refractories bolted rigidly to its support. The bottom flange
retain heat for a relatively long time and thus of the other saddle is also bolted to its support,
help to maintain the high furnace temperatures but the bolt holes are elongated in a fore-and-
required for complete and efficient combustion aft direction. As the drum expands or contracts
of the fuel. Refractories are also used to form because of temperature changes, the saddle
baffles which direct the flow of combustion which is not rigidly fastened to the support
gases and protect drums, headers, and tubes accommodates to the changing length of the
from excessive heat. drum by sliding backward or forward over the
There are many different kinds of refractory support. The flanges which are not rigidly fas-
materials. The particular use of each type is tened are known as boiler sliding feet.
determined by the chemical and physical char-
acteristics of the material in relation to the Airheaters
required conditions of service. Refractories
commonly used in the furnaces of naval pro- Some boilers of recent design have steam-
pulsion boilers include firebrick, insulating coil airheaters to preheat the combustion air
brick, insulating block, plastic fireclay, plastic before it enters the furnace. A typical steam-
chrome ore, chrome castable refractory, high coil airheater consists of two coil blocks, each
temperature castable refractory, air-setting coil block having three sections of heating coils
mortar, and burner refractory tile. in a single casing. Each individual section has
rows of copper-nickel alloy tubes, helically
Casings, Uptakes, and Smokepipes wound with copper fins. Airheaters used in the
past on some older naval ships were installed
In modern boiler installations, each boiler in the uptakes and the combustion air was pre-
is enclosed in two steel casings. The inner cas- heated by the combustion gases; these airheaters
ing is lined with refractory materials, and the thus utilized heat which would otherwise have
enclosed space constitutes the furnace. The been wasted. The use of these older airheaters
outer casing extends around most of the inner was discontinued in naval ships because the sav-
caSing, with an air space in between. Air from ing of heat was not considered sufficient to jus-
the forced draft blowers is forced intothe space tify the added space and weight requirements.
between the inner and the outer casings, and The new steam-coil airheaters use auxiliary
from there it flows through the air registers exhaust steam as the heating agent; they are in-
and into the furnace. stalled near the point where the combustion air
The inner casing encloses most of the boiler enters the double casing.
up to the uptakes. The uptakes join the boiler to
the smokepipe. As a rule, the uptakes from two Fittings, Instruments, and Controls
or more boilers connect with one smokepipe.
Both the inner and the outer casings of boil- The major boiler components just described
ers are made of steel panels. The panels may could not function without a number of fittings,
be flanged and bolted together, with gaskets instruments, and control devices. These addi-
being used at the joints to make an airtight tional boiler parts are merely mentioned here
seal, or they may be welded together. The cas- for the sake of completeness; they are taken up
ings are made in small sections so they can be in detail in chapter 11 of this text.
removed for the inspection and repair of boiler Internal fittings installed in the steam drum
parts. may include equipment for distributing the in-
coming feed water, for separating and drying the
Saddles and Supports steam, for giving surface blows to remove solid
matter from the water, for directing the flow of
Each water drum and water header rests steam and water within the steam drum, andfor
upon two saddles, one at the front of the drum injecting chemicals for boiler water treatment,
or header and one at therear. The upper flanges In addition, many boilers have desuperheaters
of the saddle are curved to fit the curvature of for desuperheating the steam needed for auxil-
the drum or header, and are welded tothe drum iary purposes.
244
External fittings and instruments used on installed lengthwise along the top of the boiler
naval boilers may include drains and vents; front.
sampling connections, feed stop and check The header-type boiler gets its name from
valves; steam stop valves; safety valves; soot the header sections which are connected by the
blowers, watergage glasses and remote water generating tubes. There may be 12, 14, or 16 of
level indicators; pressure and temperature these header sections, depending upon the size
gages; superheater temperature alarms; Super- of the boiler. Half of the header sections are
heater steam flow indicators; smoke indicators; installed under the steam drum, at the front of
and various items used for the automatic control the boiler. The other half are installed at the
of combustion and water level. rear of the boiler, at a somewhat higher level.
The header sections are installed at a slight
TYPES OF PROPULSION BOILERS angle from the vertical, leaning somewhat toward
the front of the boiler. The angle of inclination
Now that we have examined the basic com- of the headers allows the straight generating
ponents used in most naval propulsion boilers, tubes (which enter the headers normal to the
let us put these components together, so to header surfaces) to slope slightly upward from
speak, to see how they are arranged toform the the front of the boiler toward the rear, thus al-
types of boilers nowused inthe propulsion plants lowing free natural circulation within the boiler.
of naval ships. The order of presentation is The header sections installed under the
more or less historical, starting with the steam drum at the front of the boiler are known
header-type boiler (which is probably the oldest as downtake headers. Each downtake header is
boiler design still in service), going on to connected to the steam drum by a short down-
double-furnace boilers and to both older and take nipple. The lower end of each downtake
newer types of single-furnace boilers, and end- header is connected to the junction header
ing with the recently installed pressurized- (sometimes called the mud drum) by a short
furnace boiler. nipple.
The header sections installed at the rear of
Header-Type Boilers the boiler are known as uptake headers. Each
uptake header is connected to the steam drum
Sectional header boilers, commonly called by a large circulator tube which enters the
header-type boilers, are installed in many steam drum slightly above the normal water
auxiliary ships. The basic design of this type of level.
boiler is shown in figures 10-15 and 10-16. As shown in figures 10-15 and 10-16, the
Header-type boilers normally operate at 450 generating tubes in this type of boiler are
to 465 psig and are designed for a maximum straight rather than curved. The generating
superheater outlet temperature of 740°to 750°F. tubes connect the downtake headers at the front
In capacity, they range from about 25,000 to of the boiler with the uptake headers at the rear
about 40,000 pounds of steam per hour. of the boiler.
Header-type boilers are sometimes referred The superheater consists of U-bend tubes,
to as cross-drum boilers because many of them an upper superheater header, anda lower super-
were designed to be installed with the steam heater header. The superheater tubes are in-
drum athwartships rather than fore and aft. How- stalled at right angles to the generating tubes,
ever, some header-type boilers are not of the between the main bank of generating tubes and
cross-drum type. the water screen tubes.
Header-type boilers are also referred to The steam drum of a header-type boiler
occasionally as side-fired boilers. This term usually has a manhole at each end. The steam
is used to indicate the location of the burners drum contains the internal fittings, including a
with respect to the position of the steam drum. desuperheater,
However, the term ‘‘side-fired’’ tends to be The furnace of a header-type boiler has four
misleading because the surface of a boiler along vertical walls and a flat floor. The side walls
which the burners are installed is generally re- are water cooled, being covered by water wall
garded as the front of the boiler. Inthis discus- tubes which form a part of the circulation sys-
sion, we-will take as the front of the boiler the tem of the boiler. There are two water wall
surface along which the burners are installed, downtake headers, one at each corner of the
From this point of view, then, the steam drum is boiler front, installed vertically in the space
245
CIRCULATOR TUBES
ECONOMIZER (FROM UPTAKE HEADER)
DRY PIPE
SWASH PLATE
INTERNAL UPTAKE
FEED PIPE / r HEADERS
SURFACE
RISER TUBES FROM
BLOW PIPE
WATER WALL ( SIDEWALL)
UPTAKE HEADER
DESUPERHEATER
TUBES
SUPERHEATER
OUTLET
DOWNTAKE
NIPPLE
GENERATING
TUBES
DOWNTAKE
HEADERS
SUPERHEATER
ACCESS DOOR
DOWNCOMER TUBES
eagae
A
SUPERHEATER
JUNCTION HEADER
TUBES
(MUD DRUM)
SUPERHEATER
HEADERS
FURNACE OIL BURNER
ACCESS DOOR
DOWNCOMER SUPERHEATER
SCREEN TUBES
BOTTOM BLOW WATER WALL WATER WALL
VALVE CONNECTION (ISIDEWALL’) ( SIDEWALL)
TUBES DOWNTAKE
HEADER
38.33X
Figure 10-15.—Cutaway view of header-type boiler.
between the inner and the outer casing. Two water rise through the water wall tubes to the
vertical water wall uptake headers are simi- uptake headers, and then through the riser tubes
larly installed at the two rear corners of the that connect the uptake headers to the steam
boiler. The water wall tubes are rolled intoa drum.
downtake header at the front and an uptake head- As may be seen in figures 10-15 and 10-16,
er at the rear; they are arranged on the same an economizer is located behind the steam drum,
slope as the generating tubes. in the way of the combustion gas exit.
Water is supplied to the water wall downtake The boiler is completely enclosed in an
headers from the junction header. Steam and insulated steel casing, and an outer casing is
246
ECONOMIZER TUBES
WATER WALL CIRCULATOR 00000
90000
00000
@3000 00000
90000
00000
29009000000
920000
o0000
©000000000
00700
00000
00000
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o0000
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0000
20}00
RISER TUBE TUBE
STEAM DRUM
UPTAKE
HEADER
DOWNTAKE NIPPLE
/ GENERATING TUBES
DOWNTAKE HEADER
AIR SUPERHEATER TUBES

INTAKE
WATER SCREEN TUBES
JUNCTION HEADER
(MUD DRUM)
|| =— BURNER
AIR SPACE WATER WALL

DOWNTAKE HEADER
WATER WALL UPTAKE HEADER WATER WALL TUBES AIR SPACE
38.34
Figure 10-16.—Side view of header-type boiler.
installed in such a way as to form an air cham- classification methods given earlier inthis chap-
ber between the inner and outer casings. The air ter, has the following characteristics: It is a
inlet is at the rear of the boiler; an air duct water-tube boiler with natural circulation of the
beneath the furnace floor connects the front air free (not accelerated) type. It has sectional
chamber and the rear air chamber. The double- headers instead of water drums, andsois called
cased air chambers at the sides of the boiler are a ‘‘header-type’’ boiler instead of a drum-type
connected directly to the cold air inlet sothat an boiler. It has only one furnace—but the term
air pressure is maintained in these side cham- ‘‘single-furnace boiler’’ is never applied to
bers at all rates of operation. Removable casing header-type boilers, possibly because such iden-
panels are located at various points to permit tification has not been needed. It is not a
access for cleaning, inspection, and repair. pressurized-furnace boiler. It does not have
controlled superheat. It operates at a pressure
In summary, we may consider the header- of 450 to 465 psig; however, header-type boilers
type boiler as one which, on the basis of the are quite often referredtoas ‘‘400-psi boilers.”’
247
Double-Furnace Boilers a double-furnace boiler, rather than as a super-

heat control boiler, even though the boiler shown
Double-furnace boilers (also called M-type does in fact have controlled superheat.
boilers) are installed on most older destroyers Since each furnace has its own burners, the
and on many other combatant ships. These degree of superheat can be controlled by pro-
boilers are designed to carry a steam drum portioning the amount of fuel burned in the
pressure of approximately 615 psig and to gen- superheater-side furnace to the amount burned
erate saturated steam at approximately 490°F. in the saturated-side furnace. When burners are
The saturated steam for auxiliaries goes direct- lighted only on the saturated side, saturated
ly from the steam drum to the auxiliary steam steam is generated; when burners are lighted
system; all other steam goes throughthe super- on the superheater side as well as on the satu-
heater. Double-furnace boilers are designed in rated side, the saturated steam flowing through
various sizes and capacities to suit different the superheater becomes superheated. The de-
installations. They range in capacity from about gree of superheat depends primarily upon (1) the
100,000 to about 250,000 pounds of steam per firing rate on the superheater side, and (2) the
hour at full power. rate of steam flow through the superheater.
Figure 10-17 shows the general arrangement However, the rate of steam flow through the
of a double-furnace boiler. The same type of superheater is basically dependent upon the fir-
boiler is shown in sectional view infigure 10-18 ing rate on the saturated side. Therefore we
and in cutaway view in figure 10-19. come back again to the idea that the degree of
One of the two furnaces in this boiler is used superheat depends primarily upon the ratio of
for generating saturated steam; the other is used the amount of oil burned in the superheater side
for superheating the saturated steam. Because to the amount burned in the saturated side.
each of the two furnaces canbe fired separately, The flow of combustion gases in the double-
thus allowing control of superheated steam tem- furnace boiler is partly controlled by gas baffles
perature over a wide range of operating condi- on one row of water screen tubes and on one
tions, the double-furnace boiler has long been row of division wall tubes, as shown in figure
called a ‘‘superheat control boiler.’’ As noted 10-18. The gas baffles on the water screen
previously, however, the control of superheat is tubes direct the combustion gases toward the
not necessarily related to the number of fur- superheater tubes and also deflect the combus-
naces. Therefore we will refer to this boiler as tion gases away from the steam drum and the
water screen header. The baffles on the divi-
sion wall tubes by the saturated-side furnace
keep the saturated-side combustion gases from
AUXILIARY |ECONOMIZER
flowing toward the superheater tubes, thus
protecting the superheater when the superheater
side is not lighted off. In addition, the baffles
on the division wall tubes deflect combustion
gases from the superheater side up toward the
top of the saturated side, thus allowing the
gases to pass toward the uptake without dis-
turbing the fires in the saturated-side furnace.
The double-furnace boiler has asteam drum,
one water drum, one water screen header, and
one water wall header. All these drums and
headers run from the front of the boiler to the
rear of the boiler. Most of the saturated steam
_ SUPERHEATER
WATER WALL SIDE
SATURATED is generated in the main bank of generating
HEADER \
“Soo,
SIDE
tubes on the uptake side of the boiler; most of
these tubes are 1 inch in outside diameter, but a
MAIN STEAM WATER SCREEN Ww\, /
HEADER Nash BSS few rows of 2-inchtubes are installed onthe side
of the tube bank nearest the furnace. The evapo-
38.36 ration rate is much higher in the l-inch tubes
Figure 10-17.—General arrangement of double- than in the 2-inch tubes, since the ratio of heat-
furnace boiler. transfer surface tothe volume of contained water
248
© FCONOMIZER
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DRUM
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SIDE BURNERS WATER SIDE
SCREEN BURNERS
HEADER
SUPERHEATER TUBES
(CROSS SECTION)
38.37
Figure 10-18.—Double-furnace boiler (sectional view, looking toward rear wall).
is much greater in the smaller tubes. The larger drum as a mixture of water and steam. Some
tubes are used in the rows next to the furnace notion of the extreme rapidity of circulation may
because it is necessary. at this point to provide be obtained from the fact that water inthe down-
a flow of cooling water and steam sufficient to comers may flow at velocities of from 3 to 7
protect the smaller tubes from the intense ra- feet per second.
diant heat of the furnaces. The economizer on a double-furnace boiler
Double-furnace boilers have anywhere from is usually larger than the economizer on a
15 to 50 downcomers, which vary in size from header-type boiler. As a rule, the economizer
about 3 inches in outside diameter to about 7 on a double-furnace boiler has about 60 U-shaped
inches OD. The downcomers are installed be- economizer tubes.
tween the inner and the outer casings, as may be On the basis of the classification methods
seen in figure 10-19. given earlier in this chapter, we may consider
The use of large-tube downcomers and small the double-furnace boiler as one which has the
generating tubes results in extremely rapid cir- following characteristics: It is a water-tube
culation of water. Only a few seconds are re- boiler with natural circulation of the accelerated
quired for the water to enter the steamdrum as type. It is a drum-type (rather than a header-
feed water, flow through the downcomers, circu- type) boiler. It has tubes which are arranged
late through the water drum or header, rise in roughly in the shape of the letter M—hence it is
the generating tubes, and return to the steam often called an M-type boiler. It has two
249
DRUM SAFETY VALVES ECONOMIZER INLET
AIR VENT CONNECTION

STEAM DRUM STEAM OUTLET
SCRUBBER ELEMENT
D RY PIPE
SURFACE BLOWOFF PIPE
ECONOMIZER ELEMENTS
CYCLONE STEAM SEPARATOR
INTERNAL FEED PIPE
STEAM COLLECTING BAFFLE

SOOT BLOWER
AIR INLET TO
HEADS
DOUBLE CASING
MODEL IH SOOT BLOWER
STEAM DRUM GENERATING TUBES

PROTECTION PLATES
SUPERHEATED-SIDE SUPERHEATER
FURNACE TUBES
FURNACE PEEP HOLE SOOT BLOWER

UNCALCINED ELEMENTS
DIATOMACEOUS SUPERHEATER AND
EARTH BLOCKS ae SUPPORT
HIGH TEMPERATURE
INSULATING BRICK SATURATED-SIDE
STUD TUBE FURNACE
WATER COOLED
SIDE WALL SUPERHEATER
TUBE SUPPORTS
PLASTIC CHROME ORF 7\ [ CIS = — : ee. |
DOWNCOMER “GB LTE NSS MS = a ownconmens

WATER WALL HEADER | “
BURNER,- BLADED
IMPELLER PLATE CONE
DENSE FIREBRICK
HIGH TEMPERATURE
INSULATING BRICK WATER DRUM
UNCALCINED DIATOMACEOUS BOTTOM BLOWOFF

EARTH BLOCKS CONNECTION
BRICK BOLT
BURNER AIR DOORS
WATER SCREEN HEADER
PROTECTION PLATES & BAFFLE MIX FUEL OIL BURNER
SPECIAL OIL BURNER LIGHTING PORT FURNACE ACCESS DOOR

AIR LOCK TYPE
WATER WALL HEADER WATER SCREEN HEADER B
STUBTUBE W.ATER-COOLED
DRAIN CONNECTION PLASTIC CHROME ORE BLOWOFF CONNECTION DOWNCOMERS DIVISION WALL
38.38X
Figure 10-19.—Double-furnace boiler (cutaway view).
possible to maintain the maximum designed

furnaces—one for the saturated side and one for
temperature at the superheater outlet under
the superheater side. It has controlled superheat.
It operates at a pressure of about 615 psig, and widely varying conditions of load. Ina single-
is often called a ‘‘600-psi boiler.’’ furnace boiler, where one source of heat is used
both for generating the steam and for super-
The most important advantage of the double- heating it, the degree of superheat increases
furnace boiler arises from the fact that the as the rate of steam generation increases; and
separate firing of the superheater side allows hence the maximum designed temperature at the
superheater outlet is normally reached only at
positive control of the degree of superheat. In
the double-furnace boiler, it is theoretically full power.
250
Most double-furnace boilers are designed to several important respects from the newer
carry a superheater outlet temperature of 850° single-furnace boilers that have been installed
F; this is about 100°F higher than the super- on ships built since World War II.
heater outlet temperature in a comparable A single-furnace boiler of the older type
single-furnace boiler, given the same quality of is shown schematically in figure 10-20 and in
materials for boilers, piping, and turbines. The cutaway view in figure 10-21. This boiler pro-
reason why a higher superheater outlet tem- duces about 60,000 pounds of steam per hour at
perature can be used in a double-furnace boiler full power. At full power the steam drum pres-
than ina comparable single-furnace boiler is that sure is about 460 psig, the superheater outlet
allowance must be made, in the single-furnace pressure is about 435 psig, and the superheater
boiler, for the maximum superheater tempera- outlet temperature is about 750°F.
tures which might occur under adverse condi-
tions of load.
ECONOMIZER SUPERHEATER
In spite of the advantages resulting from the PROTECTION
control of superheat, double-furnace boilers are SUPERHEATER
STEAM VALVE
PROTECTION
no longer being installed in naval combatant EXHAUST VALVE
ships. Experience with these boilers has re- DESUPER-
HEATER
vealed certain disadvantages which at the present
time appear to outweigh the advantages of con-
trolled superheat. Some of the disadvantages are:
1. In practice, it is not possible to maintain
maximum designed superheat at low steaming
rates. Only the steam for the main turbines and YA A
the turbogenerators goes through the super- WATER
Vieni
WALL /<, /
h
heater; at low firing rates, therefore, the steam a

TUBES Cy
flow through the superheater is generally not suf-
ficient to permit a high firing rate onthe super-
heater side. Thus under some conditions the
steam supplied to the propulsion turbines andto
the turbogenerators may be saturated or only
very Slightly superheated. As a consequence,
therefore, the double-furnace boiler is actually \
SIDE. WALL IS
less efficient than the single-furnace boiler at HEADER
WATER DRUM
low firing rates.
2. The double-furnace boiler is more diffi- 38.39
- cult to operate than the single-furnace boiler, Figure 10-20.—General arrangement of older
and requires more personnel for its operation. single-furnace boiler.
Once there is any appreciable load onthe boiler,
the high air pressure inthe double casings and in This boiler does not have controlled super-
the furnace make it difficult and even dangerous heat. When the boiler is lighted off, both the
to light burners onthe superheater side. In order generating tubes and the superheater tubes are
to avoid this difficulty, operating personnel heated. In order to protect the superheater
would have to be able to predict the need for tubes from overheating, all steam generated in
superheat and light off the burners onthe super- the boiler must be led through the superheater.
heater side before the air pressure had become The saturated steam goes from the dry pipe in
so high. Obviously, such prediction is not al- the steam drum to the superheater inlet; it goes
ways possible. through the superheater tubes, out the super-
3. The double-furnace boiler is heavier, heater outlet, and into the main steam line.
larger, and generally more complex than a Auxiliary steam must go through the super-
Single-furnace boiler of equal capacity. heater (in order to provide a sufficient steam
flow to protect the superheater) but must then
Single- Furnace Boilers be desuperheated. Desuperheating is accom-
plished by passing some of the superheated
The older single-furnace boilers that were steam through a desuperheater, which is basi-
installed on many World War II ships differ in cally a coil of piping submerged in the water in
INTERNAL FEED vob SURFACE BLOW

PIPE DESUPERHEATER LINE DRY PIPE| {|ECONOMIZER FEED WATER INLET FEED WATER OUTLET
BAFFLE MATERIAL
AIR INLET BAFFLE
PLASTIC CHROME ORE
SUPERHEATER
d
OUTER
CASING /
}
5%'' PLASTIC FIREBRICK
AY, FIREBRICK
rT]
1% INSULATING BRICK BAFFLE MATERIAL
LIGHT WEIGHT
"INSULATING BLOCK
2),'' FIREBRICK
21" INSULATING BRICK BAFFLE MATERIAL
fi" INSULATING BLOCK PLASTIC CHROME ORE | BOTTOM BLOW INSULATING BLOCK
38.40
Figure 10-21.—Cutaway view of older single-furnace boiler.
252
the steam drum, Heat transfer takes place from the firing rate. However, a number of design
the steam in the desuperheater to the water in features and operational considerations also
the steam drum. The desuperheated steam which affect the temperature of the steam at the super-
passes out of the desuperheater and into the heater outlet.
auxiliary steam line is once again at (or very Design features that affect the degree of
close to) saturation temperature. superheat include (1) the type of superheater
Thus far we have considered the flow of installed—that is, whether heated by convection,
steam as it occurs after the boiler has been cut by radiation, or by both; (2) the location of the
in on the steam line. But what happens when a superheater with respect to the burners; (3) the
cold boiler is lighted off? How can the super- extent to which the superheater is protected by
heater tubes be protected from the heat of the water screen tubes; (4) the area of superheater
furnace after fires are lighted but before suffi- heat-transfer surface; (5) the number of passes
cient steam has been generated to ensure asafe made by the steam in going through the super-
flow through the superheater? heater; (6) the location of gas baffles; and (7) the
Various methods are used to protect the volume and shape of the furnace.
superheater during this critical period imme- Operational factors that affect the degree of
diately after lighting off. Very low firing rates superheat include (1) the rate of combustion;
are used, and the boiler is warmed up slowly (2) the temperature of the feed water; (3) the
until an adequate flow of steam has been estab- amount of excess air passing through the furnace;
lished. Many—but not all—boilers of this type (4) the amount of moisture contained inthe steam
have connections through which protective steam entering the superheater; (5) the condition of the
can be supplied from another boiler onthe same superheater tube surfaces; and (6) the condition
ship or from some outside source such as a of the water screen tube surfaces. Since these
naval shipyard or a tender. As shown in figure factors may affect the degree of superheat in
10-20, this steam comes in (under pressure) ways which are not immediately apparent, let us
through the superheater protection steam valve. examine them in more detail.
It enters the superheater inlet, passes through How does the rate of combustion affect the
the superheater tubes, goes out the superheater degree of superheat? To begin with, we might
outlet, passes through the desuperheater, and imagine asimple relationship in which the degree
then goes into the auxiliary exhaust line by way of superheat goes up directly as the rate of com-
of the superheater protection exhaust valve. bustion is increased. Such a simple relationship
On single-furnace boilers which do not have does, in fact, exist—but only up to a certain
a protective steam system for use during the point. Throughout most of the operating range
lighting off period, even greater care must be of this boiler, the degree of superheat goes up
taken to establish a steam flow through the quite steadily and regularly as the rate of com-
superheater. In general, the steam flow is es- bustion goes up. Near full power, however, the
tablished by venting the superheater drains to degree of superheat drops slightly even though
the bilges while warming up the boiler very the rate of combustion is still going up. Why
slowly. ; does this happen? Primarily because the in-
On the basis of the classification methods creased firing rate results in an increased
given earlier in this chapter, we may consider generating rate, which in turn results in an
this older single-furnace boiler as one which increased steam flow through the superheater.
has the following characteristics: It is a water- The rate of heat absorption increases more
tube boiler with natural circulation of the ac- rapidly than the rate of steam flow until the
- celerated type. It is a drum-type (rather than a boiler is operating at very nearly full power;
header-type) boiler. It has tubes which are ar- at this point the rate of steam flow increases
ranged roughly in the shape of the letter D— more rapidly than the rate of heat absorption.
hence it is often called a D-type boiler. It has Therefore the superheater outlet temperature
only one furnace. It does not have controlled drops slightly.
superheat. It is often classified as a ‘‘600-psi Suppose that the boiler is being fired at a
boiler,’’ although it actually operates at about constant rate and that the steam is being used
435 psig. at a constant rate. If we increase the tempera-
As previously noted, the degree of superheat ture of the incoming feed water, what happens to
obtained in a single-furnace boiler of the type the superheat? Does it increase, decrease, or
being considered is primarily dependent upon remain the same? Surprisingly, the degree of
253
superheat decreases if the feed temperature is outlet temperature. If the tubes have soot onthe
increased, more saturated steam is generated outside or scale on the inside, heat transfer will
from the burning of the same amount of fuel. be retarded and the degree of superheat will be
The increased quantity of saturated steam causes decreased.
an increase in the rate of flowthroughthe super- If the water screen tubes have soot on the
heater. Since there is no increase in the amount outside or scale on the inside, heat transfer to
of heat available for transfer to the superheater, the water in these tubes will be retarded. There-
the degree of superheat drops slightly. fore there will be more heat available for
Under conditions of constant load and a con- transfer to the superheater as the gases of
stant rate of combustion, what happens to the combustion flow through the tube bank. Conse-
superheat if the amount of excess air* is in- quently, the superheater outlet temperature will
creased? To see why an increase in excess air rise.
results in an increase in temperature at the
The single-furnace boiler is lighter and
superheater outlet, we must take it step by step:
smaller, for any given output of steam, than the
1. An increase in excess air decreases the
double-furnace boiler. Because the single-
average temperature in the furnace.
furnace boiler supplies superheated steam at
2. With the furnace temperature lowered,
low steaming rates, the overall plant efficiency
there is less temperature difference between the
is better with this type of boiler than with the
gases of combustion and the water in the boiler
double-furnace boiler. The single-furnace boiler
tubes.
has the further advantage of simplicity of oper-
3. Because of the smaller temperature dif-
ation and maintenance. Although the single-
ference, the rate of heat transfer is reduced.
furnace boiler considered here does not have
4. Because of the decreased rate of heat
controlled superheat, this lack is less important
transfer, the evaporation rate is reduced.
than might have been supposed, since some of
5. The lower evaporation rate causes a
the theoretical advantages of controlled super-
reduction in the rate of steam flow through the
heat have not been entirely realized inpractice.
superheater, with a consequent rise in the super-
heater outlet temperature. The basic design of the single-furnace boiler
In addition to this series of events, another has been used increasingly. Except for experi-
factor also tends to increase the superheater mental boilers, no double-furnace boilers have
outlet temperature when the amount of excess been installed on combatant ships since World
air is increased. Large amounts of excess air War II, The newer single-furnace boilers operate
tend to cause combustion to occur in the tube at approximately 600 psi or at approximately
bank rather than inthe furnace itself; asa result, 1200 psi. Operating temperature at the super-
the temperature in the area around the superheater outlet is quite commonly 950°F for the
heater tubes is higher than usual and the super- 1200-psi boilers; this is 100°F higher than the
heater outlet temperature is higher. operating temperature of most double-furnace
Any appreciable amount of moisture in the boilers, and 200°F higher than the operating
steam entering the superheater causes a very temperature of the older single-furnace boilers.
noticeable drop in superheat. This occurs be- One of the most noticeable differences be-
cause steam cannot be superheated as long as tween the older and the newer single-furnace
it is in contact with the water from which it is boilers is the change in furnace design. Higher
being generated. If moisture enters the superheat release rates are possible in the newer
heater, therefore, a good deal of heat must be boilers. Although these newer single-furnace
used to dry the steam before the temperature boilers are not the type that we refer to as
of the steam can rise. ‘‘pressurized-furnace’’ boilers, they do often
The condition of the superheater tube sur- use a Slightly higher combustion air pressure
faces has an important effect on superheater than the older single-furnace boilers. The use of
higher air pressure causes an increase in the
velocity of the combustion gases, and the in-
creased velocity results in a higher rate of heat
4 The term ''excess air" is used to indicate any quan- transfer to the generating tubes. Because of the
tity of combustion air in excess of that which is
increased heat release rates, a newer Single-
theoretically required for the complete combustion of
the fuel. Some excess air is necessary for efficient
furnace boiler is likely to have a water-cooled
combustion, but too much excess air is wasteful, as roof and water-cooled rear walls as well as
discussed in a later section of this chapter. water-cooled side walls.
254
In design details and in general configura- header for the water screen tubes; this feature
tion, the newer single-furnace boilers vary is quite unusual in single-furnace boilers, though
somewhat among themselves. Figure 10-22 standard for double-furnace boilers.
shows a 1200-psi boiler of the type installed on
some post World War II destroyers. Except for New Types of Propulsion Boilers
the additional water-cooled surfaces, this boiler
is very much like the older single-furnace The field of boiler design is by no means
boilers. In contrast, figure 10-23 shows a type static. Although one trend predominates—that of
of single-furnace boiler that has been installed using higher pressures and temperatures—there
on some recent ships. The superheater tubes are almost innumerable ways in which the higher
are installedvertically, rather than horizontally, pressures and temperatures can be achieved.
between generating tubes and water screen tubes. New types of boilers are constantly being devel-
Note, also, that there is aseparate water screen oped and tested, and existing boiler designs are
PERTINENT DATA
aoe
OPERATING PRESSURE.........0006 1200 PSIG

STEAM TEMPERATURE.............+ 950 F
RATED STEAM OUTPUT............. 133,000 LBS/HR
TOTAL HEATING SURFACE........ 7590 SQ FT
FURNACE VOLUME.,.......cceeeseeeee 420 CU FT
yt
C=
p==C
38.41
Figure 10-22.—Newer 1200-psi single-furnace boiler for post World War II destroyer.
255
ECONOMIZER
STEAM DRUM
SUPERHEATER
ELEMENTS
SOOT BLOWER DOWNCOMER
ROOF, SIDE &

REAR
WATERWALL
‘ TUBES
ah CASING
:1
‘| BURNERS
|
DESUPER- An‘
IES Eis eS Yell REFRACTORY
SADDLE — ."y 4
A Peden REAR WALL
— ay ; HEADER
WATER DRUM S lceeceeeeecomncerneenit]
=n
a] ae
SUPERHEATER
HEADERS WATER SCREEN SIDE WALL
HEADER HEADER
147.84
Figure 10-23.—Newer single-furnace boiler with vertical superheater.
subject to modification and improvement. The the natural circulation type, with a completely
new types of boilers discussed here do not by water-cooled furnace. The only refractory mate-
any means exhaust the field of new designs; rial that is exposed to the gases of combustion
indeed, it must be emphasized that
a wide diver- is the refractory that is installed in corners
sity of design is still possible inthis field. and in a small area around the burners. The
top-fired boiler has an in-line generating tube
TOP-FIRED BOILERS.—A new boiler design bank and a vertical superheater. It is expected
which is at present being used on some auxiliary that the top-fired boiler will be much cleaner
ships is the top-fired boiler. In this boiler, the and thus require less maintenance than older
fuel oil burners are located at the top of the boilers of more conventional design.
boiler and are fired downward. The top-fired
boiler utilizes certain new construction tech- CONTROLLED CIRCULATION BOILERS.—
niques, including welded walls. The boiler is of Controlled (or forced) circulation boilers have
256
Chapter 10—PROPULSION BOILERS 858888. _ 000070
see eee eee 5]
been used for some time in stationary power that is not converted to steam in the generating
plants, in locomotives, and in some merchant circuit is separated from the steam in the
ships. Only a few controlled circulation boilers separating chamber. The water is discharged
have been installed in the propulsion plants of from the separating chamber to the feed pump
naval ships, and of this few the majority were suction, if it is suitable for use; if it contains
subsequently removed and replaced by conven- solid matter, it is discharged through the blow-
tional single-furnace boilers with accelerated down pipe. Meanwhile, the steam from the
natural circulation. In theory, however, con- separating chamber flows on through the super-
trolled circulation has some very marked ad- heater circuit, where it is superheated before
vantages over natural circulation, and it is it enters the main steam line.
entirely possible that improved designs of Figure 10-24 shows the boiler circuits of a
controlled circulation boilers may be developed controlled circulation (or forced recirculation)
for future use in naval propulsion plants. boiler. In this boiler, more water is pumped
In natural circulation boilers, circulation through the circuits than is converted into
occurs because the ascending mixture of water
steam. The excess water is taken from the
and steam is lighter (less dense) than the de- steam drum and is pumped through the boiler
scending body of relatively cool and steam-free
circuits again by means of a circulating pump.
water. As boiler pressure increases, however, This type of boiler has a conventional steam
there is less difference between the density of
drum which contains a feed pipe, steam Sepa-
steam and the density of water. At pressures rators and dryers, a desuperheater, and other
over 1000 psi, the density of steam differs so fittings. The boiler has an economizer, three
little from the density of water that natural cir-
generating circuits, and a superheater. Circu-
culation is harder to achieve than it is at lower
lating pumps, fitted as integral parts of the
pressures. At high pressures, controlled circu-
boiler, provide positive circulation to all steam
lation boilers have a distinct advantage because
generating surfaces.
their circulation is controlled by pumps and is
independent of differences in density. Because Both types of controlled circulation boilers
controlled circulation boilers can be designed have far smaller water capacity than do natural
without regard for differences in density, they circulation boilers, and therefore have much
can be arranged in practically any way that is more rapid response to changes inload. For this
required for a particular type of installation. reason, automatic controls are required on
Thus a greater flexibility of arrangement is these boilers to ensure rapid and sensitive
possible and the boilers may be designed for response to fuel and feed water requirements.
compactness, Savings in space and weight re-
quirements, and maximum heat absorption. PRESSURIZED-FURNACE BOILERS.—A
There are two main kinds of controlled boiler recently developed for use in naval pro-
circulation boilers. One type is known as a pulsion plants is variously known as a pres-
once-through or forced flow boiler; the other surized-furnace boiler, apressure-fired boiler,
type is usually called a controlled circulation a supercharged boiler, or asupercharged steam
or a forced recirculation boiler. In both types, generating system.
external pumps are used to force the water A pressurized-furnace boiler is shown sche-
through the boiler circuits; the essential dif- matically in figure 10-25 and in cutaway view in
ference between the two kinds lies inthe amount figure 10-26. As may be seen, the boiler is
of water supplied to the boiler. quite unlike other operational boiler types in
In a once-through forced circulation boiler, general configuration. The pressurized furnace
all (or very nearly all) of the water pumped to is more or less cylindrical in shape, with the
the boiler is converted to steam the first time long axis of the cylinder running vertically. The
through, without any recirculation. This type of boiler drum is mounted horizontally, some dis-
boiler has no steam drum, but has instead a tance above the pressurized furnace. The drum
small separating chamber. Water is pumped is connected to the steam and water elements
into the economizer circuit and from there to in the furnace by risers and downcomers, all of
the generating circuit, the amount of flow being which are external to the casing. Some boilers
controlled so as to allow practically all of the of this type are side-fired. Others (including the
water to be converted into steam in the gen- one shown) are top-fired; as may be seen in fig-
erating circuit. The very small amount of water ures 10-25 and 10-26, the burners are atthe top
257
SUPERHEATED
STEAM
ECONOMIZER
SUPERHEATER
DESUPERHEATED STEAM ——
|SIDE WALL
AND FLOOR
| PRIMARY
EVAPORATOR
AND REAR
WALL
CIRCULATING
PUMP
DISTRIBUTING
HEADER
LEGEND
. ECONOMIZER INLET HEADER “ LOWER SECONDARY EVAPORATOR CIRCUIT INLET HEADER
ny. ECONOMIZER OUTLET HEADER o . UPPER SECONDARY EVAPORATOR CIRCUIT INLET HEADER
. SIDE WALL AND FLOOR CIRCUIT INLET HEADER . SECONDARY EVAPORATOR OUTLET HEADER
. SIDE WALL AND FLOOR CIRCUIT OUTLET HEADER . SUPE RHEATER INLET HEADER
un . PRIMARY EVAPORATOR AND REAR WALL CIRCUIT INLET HEADER VW. SUPE RHEATER OUTLET HEADER
. PRIMARY EVAPORATOR AND REAR WALL CIRCUIT OUTLET HEADER
147.85
Figure 10-24.—Schematic diagram of controlled circulation boiler.
of the pressurized furnace, firing downward into in or out and without even changing sprayer
the furnace. plates.
The burners, specially designed for the The generating tubes run vertically inside
pressurized-furnace boiler, are quite unlike any the pressurized furnace. The superheater is an
we have thus far considered. The burners are annular pancake arrangement inserted into the
designed to burn distillate fuel rather than Navy bottom of the pressure vessel. The superheater
Special fuel oil. There are noair register doors. is designed to be removed without disturbing the
There are three burners per boiler, and each main components of the boiler.
burner includes a special type of straight me- The air compressor which supplies the com-
chanical atomizer (not return-flow) which uti- bustion air under pressure is driven by a gas
lizes three sprayer plates at the same time. All turbine. The air compressor and the gas turbine
three burners are operated simultaneously, and together are referred to as the supercharger.
all three sprayer plates remain in place ineach Part of the energy needed for driving the gas
atomizer. The sprayer plates operate in Se- turbine is obtained from the combustion gases
quence to meet changing conditions of load. The leaving the boiler furnace. The combustion gases
design of these burners allows an enormously expand through the gas turbine, and some of the
wide range of operation without cutting burners heat is converted into work. This is the same
258
TO
STACK
ECONOMIZER FEED WATER

FEED WATER
COMBUSTION AIR
ADDITIONAL
‘AS AIR
SOURCE OF ae COMPRESSOR
POWER FOR
PRESSURE- TIGHT
AIR COMPRESSOR
BOILER FURNACE
ea COMBUSTION GASES
—*
GENERATING
ELEMENTS
TO
DESUPERHEATER
IN BOILER DRUM
SUPERHEATER
SUPERHEATED STEAM TO ENGINES ELEMENTS
147.86
Figure 10-25.—Schematic view of pressurized-furnace boiler.
kind of energy transformation that occurs ina capacity. A large part of this saving of space and
steam turbine; the difference is that hot com- weight occurs because the increased pressure
bustion gases, rather than steam, carry the on the combustion gas side causes a very great
energy to the gas turbine. After the combustion increase in the rate of heat transfer tothe water
gases leave the gas turbine, some of the remain- in the tubes. Thus a smaller generating surface
ing heat may be used to heat feed water as it is required to generate the same amount of
flows through an economizer. steam. Another cause of space and weight saving
There are no forced draft blowers in pres- is that the general design of the pressurized-
surized-furnace boiler installations. The super- furnace boiler eliminates the need for much of
charger takes the place of the forced draft the refractory material that is required in other
blowers, thus greatly increasing plant efficiency.
The steam saved by the use of a supercharger
instead of forced draft blowers may amount toas 5
Forced draft blowers for conventional boiler instal-
much as 8 or 10 percent of boiler capacity. lations furnish air pressures ranging from 0 to 10
Altogether, a pressurized-furnace boiler is psig. In a pressurized-furnace boiler, the air com-
not much more than half the size and half the pressor supplies combustion air at pressures ranging
weight of a conventional boiler of equal steam from 30 to 90 psig.
259
SATURATED STEAM
LINE TO SUPERHEATER
a STEAM DRUM
AIR INLET.TO BOILER
COMPRESSOR
AIR INLET
GAS TURBINE
OUTLET RISER TUBE
BURNER
IGNITOR
UPPER
BOILER
HEADER
BOILER
CASING
RELIEF
VALUE
CONNECTION
SUPERCHARGER
SET DOWNCOMER
GAS INLET FURN

TUBeee
TO GAS TURBINE
MAIN
CONVECTION
BANK
EXPANSION
FURNACE
lie SCREEN
SUPERHEATER
OUTLET = SUPERHEATER
se W fe CONVECTION
4 A gt HEADER
\ ba FURNACE.
\ HEADER
BOILER \
FOUNDATIONS \ m SUPERHEATER
HEADERS
SUPERHEATER
~~ INLET
Figure 10-26.—Cutaway view of pressurized-furnace boiler. 139.19
260
boilers. A pressurized-furnace boiler may re- Although we must remember the continuous
quire only about 2000 pounds of refractory, as or cyclical nature of the shipboard steam plant,
against the 21,000 pounds or more usually re- we must also distinguish between the water at
quired in a conventional boiler of equal capacity. different points in the system. This distinction
Increased efficiency, a substantial saving is necessary because different standards are
in space and weight requirements, a substantial prescribed for the water at different points. To
reduction in ship’s force maintenance require- identify the water at various points inthe steam -
ments, shorter boiler start-up time, and better water cycle, the following terms are used:
maneuverability and control are the major ad-
vantages of the pressurized-furnace boiler. Al- Distillate or sea water distillate is the fresh
though some operational and maintenance prob- water that is discharged from the ship’s distill-
lems do exist with this boiler, it appears likely ing plants. This water is stored infresh water or
that most of them can eventually be solved by feed water tanks. All water in the steam - water
increased training of personnel, increased pre- cycle begins originally as distillate.
cision in the erection of the boilers, and perhaps Makeup feed is distillate used as replacement
continued refinements of design and construc- for any water that is lost or removed from the
tion, closed steam - water cycle.
Condensate is the water that results from the
BOILER WATER REQUIREMENTS
condensation of steam in the main and auxiliary
Modern naval boilers cannot be operated condensers. This water is called condensate until
safely and efficiently without careful control of it reaches the deaerating feed tank.
boiler water quality. If boiler water conditions Boiler feed or feed water is the water in the
are not just precisely right, the high operating system between the deaerating feed tank andthe
pressures and temperatures of modern boilers boiler.
will lead to rapid deterioration of the boiler Deaerated feed water is feed water that has
metal, with the possibility of serious casualties passed through deaerating feed tank and has had
to boiler pressure parts. the dissolved or entrained oxygen removed from
Although our ultimate concern is with the it.
water actually in the boiler, we cannot consider Boiler water is the water actually contained
boiler water alone. We must also consider the within a boiler at any given moment.
water in the rest of the system, since we are Sea water, the source of practically all fresh
dealing with a closed cycle in which water is water used aboard ship, contains about 35,000
heated, steam is generated, steam is condensed, parts per million (ppm) of sea salts. This is
and water is returned to the boiler. Because the equivalent to roughly 70 pounds of sea salts per
cycle is continuous and closed, the same water ton of water. When sea water is evaporated and
remains in the system except for the water that the vapor is condensed in the distilling plant, the
is lost by boiler blowdown® and the very small resulting distillate contains about 1.75 ppm of
amount of water that escapes, either as steam sea salts, or roughly 70 pounds per 20,000tons.
or as water, and is replaced by makeup feed. In other words, distillate is actually diluted sea
water—sea water that is diluted to about 1/20,000
of its original concentration. It is not ‘‘pure
water.’’ In considering water problems and
Shere are two kinds of boiler blowdown: surface water treatment, it is essential to remember that
blowdown and bottom blowdown. Surface blowdown is
the basic impurity of sea water distillate would
used to remove foam and other light contaminants
make water treatment necessary even if no other
from the surface of the water in the steam drum.
Bottom blowdown is used to remove sludge and other impurities entered the water from other sources.
material that tends to settle in the lower parts of the The salts that are present in sea water—and,
boiler. Both surface blowdown and bottom blowdown therefore, to a lesser extent in distillate—are
may be used to remove a portion of the boiler water chiefly compounds of sodium, calcium, and mag-
so that it can be replaced with purer makeup feed, nesium.
thereby lowering the chloride content of the boiler Although makeup feed enters the tanks as
water. Surface blows may be given while the boiler is
distillate, the makeup feed usually contains a
steaming; bottom blows must not be given until some
time after the boiler has been secured. The valves and slightly higher proportion of impurities thanthe
piping used for making surface and bottom blows are distillate. The difference is accounted for by
discussed in chapter 11 of this text. slight seepage or other contamination of the
261
water after it has remained in the tanks for treatment, the boiler water would contain just
some time. about the same concentration of sea salts asthe
Just as distillate is diluted sea water, so original sea water from which the distillate was
steam condensate is basically a diluted form of made. In addition, the boiler water would con-
boiler water. The amount of solid matter car- tain increasingly large quantities of corrosion
ried over with the steam varies considerably, products and other foreign matter picked up in
depending upon the design of the boiler, the the steam and condensate systems.
condition of the boiler, the nature of the water If we continued to steam the boiler with the
treatment, the manner in which the boiler is water in this condition, the boiler would dete-
operated, and other factors. In general, con- riorate rapidly. To prevent such deterioration,
densate contains from 1.7 to 3.5 ppm of solid it is necessary to do the following things:
matter, or roughly 70 pounds per 20,000 to 1, Maintain the incoming feed water at the
10,000 tons. Condensate may pick up additional highest possible level of purity and as free as
contamination in various ways. Salt water leaks possible of dissolved oxygen,
in the condenser increase the amount of sea 2. Use chemical treatment of the boiler
salts present in the condensate. Oil leaks in water to counteract the effects of some of the
the fuel oil heaters may contaminate the con- impurities that are bound to be present.
densate. Corrosion products from steam and 3. Use blowdown at regular intervals to re-
condensate lines may also be present in con- move some of the more heavily contaminated
densate. Under ideal conditions, condensate water so that it may be replaced by purer feed
should be no more contaminated than sea water water.
distillate; under many actual conditions, it is Although there are many sources of boiler
more contaminated. water contamination, the contaminating mate-
The solid content of the water (Boiler feed rials tend to produce three main problems when
water) in the system between the deaerating they are concentrated or accumulated in the
feed tank and the boiler is essentially the same boiler water. Therefore, boiler water treatment
as the solid content of the condensate. The main is aimed at controlling the three problems of
difference between condensate and deaerated (1) waterside deposits, (2) waterside corrosion,
boiler feed is that most of the dissolved gases and (3) carryover.
are removed from the water in the deaerating Waterside deposits interfere with heat trans-
feed tank. - fer and thus cause overheating of the boiler
Practically all of the impurities that are metal. The general manner in which a water-
present in feed water, including those originally side deposit causes overheating of a boiler tube
present in the sea water distillate and those is shown in figure 10-27. In a boiler operating
that are picked up later, will eventually find at 600 psi, the temperature inside a generating
their way tothe boiler. As steam is generated tube may be approximately 500° F and the tem-
and leaves the boiler, the concentration of im- perature of the outside of the tube may be ap-
purities in the remaining boiler water becomes proximately 100° F higher.” Where a waterside
greater and greater. In other words, the boiler deposit exists, however, the tube cannot trans-
and the condenser together act as a sort of fer the heat as rapidly as it receives it. As
distilling plant, redistilling the water received shown in figure 10-27, the inside of the tube
from the ship’s evaporators. In consequence, has reached a temperature of 800° F at the point
the boiler water would become more and more where the waterside deposit is thickest. The
contaminated if steps were not taken to deal tube metal is overheated to such an extent that
with the increasing contamination. it becomes plastic and blows out into a bubble
As an example, suppose that a boiler holds or blister under boiler pressure.
10,000 pounds of water at steaming level, and Waterside deposits that must be guarded
suppose that steam is being generated at the against include sludge, oil, scale, corrosion
rate of 50,000 pounds per hour. After an hour
of operation there would be approximately five
‘The temperatures used in this example do not apply
times as much solid matter in the boiler water
to all situations in which a boiler tube is overheated.
as there was in the entering feed water. Now if The exact temperatures of the inside and outside of the
we continued to steam this boiler for another tube would depend upon the operating pressure of the
2000 to 4000 hours without using blowdown boiler, the location of the tube inthe boiler, the nature
and without using any kind of boiler water of the deposit, and various other factors.
262
600 PSI
600° F 500° F
WATERSIDE
DEPOSIT
BESTE Ri
950° F ——_—— 500° F
800° F
38.131
Figure 10-27.—Effect of waterside deposit on
boiler tube.
deposits, and products formed as the result of 38.138

chemical reactions of the tube metal. Figure 10-28.—Localized pit in boiler tube
The term ‘‘waterside corrosion’’ is used to caused by dissolved oxygen in the
include both localized pitting and general corro- boiler water.
sion. Most waterside corrosion is electro-
chemical in nature. There are always some cathodes on the surface of the boiler metal. As
slight variations (both chemical and physical) corrosion proceeds, the anodes and cathodes
in the surface of any boiler metal. These small constantly change location. Therefore, there is
chemical and physical variations in the metal a general loss of metal over the entire surface.
surface cause slight differences in electrical General corrosion may occur if the chloride
potential between one area of a tube and another content of the boiler water is too high or if the
area. Some areas are anodes (positive termi- alkalinity is either too low or too high.
nals) and others are cathodes (negative termi- The third major problem that results from
nals). Iron from the boiler tube tends to go into boiler water contamination is carryover. Under
solution more rapidly at the anode areas than some circumstances, very small particles of
at other points on the boiler tube. Electrolytic moisture (almost like a fine mist) are carried
-action cannot be completely prevented in any over withthe steam. Under other circumstances,
boiler, but it can be kept to a minimum by large gulps or slugs of water are carried over.
maintaining the boiler water at the proper alka- The term priming is generally used to describe
-linity and by keeping the dissolved oxygen con- the carryover of large quantities of water. Both
tent of the boiler water as low as possible. kinds of carryover are dangerous and both can
The presence of dissolved oxygen in the cause severe damage to superheaters, steam
boiler water contributes greatly to the type of lines, turbines, and valves. Whatever moisture
corrosion in which electrolytic action makes or water is carried over with the steam brings
pits or holes of the type shown in figure 10-28. with it the solid matter that is dissolved or
A pit of this type actually indicates an anodic suspended in the water. This solid matter tends
area in which iron from the boiler tube has to be deposited on turbine blades and in super-
gone into solution in the boiler water. heater tubes and valves. Figure 10-29 shows a
General corrosion occurs when conditions superheater tube in which solid matter has been
favor the formation of many small anodes and deposited as a result of carryover. Priming, or
263
will pile up. Under these conditions, carryover

is almost sure to occur.
In order to counteract the effects of the im-
purities in boiler water, it is necessary to have
a precise knowledge of the actual condition of
the water. This knowledge is obtained by fre-
quent tests of the boiler water and of the feed
water. Boiler water tests include chloride tests,
hardness tests, alkalinity tests, pH tests, phos-
phate tests, and electrical conductivity tests
which indicate the dissolved solid content of the
boiler water.8 Feed water is tested routinely
for chloride, hardness, and dissolved oxygen;
alkalinity, pH, phosphate, and electrical conduc-
tivity tests are not normally made on feed water.
The frequency of boiler water and feed water
tests is specified by the Naval Ship Systems
Command. Also, the allowable limits of con-
tamination are specified by the Naval Ship Sys-
tems Command. In general, the requirements
for purity of boiler water become more stringent
with increasing boiler pressure.
Water tests aboard ship are made by the oil
and water king (usually a Boilerman), although
certain aspects of the preparation and handling
of the chemicals may require the supervision
of an officer. The tests require some knowledge
of chemistry and a high degree of precision in
preparing, using, and measuring the chemicals.
Therefore, only personnel holding a current
certification resulting from successful comple-
tion of a NavShips boiler water/feed water test
and treatment training course may test and
treat boiler water and feed water on propulsion
boilers.
Some of the water tests made aboard ship
give a direct indication of just what contaminat-
ing substance is present, and in just what amount
it is present. In other cases, it is more im-
portant to know what effects the contaminating
38.140
substances have upon the water than it is to
Figure 10-29.—Evidence of carryover in
know what the substances are or exactly how
superheater tube.
much of each is present. Therefore, some water
tests are designed to measure properties the
the carryover of large slugs of water, is partic- water acquires because of the presence of vari-
ularly dangerous because it can do such severe ous impurities.
damage to machinery. For example, priming can The term chloride content really refers to
actually rip turbine blades from their wheels. the concentration of the chloride ion, rather
One cause of carryover is foaming of the than to the concentration of any one sea Salt.
boiler water. Foaming occurs when the water
contains too much dissolved or suspended solid
matter. The solids tend to stabilize the bubbles
8Note, however, that no one ship makes all of these
and cause them to pile up instead of bursting. tests of boiler water. The types of boiler water tests
If a great deal of solid matter is present in the required on any particular ship depend upon the method
boiler water, a considerable amount of foam of boiler water treatment authorized for that ship.
264
Because the concentration of chloride ions is can be obtained by measuring the electrical
relatively constant in sea water, the chloride conductivity of the boiler water, since this is
content is used as a measure of the amount of related to the total dissolved solid content. All
solid matter that is derived through sea water ships are now furnished with special electrical
contamination. The results of the chloride test conductivity meters for measuring the conduc-
are used as one indication of the need for blow- tivity of the boiler water. The total dissolved
down. Chloride content is expressed in equiva- solid content is expressed in micromhos, a unit
lents per million (emp).9 of electrical conductivity.
Hardness is a property that water acquires As a regular routine, the test for dissolved
because of the presence of certain dissolved oxygen is made only on feed water, although
salts. Water in which soap does not readily occasional testing of water in other parts of
form a lather is said to be hard. the system is recommended. A chemical test
Alkalinity is a property that the water ac- for dissolved oxygen is made aboard ship. Since
quires because of the presence of certain im- this test cannot detect dissolved oxygen in con-
purities. On ships that make alkalinity tests, centrations of less than 0.02 ppm, more sensi-
the results are expressed in epm. tive laboratory tests are sometimes made as a
Some ships are required to determine the pH check on the operation of the deaerating feed
value, rather than the alkalinity, of the boiler tanks.
water. The pH unit does not measure alkalinity When tests of the boiler water show that the
directly; however, it is related to alkalinity in water is not within the prescribed limits, chem-
such a way that a pH number gives an indication ical treatment and blowdown are instituted.
of the acidity or alkalinity of the water. The Several methods of chemical treatment are now
pH scale of numbers runs from 0 to 14. On authorized. Each method is designed to com-
this scale, pH 7 is the neutral point. Solutions pletely eliminate hardness and to maintain the
having pH values above 7 are defined as alkaline alkalinity (or the pH value) within the prescribed
solutions. Solutions having pH values below 7 are limits. The method of boiler water treatment
defined as acid solutions. specified for each ship is the method that will
Boiler water that is treated with phosphates best perform these two functions and, at the
must be tested for phosphate content. Boiler Same time, take account of the total concen-
water that is treated with standard Navy boiler tration of solids that can be tolerated in the
compound is not tested for phosphates. Phos- particular type of boiler. The type of water
phate content is expressed in parts per million treatment authorized for any particular ship is
(ppm). When the phosphate content of boiler specified by the Naval Ship Systems Command;
water is maintained within the specified limits, it is not a matter of choice by ship’s personnel.
the hardness of the water shouldbe zero, There- Chemical treatment of the boiler water in-
fore, hardness tests are not required for boiler creases, rather than decreases, the need for
water when phosphate water treatment is used. blowdown. The chemical treatment counteracts
The test for chloride content indicates some- the effects of many of the impurities in the
thing about the amount of solid matter that is boiler water, but at the same time it increases
present in the boiler water, but it indicates only the total amount of solid matter in the boiler
the solid matter that is there because of sea water and thus increases the need for blowdown,
water contamination. It does not indicate any- Each steam boiler must be given a surface blow
thing about other solid matter that may be dis- at least once a day, and more often if the water
solved in the boiler water. A more accurate tests indicate the need. Bottom blows are given
indication of the total amount of dissolved solids at least once a week, uSually about anhour after
the boiler has been secured. Bottom blows must
not be given while a boiler is steaming. Special
instructions for boiler blowdown are issued to
Equivalents per million can be defined as the number certain categories of ships.
of equivalent parts of a substance per millionparts of
some other substance. The word "equivalent'' here
COMBUSTION REQUIREMENTS
refers to the chemical equivalent weight of a substance,
For example, if a substance has a chemical equivalent
weight of 35.5, a solution containing 35.5 parts per Certain requirements must be met before
million is described as having a concentration of 1 combustion can occur in the boiler furnace. The
epm. fuel must be heated to the temperature that will
265
give it the proper viscosity for atomization. It the furnance and carries off a considerable
should be NOTED, however, that with the con- amount of heat as it goes out the stack.
version to the new distillate fuel (NSDF), the When a combustion reaction occurs, a defi-
fuel will not need to be heated as the viscosity nite amount of heat is liberated. The total
is much lower than the fuel oil (NSFO) now being amount of heat released by the combustion of a
used. The fuel must be forced into the furnace fuel is the sum of the heat released by each
under pressure through the atomizers which element in the fuel. The amount of heat liber-
divide the fuel into very fine particles. Mean- ated in the burning of each of the principal ele-
while, combustion air must be forced into the ments in fuel oil is as follows:
furnace and admitted in such a way that the air
will mix thoroughly with the finely divided fuel. Chem- Heat Released
And finally, it is necessary to supply enough Element ical By Combustion
heat so that the fuel will ignite and continue to Symbol (BTU per lb)
burn.
Combustion is a chemical process which Hydrogen (to water). . Hy 62,000
results in the rapid release of energy in the
form of heat and light. When a fuel burns, the Carbon (to carbon
chemical reactions between the combustible monoxide)...2. (c 4,440
elements in the fuel and the oxygen in the air
result in new compounds. The combustible com- Carbon (to carbon
ponents of fuel are mainly carbon and hydrogen, dioxide) tainsare C 14,540
which are present largely in the form of hydro-
carbons. Sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and a small Sulfur (to sulfur
amount of moisture are also present in fuel. Gioxide) Mewar. cece. s 4,050
In almost all burning processes, the prin-
cipal reactions are the combination of the car- Notice that much more heat is liberated when
bon and the hydrogen in the fuel with the oxygen carbon is burned to carbon dioxide than when it
in the air to form carbon dioxide anda relative- is burned to carbon monoxide, the difference
ly small amount of water vapor. In the absence being 10,100 Btu per pound. In burning to car-
of sufficient air to form carbon dioxide, carbon bon monoxide, the carbon is not completely
monoxide will be formed. A reaction of lesser oxidized; in burning to carbon dioxide, the car-
importance is the combination of sulfur and bon combines with all the oxygen possible, and
oxygen to form sulfur dioxide. thus oxidation is complete.
Atmospheric air is the source of oxygen for Thus far in this discussion, we have assumed
the combustion reactions occurring in a boiler that the oxygen necessary for combustion was
furnace. Air is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, present in the exact amount required for the
and small amounts of carbon dioxide, water complete combustion of all the combustible ele-
vapor, and inert gases. The approximate com- ments in the fuel. However, it is not a simple
position of air, by weight and by volume, is as matter to introduce just exactly the required
follows: amount of oxygen—no more, no less—into the
boiler furnace.
Weight Volume Since atmospheric air is the source of oxygen
BENG (Percent) (Percent) for the combustion process that occurs in the
boiler furnace, let us first calculate the amount of
Oxy Pensa 23.15 20.91 air that would be needed to furnish 1 pound of
oxygen. By weight, the composition of air is
Nitrogen, etc. ..... 76.85 79.09 23.15 percent oxygen and 76.85 percent nitrogen
(disregarding the very small quantities of other
At the proper temperature, the oxygen in gases present in air). To supply 1 poundof oxy-
the air combines chemically with the combus- gen for combustion, therefore, it is necessaryto
tible substances in the fuel. The nitrogen, supply 1/0.2315 or 4.32 pounds of air.
which is 76.85 percent by weight of all air en- Since nitrogen constitutes 76.85 percent of the
tering the furnace, serves no useful purpose in air (by weight), the amount of nitrogen in this
combustion but is rather a direct source of heat 4.32 pounds of air will be 0.7685 x 4.32 or 3.32
loss, since it absorbs heat in passing through pounds. As mentioned before, the nitrogen serves
266
no useful purpose in combustion and is a direct loss of 10,100 Btu per pound. This should be
source of heat loss. considered an avoidable loss, since the admis-
Calculations will show that approximately sion of a sufficient amount of excess air will
14 pounds of air will furnish the oxygen theo- ensure complete combustion.
retically required for the complete combustion Heat losses that cannot be measured or
of 1 pound of fuel. In actual practice, of course, that are impracticable to measure are (1) losses
the amount of air necessary to ensure complete due to unburned hydrocarbons, gaseous or solid;
combustion must be somewhat in excess of that (2) losses due to radiation; and (3) other losses
theoretically required. About 10 to 15 percent not normally accounted for.
excess air is usually sufficient to ensure proper
combustion. Too much excess air serves no
useful purpose, but merely absorbs and carries FIREROOM OPERATIONS
off heat.
When fuel is burned in the boiler furnace, Although a complete discussion of fireroom
the difference between the HEAT INPUT andthe Operations is beyond the scope of this text,
HEAT ABSORBED represents the HEAT LOSS. some understanding of the major factors involved
Heat losses may be unavoidable, avoidable, or— in boiler operation may be useful.
in some cases—avoidable only to a limited ex- Basically, the fireroom force must control
tent. Most heat losses may be accounted for, three inputs—feed water, fuel, and combustion
but some losses cannot normally be accounted air—in order toprovide one output, steam. Under
for. steady steaming conditions, when steam demands
All fuel contains a small amount of mois- are relatively constant for long periods oftime,
ture which must be evaporated and superheated there is no great difficulty about providing a
to the furnace temperature. Since the expendi- uniform flow of steam tothe propulsion turbines.
ture of heat for this purpose constitutes a heat But one of the special requirements of naval
loss in terms of boiler efficiency, every pre- Ships is that they must be able to maneuver and
caution should be taken to prevent contamination to change speed quickly, and this requirement
of the fuel oil with water. imposes upon the fireroom force the responsi-
All fuel contains some hydrogen which, when bility for making very rapid increases and de-
combined with oxygen by the process of com- creases in the amount of steam furnished to the
bustion, forms water vapor. This water vapor engineroom. Under conditions of rapid change,
must be evaporated and superheated, andin both boiler operation is a teamwork jobthat requires
processes it absorbs heat. Consequently, al- great skill and alertness and smooth coordina-
though the heat of combustion of hydrogen is tion of efforts by several men.
very great, a small heat loss occurs because For manual operation of the boilers, anormal
the water vapor formed as a result of the com- fireroom watch consists of one petty officer in
bustion of hydrogen must be evaporated and charge of the watch; one checkman for each
superheated. operating boiler; one burnerman for each oper-
Since atmospheric air is the source of the ating boiler front; one blowerman for each
oxygen utilized for combustion in the boiler operating boiler; and one or more men to act
furnace, there is bound to be some moisture in as messengers and to check the operation of
the combustion air. This moisture must be the auxiliary machinery. When automatic boiler
evaporated and superheated, and therefore con- controls are installed, boilers may be operated
stitutes a heat loss. with fewer men on watch when the controls are
The heat loss due to heat being carriedaway being used.
by combustion gases is the greatest of all the When a boiler is being operated manually,
heat losses that occur in a boiler. Although the checkman controls the water level in the
much of this heat loss is unavoidable, some boiler by manual operation of the feed stop and
may be prevented by keeping all heat-transfer check valves. The checkman stands at the upper
surfaces clean and by using no more excess air level, near the feed stop and check valves, and
than is actually required for combustion. near the boiler gage glass. The checkman admits
Another heat loss occurs because of inwater to the boiler as necessary to maintain the
complete combustion of the fuel. When the carbon water at or very near the designed water level.
in the fuel is burned to carbon monoxide, instead The check watch requires the utmost vigilance
of carbon dioxide, there is a tremendous heat and reliability; if any one job in the fireroom
267
can be said to be more important than any other, gage. Also, he watches the annunciator which
the checkman’s job is the one. shows the signals going from the bridge to the
One of the greatest difficulties in maintaining engineroom, and in this way he can tell what
the water level arises from the fact that the steam demands are going to be made.
boiler water swells and shrinks as the firing On a double-furnace boiler, there are two
rate is changed. As the firing rate is increased, burnermen—one for the saturated side and one
there is an increase in the volume of the boiler for the superheater side. The burnerman on the
water. This increase, which is known as swell, superheater side cuts burners in and out and
occurs because there is an increase inthe num- adjusts fuel pressure to keep the superheater
ber and size of the steam bubbles in the water. outlet temperature at the required value. The
As the firing rate is decreased, there is a de- burnerman on the superheater side is guided
crease in the volume of the water. This de- by the distant-reading thermometer which indi-
crease, which is known as shrink, occurs be- cates the temperature of the steam at the super-
cause there are fewer steam bubbles and they heater outlet. In addition, he must keep a close
are of smaller size. Thus, for any given weight check on the actions of the saturated-side
of boiler water, the volume varies with the rate burnerman so that he will always know how
of combustion. many burners are in use on the saturated side.
The problem of swell and shrink becomes When two boilers are furnishing steam to
even more complex when we remember that the the same engine, the burnermen of both boilers
evaporation rate also increases as the firing must work together to see that the load is
rate increases and decreases as the firing rate equally divided between the two boilers.
decreases. When the firing rate is increased, The blowerman is responsible for operating
therefore, the checkman must remember to the forced draft blowers that supply combustion
feed more water to the boiler, even though the air to the boiler. Although the air pressure in
water level has already risen momentarily be- the double casings is affected by the number of
cause of swell. On the other hand, the checkman registers in use and by the extent to which each
must remember to feed less water to the boiler register is open, it is chiefly determined by the
when the firing rate is decreased, even though manner in which the forced draft blowers are
the water level has already dropped. Because operated. The opening, setting, or adjusting of
these actions may appear to be contrary to the air registers is the burnerman’s job; the
common sense to a person who does not under- control of the forced draft blowers is the blower-
stand the concept of swell and shrink, a good man’s job. As may be apparent, the burnerman
deal of training is usually required before a and the blowerman must each know what the
man can be considered qualified to stand a other man is doing at all times. The blowerman
check watch. must always increase the air pressure before
The control of combustion involves the con- the burnerman increases the rate of combus-
trol of fuel and the control of combustion air. tion, and the burnerman must always decrease
There are three ways in which the firing rate the rate of combustion before the blowerman
may be increased or decreased in order to meet decreases the air pressure.
changes in steam demand: (1) by increasing or If a boiler is not being supplied with suffi-
decreasing the fuel pressure, (2) by increasing cient air for combustion, everyone in the fire-
or decreasing the number of burners inuse, and room will know about it immediately. The boiler
(3) by changing the size of the sprayer plates in will begin to pant and vibrate, and the fireroom
the atomizer assemblies. With every change, force will receive complaints of ‘‘heavy black
the amount of combustion air supplied to the smoke’’ from the bridge. If the boiler is being
boiler must also be changed in order to maintain supplied with too much air—that is, more excess
the proper relationship between fuel and com- air than is required for efficient combustion—
bustion air. The burnerman and the blowerman the fireroom force may or may not know about
must therefore work very closely together in it immediately. White smoke coming from the
order to provide efficient combustion in the smokepipe is always an indication of large
boiler furnace. amounts of excess air. However, a perfectly
The burnerman cuts burners in and out and clear smokepipe may be deceiving; it may mean
adjusts the oil pressure as necessary to keep that the boiler is operating with only a small
the steam pressure at the required value. The amount of excess air, but it may also mean that
burnerman is guided by the steam drum pressure as much as 300 percent excess air is causing
268
enormous heat losses. The blowerman must The capacity of any boiler is limited by
learn by experience how much air pressure three factors that have to doboth withthe design
should be shown on the air pressure gage for of the boiler and with its operation. These lim-
all the various combinations of different num- itations, which are known as end points, are
bers of burners, different sizes of sprayer (1) the end point for combustion, (2) the end
plates, and different fuel pressures. point for moisture carryover, and (3) the end
The number of men assigned to operate the point for water circulation.
fireroom auxiliary machinery varies from one Boilers are so designed that the end point
ship to another, depending upon the size of the for combustion should occur at a lower rate of
ship and the number of men available. Some steam generation than the end point for mois-
ships may have two or more men assigned to ture carryover, and the end point for moisture
this duty; on other ships, the work may be done carryover at a lower rate than the end point for
by the petty officer in charge of the watch or water circulation. Since the end point for com-
by the messenger. The burnerman and the bustion occurs first, it is the only endpoint that
blowerman may also take care of some of the is likely to be reached in a properly designed
auxiliaries. The checkman must never be given and properly operated boiler. However, it should
any duties other than his primary ones of watch- be understood that it is quite possible to reach
ing and maintaining the water level. the end points for moisture carryover and water
All fireroom operations are supervised and circulation before reaching the end point for
coordinated by the petty officer in charge of the combustion, by using larger sprayer plates than
watch. The petty officer in charge of the watch those recommended by the manufacturer or by
Supervises all lighting off, operating, and se- the Bureau of Ships. In such a case, the boiler
curing procedures, He keeps the engineroom might suffer great damage before the end point
and the engineering officer of the watch infor combustion was reached.
formed of operating conditions when necessary.
He must be constantly alert to the slightest End Point for Combustion
indication of trouble and must be constantly
prepared to deal with any casualty that may The process of burning fuel in a boiler
occur. The petty officer in charge of the watch furnace involves forcing the fuel into the furnace
is responsible for making sure that all safety at the proper viscosity through atomizers which
precautions are being observed and that unsafe break up the oil into a foglike spray, and forcing
Operating conditions are not allowed to exist. air into the furnace in such a way that it mixes
thoroughly with the oil spray. The amount of fuel
that can be burned is limited primarily by the
FIREROOM EFFICIENCY actual capacity of the equipment that supplies
the fuel (including the capacity of the sprayer
The military value of a naval vessel depends plates), by the amount of air that can be forced
in large measure upon her cruising radius, into the furnace, and by the ability of the burner
which, in turn, depends upon the efficiency with apparatus to mix this air with the fuel. The
which the engineering plant is operated. Perhaps volume and shape of the furnace are also limit-
the largest single factor in determining the ing factors.
efficiency of the engineering plant is the effi- The end point for combustion for a boiler is
ciency with which the boilers are operated. reached when the capacity of the sprayer plates,
Greater savings in fuel, with consequent increase at the designed pressure for the system, is
in steaming radius of the ship, may often be reached or when the maximum amount of air
made in the fireroom than in all the rest of the that can be forced into the furnace is insufficient
engineering plant put together. for complete combustion of the fuel. If the end
The capacity of a boiler is defined as the point for combustion is actually reached because
maximum rate at which the boiler can generate of insufficient air, the smoke in the uptakes will
steam. The rate of steam generation is usually be black because it will contain particles of
expressed in terms of pounds of water evapo- unburned fuel. However, this condition should be
rated per hour. You should know something of rare, since the end point for combustion is
the limitations upon boiler capacity, the sig- artificially limited by sprayer plate capacity
nificance of full-power and overload ratings, when the fuel is supplied at the burner manifold
and the procedure for checking on boiler loads. at designed operating pressure. As noted before,
269
this artificial limitation upon combustion in the Other factors that influence the circulation in a
boiler furnace is the factor that would cause the natural circulation boiler are the location of
end point for combustion to occur before either the burners, the arrangement of baffles in the
of the other two end points. tube banks, and the arrangement of tubes in the
tube banks.
End Point for Moisture Full-power and overload ratings for the
Carryover boilers in each ship are specified in the manu-
facturer’s technical manual. The total quantity
The rate of steam generation should never of steam required to develop contract shaft
be increased to the point at which an excessive horsepower of the ship, divided by the number
amount of moisture is carried over inthe steam. of boilers installed, gives boiler full-power
In general, naval specifications limit the allow- capacity. Boiler overload capacity is usually
able moisture content of steam leaving the 120 percent of boiler full-power capacity. For
saturated steam outlet to 1/4 of 1 percent. some boilers, a specific assigned maximum fir-
As you know, excessive carryover can be ing rate is designated.
extremely damaging to piping, valves, and tur- A boiler should not be forced beyond full-
bines, as well as to the superheater of the power capacity—that is, it should not be steamed
boiler. It is not only the moisture itself that at a rate greater than that required to obtain
is damaging but also the insoluble matter that full-power speed with all the ship’s boilers in
may be carried in the moisture. This insoluble use. A boiler should never be steamed beyond
matter can form scale on superheater tubes, its overload capacity, or fired beyond the as-
turbine blades, piping and fittings; in some Signed maximum firing rate, except in dire
cases, it may be sufficient to cause unbalance emergency.
of rotating parts.
As the evaporation rate is increased, the Checking Boiler Efficiency
amount of moisture carryover tends toincrease
also, due to the increased release of steam In order to check on boiler efficiency it is
bubbles. Because modern naval boilers are necessary to compare the amount of fuel actu-
designed for high evaporation rates, steam ally burned in a boiler with the amount that
separators and various baffle arrangements should be burned. This check is usually made
are used in the steam drum to Separate mois- during economy runs and during full-power
ture from the steam. runs. As a rule, 4 hours are allowed for each
run. During the run, fuel consumption is meas-
End Point for Water ured at intervals of precisely 1 hour. This
Circulation measure, when corrected for meter error and
verified by tank soundings, gives the amount of
In natural circulation boilers, circulation is fuel that is actually used.
dependent upon the difference between the density
of the ascending mixture of hot water andsteam The amount of fuel that should be used under
and the density of the descending body of rela- specified conditions may be taken from tables
tively cool water. As the firing rate is increased, or curves supplied in the manufacturer’s tech-
the amount of heat transferred to the tubes is nical manual for the boilers or from the ship’s
also increased. A greater number of tubes carry fuel performance tables. Since these two sources
the upward flow of water and steam, and fewer give different figures for the amount of oil that
tubes are left for the downward flow of water. should be burned under various conditions, it is
Without downcomers to ensure a downward flow necessary to make a clear distinction between
of water, a point would eventually be reached them. The differences, incidentally, arise from
at which the downward flow would be insufficient the fact that there are two basic approaches to
to balance the upward flow of water and steam, the problem of checking on fuel consumption.
and some tubes would become overheated and When you are concerned only with boiler per-
burn out. This condition would determine the end formance, you uSe the tables and charts from the
point for water circulation. manufacturer’s technical manual; when you are
The use of downcomers ensures that the concerned with plant performance with respect
end point for water circulation will not be reached to fuel consumption, you use the ship’s fuel
merely because the firing rate is increased. performance tables.
270
BOILER CASUALTY CONTROL may require a different sequence of steps for

control of a casualty. Also, in handling real
There are many fireroom casualties which casualties several steps will have to be per-
require a knowledge of preventive measures formed at the same time. For example, main
and corrective measures. Some are major, some control must be notified of any casualty to the
are minor; but all can be serious. In the event boilers or to associated equipment. If ‘‘Notify
of a casualty, the principal doctrine to be im- main control’’ is listed as the third step in
pressed upon operating personnel is the preven- controlling a particular casualty, does this mean
tion of additional or major casualties. Under that the main control is not notified until the
normal operating conditions, the safety of per- first two steps have been completed? Not at
sonnel and machinery should be given first all. Notifying main control is a step that can
consideration. Therefore, it is necessary to usually be taken at the same time other steps
know instantly and accurately what to do for are being taken. It is probably helpful to learn
each casualty. Stopping to find out exactly what the steps for controlling casualties in the order
must be done for each casualty could mean loss in which they are given; but do not overlook
of life, extensive damage to machinery, and even the fact that the steps may havetobe performed
complete failure of the engineering plant. A Simultaneously.
fundamental principle of engineering casualty
control is split-plant operation. The purpose of FEED WATER CASUALTIES
split-plant design is to minimize the damage
that might result from any one casualty which Casualties in the control of water level in-
affects propulsion power, steering, and elec- clude low water, high water, feed pump casual-
trical power generation, ties, loss of feed suction, andlowfeed pressure.
Although speed in controlling a casualty is These casualties are some of the most serious
essential, action should never be taken without ones.
accurate information; otherwise the casualty Low water is one of the most serious of
may be mishandled, and further damage to the all fireroom casualties. Low water may be
machinery may result. Cross-connecting and caused by failure of the feed pumps, ruptures
intact engineering plant with a partly damaged in the feed discharge line, defective check
one must be delayed until it is certain that such valves, low water in the feed tank, or other
action will not jeopardize the intact one. defects.
Cross-connecting valves are provided for However, the most frequent cause of low
the main and auxiliary steam systems and other water is inattention on the part of the checkman
engineering systems so that any boiler or group and the PO in charge of the watch, or the di-
of boilers, either forward or aft, may supply version of their attention to other duties. The
steam to each engineroom. These systems are checkman’s sole responsibility is to keep the
discussed in chapter 9 of this manual showing water in the boiler at a proper level.
the construction of the split-plant design on Low water is extremely damaging to the
some types of ships. ; boiler and may endanger the lives of fireroom
The discussion of fireroom casualties inthis personnel. When the furnace is hot and there
chapter is intended to give you an overall view is insufficient water to absorb the heat, the heat-
of how casualties should be handled. For further ing surfaces are likely to be distorted, the
‘information on casualty control, study the Naval brickwork damaged, and the boiler casing warped
Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 9880, and the by the excessive heat. In addition, serious steam
casualty control instructions issued for each and water leaks may occur as a result of low
type of ship. water.
Most of the casualties discussed in this Disappearance of the water level from the
chapter are usually treated in a step-by-step water gage glasses must be treated as a casualty
procedure, but it is beyond the scope of this requiring the immediate securing of the boiler!
chapter to give each step in handling each It should be noted that when the water level
casualty. In the step-by-step procedure one falls low enough to uncover portions of the
step is performed, then another, then another, tubes, the heat transfer surface is reduced. As
and so forth. In handling actual casualties, a rule, therefore, the steam pressure will drop.
however, this step-by-step approach will proba- Ordinarily a drop in steam pressure is the
bly have tobe modified. Different circumstances result of an increased demand for steam, and
271
the natural tendency is to cut in more burners Some of the most likely causes of failure of
to fulfill the demand. If the drop insteam pres- the main feed pump are (1) malfunction of the
sure is caused by low water, however, increas- constant-pressure pump governor, (2) and air-
ing the firing rate will result in serious damage bound or vapor-bound condition of the main
to the boiler and possibly in injury to fireroom feed pump, (3) faulty pump clearances, and (4)
personnel. The possibility that a drop in steam malfunction or improper setting of the speed-
pressure indicates low water must always be limiting governor.
kept in mind! Always check the level in the In many installations, the feed booster pump
water gage glasses before cutting in additional and the main feed pump are in the engineroom.
burners, when steam pressure has dropped for In other installations, the feed booster pump is
no apparent reason. in the engineroom but the main feed pump is in
High water is another serious casualty that the fireroom. In this latter type of installation,
is most frequently caused by the inattention of failure of the feed booster pump will be indi-
the checkman and the PO in charge ofthe watch. cated to the fireroom force by loss of main
If the water level in the gage glass goes above feed pump discharge pressure and by the sound-
the highest visible part, the boiler must be ing of the low pressure feed alarm that is
secured immediately. usually fitted where this type of machinery
By careful observation, it is sometimes pos- arrangement exists. The casualty to the feed
sible to distinguish between an empty gage glass booster pump will be dealt with by engineroom
and a full one by the presence or absence of personnel, if the pump is in the engineroom;
condensate trickling down the inside of the but fireroom personnel must take immediate
glass. The presence of condensate indicates, action to maintain a supply of feed water to the
of course, an empty glass—that is, a low water boiler.
casualty. However, the boiler must be secured If the engineroom is unable to remedy the
whether the water is high or low. After the situation immediately, start the emergency
boiler has been secured, the location of the feed pump on cold suction. The emergency
water level can be determined by using the feed pump can take a hot suction from the feed
gage glass cutout valves and drain valves. booster pump, or a cold suction from the re-
Failure of a feed system pump can have serve feed tanks. In standby condition, this
drastic consequences. Unless the pump casualty pump should always be lined up on cold suction.
is corrected immediately, the pump failure If the main feed pump fails and there is no
will lead to low water in the boiler. In addition standby pump available, start the emergency
to the obvious dangers associated with low feed pump on hot suction and continue to feed
water, there are some whichare equally serious the boiler. If the feed also fails then it will be
but not so obvious. For example, low water necessary to start the emergency feed pump on
causes complete or partial loss of steam pres- cold suction.
sure. When steam pressure is lost or greatly If the emergency feed pump fails, the pro-
reduced, you will lose the services of vital cedures for handling the casualty will vary
auxiliary machinery—pumps, blowers, and so according to the situation existing at the time
forth. It is essential, therefore, that feed pump of the failure.
casualties be handled rapidly and correctly. In many ships, the emergency feed pump is
If the main feed pump discharge pressure normally used for in-port operation, with the
is too low, the first three things to be checked main feed pump in standby condition and the
are (1) the feed booster pump discharge pres- feed booster pump providing a hot suction for
sure, (2) the level and pressure in the deaerat- the emergency feed pump. Under these condi-
ing feed tank, and (3) the feed stop and check tions, emergency feed pump failure can be
valves on idle boilers. A failure of the feed handled by notifying the engineroom So that the
booster pump will, of course, cause loss of main feed pump can be put on the line and used
suction and, therefore, loss of discharge pres- to feed the boiler.
sure of the main feed pump. [If the feed stop A more difficult problem will arise if the
and check valves on idle boilers have acciden- emergency feed pump fails when it is being used
tally been left open, the main feed pump dis- because of a previous casualty to the feed — i
charge pressure may be low merely because booster pump or to the main feed pump. Under
water has been pumped to an idle boiler, as these conditions, it may be possible to deal with
well as to the steaming boiler. the situation by cross-connecting and using a
272
pump in some other space to supply feed to the very explosive. Any oil spillage or leakage must
boiler. If the operating conditions do not allow be wiped up immediately.
this solution of the problem, it will be neces-
sary to secure the boiler immediately in order FLAREBACKS
to prevent a low water casualty.
A flareback is likely to occur whenever the
pressure in the furnace momentarily exceeds
FUEL SYSTEM CASUALTIES
the pressure in the boiler air casing. Flare-
backs are caused by an inadequate air supply
Casualties to any part of the fuel oil system for the amount of oil being supplied, or bya
are serious and must be remedied at once. delay in lighting the mixture of air and oil.
Common casualties include (1) oil in the fuel Situations which commonly lead to flare-
oil heater drains, (2) water in the fuel oil, (3) backs include: (1) attempting to light off or to
loss of fuel oil suction, (4) failure of the fuel relight burners from hot brickwork; (2) gunfire
oil service pump, and (5) fuel oil leaks. It or bombing which creates a partial vacuum at
should be noted that these casualties to the fuel the blower intake, thus reducing the air pres-
oil system are for ships burning NSFO. The sure supplied by the blowers; (3) forced draft
procedures for ships burning other types of fuel blower failure; (4) accumulation of unburned
will differ to some extent, but not in all cases. fuel oil or combustible gases in furnaces, tube
Oil leakage from the fuel oil heaters into banks, uptakes, or air casings; and (5) any
the drains may cause oil contamination of the event which first extinguishes the burners and
drain lines, the reserve feed tanks, the deaerat- then allows unburned fuel oil to spray out into
ing feed tank, and the feed system piping and the hot furnace. An example of this last situa-
pumps. The presence of oil in any part of the tion might be a temporary interruption of the
feed system is dangerous because of the possi- fuel supply which would cause the burners to
bility that the oil will eventually reach the go out; when the fuel oil supply returns to
boilers, where it will cause steaming difficulties normal, the heat of the furnace might not be
and serious damage to the boilers. sufficient to relight the burners immediately.
Fuel oil heater drains must be inspected In a few seconds, however, the fuel oil sprayed
hourly for the presence of oil. into the furnace would be vaporized, and a
The presence of an appreciable amount of flareback or even an explosion might result.
water in the fuel oil is indicated by hissing and
sputtering of the fires and atomizers and by SUPERHEATER CASUALTIES
racing of the fuel oil service pump. The situa-
tion must be remedied at once; otherwise, choked If the distant-reading superheater thermom-
atomizers, loss of fires, flarebacks, and re- eter does not register a normal increase in
fractory damage may result. temperature when the superheater is first
A loss of fuel oil suction usually indicates lighted off, the trouble may be either lack of
that the oil in the service suction tank has steam flow or failure of the distant-reading
dropped below the level of the fuel oil service thermometer. Lack of steam flow must be con-
pump suction line. This causes a mixture of Sidered as a possible cause even if the super-
air and oil to be pumped to the atomizers. The heater steam flow indicator (if installed) shows
atomizers begin to hiss and the fuel oil service that there is a flow. If the thermometer does
pump begins to race. It must be strongly em- not register a normal increase in temperature,
phasized that the loss of fuel oil suction can secure all superheater burners.
cause serious results. Related casualties may When operating with superheat, it is essen-
include loss of auxiliary steam and electric tial to keep a constant check on the flow of steam
power, with the complete loss of all electrically through the superheater and on the superheater ~
driven and steam-driven machinery. outlet temperature. Any deviation from normal
Failure of the fuel oil service pump can conditions must be corrected without delay.
cause the same progressive series of casual- It is important to remember that a casualty
| ties as those which result from loss of fuel oil to some other part of the engineering plant
suction. may reduce or entirely stop the flow of steam
Fuel oil leaks are very serious, no matter through the superheater, and so cause a super-
how small they may be. Fuel oil vapors are heater casualty, unless appropriate action is
273
taken to prevent damage. For example, a makes this casualty very serious. The particles
casualty to the main engines might call for a of glass could lodge in your eyes and blind you,
sudden large reduction or even a complete or they could lodge elsewhere in your body and
stoppage of steam flow. Even if the superheater cause serious injury. If a gage glass casualty
burners are Secured, there will still be a need occurs, throw a large sheet of asbestos cloth,
for steam flow to protect the superheater from rubber matting, or similar material over the
the heater of the furnace. Inthis event, or when- glass. Then take immediate action to secure
ever a greater flow is required than can be the gage glass.
obtained by ordinary means, lift the superheater
safety valves by hand to ensure a positive flow
PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT FIRES
of steam through the superheater.
When the superheater thermal alarm sounds,
the superheater fires must be immediately de- The following precautions must be taken to
creased to bring the temperature below alarm prevent fires:
temperature. Do not decrease the temperature
further than necessary. It is very seldom 1. Do not allow oil to accumulate in any
necessary to secure all superheater burners place. Particular care must be taken to guard
in order to bring the temperature down to the against oil accumulation in drip pans under
prescribed point, pumps, in bilges, in the furnaces, on the floor
plates, and in the bottom of air-encased boilers.
Should leakage from the oil system to the fire-
CASUALTIES TO REFRACTORIES
room occur at any time, immediate action should
be taken to shut off the oil supply by means of
If brick or plastic falls out of the furnace quick-closing valves and to stop the oil pump.
walls and goes unnoticed, burned casings may 2. Absolutely tight joints in all oil lines
result. If brick or plastic falls out of a furnace are essential to safety. Immediate steps must
wall, if practicable, secure all the burners. be taken to stop leaks whenever they are dis-
If it is not practicable to secure allthe burners, covered. Flange safety shields should be in-
secure those burners which are adjacent to the stalled on all flanges in fuel oil service lines
damaged section. NOTE: It may be necessary to prevent spraying oil on adjacent hot surfaces.
to continue operating the boiler until another 3. No lights should be permitted in the fire-
boiler can be brought in on the line. room except electric lights (fitted with steam-
tight globes, or lenses, and wire guards), and
permanently fitted smoke indicator and water
CASUALTIES TO BOILER
gage lights. If work is being done inthe vicinity
PRESSURE PARTS
of flammable vapors, or if rust-preventive com-
pound or metal-conditioning compound is being
When boiler pressure parts, such as tubes, used, all portable lights should be of the ex-
carry away or rupture, escaping steam may plosion proof type.
cause Serious injury to personnel and damage
to the boiler. It is urgent that the boiler be se-
BOILER MAINTENANCE
cured, relieved of its pressure, and cooled until
no more steam is generated. If a boiler pres-
sure part carries away or ruptures, take steps The engineer officer must keep himself fully
immediately upon discovery of the casualty, to acquainted with the general condition of each
minimize and localize the damage as much as boiler and the manner in which each is being
circumstances will allow. operated and maintained. He must satisfy him-
Gage glasses are connected to the water and self, by periodic inspections, that the exterior
steam spaces of the steam drum. If a water and interior surfaces of the boiler are clean;
gage glass carries away, the mixture of steam that the refractory linings adequately protect
and water escaping from the gage connections the casing, drums, and headers; that the integ-
may seriously burn personnel in the area. A rity of the pressure parts are being maintained;
ball check valve in the high pressure gage line and that the operating condition of the burners, |
functions when the flow is excessive. In addi- safety valves, operating instruments, and other
tion, the hazard of flying particles of glass boiler appurtenances are Satisfactory.
274
a
EEChapter 10—PROPULSION BOILERS
eee
The engineer officer must assure himself remedies applied, and the causes, if deter-
that the idle boilers are properly secured at all mined. If considered of sufficient importance,
times, and while steaming, the fuel oil used is or technical assistance is desired from the Naval
free of sea water, and the feed water is within Ship Systems Command, a copy of the corre-
prescribed limits, free of salts, entrained oxy- spondence should be forwarded to the Naval
gen, and oil. Ship Systems Command.
All parts of the boiler must be carefully The requirements for fireroom maintenance
examined whenever they are exposed for clean- and repair are established by the Planned
ing and overhauling, and the conditions observed Maintenance Subsystem; information on this
must be described in the boiler record sheet system is contained in the Maintenance and
and the engineering log. All unusual cases of Material Management (3-M) Manual, OPNAV
damage or deterioration discovered at any time 43P2 Revised edition. All fireroom maintenance
should be reported to the type commander, shall be conducted in accordance with this
stating in detail the extent of injury sustained, system.
275
CHAPTER 11
BOILER FITTINGS AND CONTROLS
The fittings, instruments, and controls used of a header-type boiler. This illustration also
on naval boilers are sufficiently numerous and shows many of the external connections. Feed
important to warrant separate discussion. The water enters through the feed inlet (A) andflows
term boiler fittings is used to describe a num- to the internal feed pipe (B). The feed pipe is
ber of attachments which are installed in or capped at one end. The horizontal part of the
closely connected to the boiler and which are feed pipe runs about 80 percent of the length of
required for the operation of the boiler. Boiler the drum, well below the normal water level.
fittings are generally divided into two classes. The feed pipe is perforated along the upper side
Internal fittings (also called internals) are those so that the feed water will be evenly distributed
installed inside the steam and water spaces of along the length of the pipe.
the boiler; external fittings are those installed The dry pipe (C) is suspended near the top
outside the steam and water spaces. Boiler of the steam drum, along the centerline of the
instruments such as pressure gages and tem- drum. Both ends of the dry pipe are closed.
perature gages are usually regarded as external Steam enters by way of perforations in the
bailer fittings. Boiler controls are special sys- upper surface of the dry pipe. Thus the steam
tems which automatically control the fuel oil, must change direction in order to enter the dry
combustion air, and feed water inputs in order pipe. Since some moisture is lost whenever
to regulate the steam output of the boiler. steam changes direction, the dry pipe acts as
a device to separate steam and moisture. Steam
INTERNAL FITTINGS leaves the dry pipe through the main steam out-
let (D) and from there goes to the superheater.
The internal fittings installed in the steam A few perforations in the bottom of the dry pipe
drum usually include equipment for distributing allow water droplets to drain back down to the
the incoming feed water, for giving surface water in the steam drum.
blows, and for directing the flow of steam and A longitudinal baffle (N) also helps to sepa-
water within the steam drum. In addition, boilers rate moisture from the steam before the steam
which do not have controlled superheat have enters the dry pipe. The baffle is installed in
desuperheaters for desuperheating steam needed such a way as to allow steam to flow to the dry
for auxiliary purposes; the desuperheater is pipe but to keep moisture (and any solid matter
most commonly installed in the steam drum, that might be carried over with the moisture)
but is installed in the water drum in some of from entering the dry pipe.
the newer boilers. Internal fittings in some The surface blow-off pipe (E) is used to re-
boilers also include equipment for injecting move grease, scum, and light solids from the
chemicals for boiler water treatment. boiler water and to reduce the Salinity of the
The specific design and arrangement of boiler water while the boiler is steaming. The
boiler internal fittings varies somewhat from surface blow-off pipe is installed near the cen-
one type of boiler (and from one boiler manu- ter of the steam drum, with the upper surface
facturer) to another. The arrangement of inter- of the pipe slightly below the normal water level
nals in several boilers is therefore described of the drum, The pipe runs almost the entire
here. length of the drum. Holes are drilled along the
Figure 11-1 illustrates atypical arrangement top centerline of the pipe. One end of the pipe
of internal fittings installed in the steam drum is blanked off. The other end is connected through
276
Chapter 11—BOILER FITTINGS AND CONTROLS
A - FEED INLET
B - FEED PIPE
C- DRY PIPE
D - MAIN STEAM OUTLET
E - SURFACE BLOW-OFF PIPE
F - SURFACE BLOW-OFF NOZZLE
G - DESUPERHEATER INLET
H - DESUPERHEATER OUTLET
J - DESUPERHEATER
K - CHEMICAL FEED INLET
L - CHEMICAL FEED PIPE
M- SWASH PLATES
N- BAFFLE
P - SAFETY VALVE NOZZLES
CROSS SECTIONAL ELEVATION
38.42
- Figure 11-1.—Arrangement of internal fittings in
header-type boiler.
the drumhead to the surface blow-off nozzle (F). the desuperheater outlet (H) before entering the
When the surface blow valve is opened, the pres- auxiliary steam line.
sure in the drum forces the water above the The chemical feed inlet (K) is connected to
blow-off pipe to go into the pipe through the the internal chemical feed pipe (L). The chemi-
holes on the top surface; the water from the cal feed pipe has holes drilled in it to allow
surface blow-off pipe then leaves the boiler by even distribution of chemicals used for boiler
way of the surface blow valve. water treatment.
The desuperheater (J) is an assembly of pipe Swash plates (M) are used to reduce the
lengths and return bends located below the water surging or swashing of water from one end of
level of the drum. The superheater steam enters the drum to the other as the ship moves. In
the desuperheater through the desuperheater addition, the swash plates act as supports for
inlet (G), gives up its superheat to the water in the internal feed pipe and for the desuperheater.
the steam drum, and then—once again at or very The safety valve nozzles (P) are not nor-
close to saturation temperature—passes through mally considered internal fittings. These nozzles
277
connect the safety valves (not shown) to the the steam enters the dry pipe. In the double-
steam drum. furnace boiler, cyclone steam Separators are
The arrangement of internal fittings ina used instead of a steam baffle. These separa-
double-furnace boiler with controlled superheat tors utilize centrifugal force to separate water
is shown in figure 11-2. Thedry pipe, the inter- and steam. There are usually 18 of these sepa-
nal feed pipe, and the surface blow line are rators installed in the steam drum of a double-
about the same as the corresponding fittings in furnace boiler; half of them are installed on one
the header-type boiler; but some of the other side of the drum and half on the other side.
fittings are different. The cyclone steam separators are attached
The double-furnace boiler has no desuper- to a manifold baffle which extends from just
heater, since auxiliary steam is taken directly forward of the generating tubes to just aft of
from the steam drum without passing first them. To avoid interference with boiler cir-
through the superheater. culation, the manifold baffle does not reach as
Swash plates are not required in the water far as the downcomers. The manifold baffle
spaces of the double-furnace boiler because this curves around inside the lower half of the steam
type of boiler is always installed with the long drum, passing just below the internal feed pipe
axis of the steam drum fore-and-aft rather than and leaving a space of about 3 inches between
athwartships. Surging of water, therefore, is the baffle and the steam drum. The baffle is
not a particular problem. attached to the drum by means of two flat bars
The double-furnace boiler does not have a which hang from the drum, one on each Side.
separate chemical feed pipe. Instead, chemicals The bars extend the full length of the baffle.
for boiler water treatment come into the steam Each bar contains ports or openings, and a
drum with the feed water and are therefore dis- cyclone steam separator is placed over each
tributed with the feed water through the holes port.
in the internal feed pipe. The general arrangement of the manifold
Perhaps the greatest difference in the inter- baffle and the cyclone steam separators may
nal fittings of the double-furnace boiler and the be seen in figure 11-2. Now let us examine
header-type boiler is in the equipment provided figure 11-3 and trace the flow of steam and
for the separation of moisture from the steam, water through the steam drum. The generating
In the header-type boiler, a steam baffle helps tubes discharge a mixture of steam and water
to separate the moisture from the steam before into the space between the manifold baffle and
the steam drum. From this space, the only
passage available for the steam and water is
through the ports which open to the cyclone
separators. As the mixture passes through the
CYCLONE SEPARATORS
separators, the steam passes upward and the
water is discharged downward.
The cyclone steam separator is shown in cut-
away view in figure 11-4 and in plain view in
NOZZLE PLATES OF figure 11-5. The mixture of steam and water
MANIFOLD BAFFLE
enters the separator through the inlet connec-
tion, at a tangent to the separator body. Because
of its angle of entrance, the mixture of steam
and water acquires a rotary motion. As the
mixture whirls around, centrifugal force sepa-
rates the water from the steam. The water,
INTERNAL FEED
PIPE being heavier, is thrown out toward the sides
of the separator. The steam, being lighter, tends
to remain near the center. An internal baffle
further helps to deflect the steam to the center
SURFACE REMOVABLE APRON PLATES
BLOW LINE OF MANIFOLD BAFFLE and the water to the outside. The steam then
rises through the center of the separator and
38.43 passes through the scrubber element. The
Figure 11-2.—Arrangement of internal fittings scrubber consists of closely spaced corrugated
in double-furnace boiler. steel plates. As the steam passes through the
278
DRY PIPE STEAM
SCRUBBER
SEPARATOR
MANIFOLD
BAFFLE
SURFACE BLOW INTERNAL FEED GENERATING

LINE PIPE TUBES
38.44
Figure 11-3.—Flow of steam and water in steam drum
of double-furnace boiler.
Scrubber, its direction is changed frequently, Figure 11-6 illustrates the arrangement of
and with each change of direction some mois- internal fittings in an older single-furnace
ture is lost. The steam passes out of the boiler. The internal fittings for this boiler are
scrubber element into the top part of the steam quite similar to those found in the double-fur-
drum and then enters the dry pipe. nace boiler, except that the single-furnace boiler
While the steam is rising, the water is fall- has a desuperheater (item 5 in fig. 11-6).
ing to the base of the separator. Stationary The internal fittings in the steam drum re-
curved vanes in the bottom of the separator quire routine maintenance and upkeep. All main-
serve to maintain the rotary motion ofthe water tenance requirements shall be conducted in
until the water is finally discharged from the accordance with the Planned Maintenance Sub-
bottom of the separator. Since the vanes are system of the 3-M System.
located around the periphery of a flat plate, the When a boiler is opened for cleaning of
water passes from the separator only around watersides, the internal fittings must be re-
the outer edge. The flat plate also serves to moved. The fittings are bolted into place; re-
keep the steam, which is in.the center of the moving the bolts allows you to remove the
separator, from being carried downward with fittings. Be sure that all bolts and tools used
the water. in removing the bolts are strictly accounted
A flat baffle plate is fitted at the base of for. When removing internal fittings, be sure to
each of the two end separators on each Side. identify them so that you will be able to rein-
This baffle plate guides the water that is being stall them correctly.
discharged from the separator to the center of After removing the fittings from the steam
the drum, where it mixes thoroughly with the drum, thoroughly wirebrush and clean them.
rest of the water in the drum. Without sucha Check the dry pipe, the internal feed line, and
baffle, the water from these end separators the surface blow line to be sure that all the
would tend to flow directly to the downcomers holes are free and clear of obstructions. In
and, since it is hotter than the rest of the water addition, inspect the inside of the feed line for
in the steam drum, it would tend to disrupt the oil accumulations; if you find any sign of oil
boiler circulation. notify the CPO in charge of the fireroom.
279
Before reinstalling the fittings, wirebrush,

clean, and hose down the steam drum. Be sure
that it is clean and free of any oil or other
accumulation.
STEAM
When replacing the fittings in the steam
SCRUBBER drum, be sure that all the bolts are drawn tight.
The desuperheater flanges must be thoroughly
cleaned before the desuperheater is fitted into
place and bolted. New gaskets must be installed.
The flanges must be drawn up evenly andtightly
to prevent any leakage from the flanged joints.
The internal fittings used in newer single-
furnance boilers differ from those used in older
boilers and also differ among themselves. Fig-
ure 11-7 shows the arrangement of fittings used
in the steam drum of a boiler on a DLG 9-15
class ship. A little study of this illustration
shows several new or different features.
To begin with, notice that there is no desu-
perheater, even though this is a single-furnace
STEAM AND WATER
FROM GENERATING
TUBES
boiler. The boiler does have a desuperheater,
but it is installed in the water drum rather than
in the steam drum.
Another interesting feature illustrated in
VANES figure 11-7 is the vortex eliminator. A vortex
eliminator consists of a series of grid-like
plates arranged in a semicircular shape tocon-
form to the shape of the lower half of the steam
38.45 drum. One vortex eliminator is located at the
Figure 11-4.—Cutaway view of cyclone steam front of the steam drum (as shown in fig. 11-7)
separator. and another is located at the rear of the drum.
In each case, the eliminator is fitted over the
necks of the downcomers. The purpose of the
vortex eliminators is to reduce the swirling
motion of the water as it enters the down-
BAFFLE STEAM
comers.
The arrangement of internal fittings in the
steam drum of a boiler on one of the newer de-
stroyer escorts is shown in figure 11-8. Notice
that there are two feed pipes, each of which runs
lengthwise in the drum. The discharge holes are
drilled along the inner side of each feed pipe so
LLLLLLL
LA Lk that the incoming feed water is discharged hori-
ASSAASSSSI
«
zontally toward the middle of the drum. Notice
also that the internals in this steam drum in-
INLET clude horizontal steam separators rather than
cyclone steam separators.
sesiyjiteaet Reve Sev A horizontal steam separator is shown in
|Pe ES
figure 11-9, These separators are installed in
WATER much the same way as the cyclone steam sepa-
CSSSSS rators—that is, one row of Separators is in-
stalled along each side inside the steam drum.
38.46 Each horizontal steam separator has a ma-
Figure 11-5.—Plan view of cyclone steam chined flange which is bolted to a matching flange
separator. attached to a girth baffle. The mixture of steam
280
2
Ss
(Ra?
END VIEW
|. DESUPERHEATER INLET . CYCLONE SEPARATORS 9. MAIN STEAM CONNECTION

2. NOZZLE PLATES OF MANIFOLD DESUPERHEATER TUBES 10. DRY PIPE
BAFFLE INTERNAL FEED PIPE ||. STEAM SCRUBBERS
3. REMOVABLE APRON PLATES FEED NOZZLE 12. SURFACE BLOW LINE
OF MANIFOLD BAFFLE STEAM SCRUBBER SUPPORT
38.47X
Figure 11-6.—Arrangement of internal fittings in older
single-furnace boiler.
and water enters the Separator througha tapered EXTERNAL FITTINGS AND CONNECTIONS
inlet section on the side nearest the shell of the
steam drum and follows a curving path along the
curve of the separator. The steam leaves External fittings and connections commonly
through the outlet orifices at each side of the used on naval boilers include drains and vents,
separator. The water, being heavier, continues Sampling connections, feed stop and check
along the curve of the separator and is dis- valves, steam stop valves, safety valves, soot
charged through drain holes in the drain baffle. blowers, blow valves, water gage glasses, re-
The knife edge on the drain baffle is there to mote water level indicators, superheater steam
minimize turbulence. A second drain baffle flow indicators, pressure and temperature
curves down below the knife edge and drains off gages, superheater temperature alarms, smoke
any water that might pass over the knife edge. indicators, oil drip detector periscopes, single-
The steam discharged from the horizontal element feed water regulators, and other devices
separators is channeled directly to the chevron that are closely connected to the boiler but not
dryers which are installed near the top of the installed in the steam and water spaces.
drum, as shown in figure 11-8. A number of Any listing of boiler external fittings and
these chevron dryers are installed along the connections tends to sound like a catalog of mis-
length of the steam drum, From the dryers, cellaneous and unrelated hardware. Actually,
the steam enters the rectangular dry box which however, all of the external fittings and con-
is fitted against the top of the steam drum. nections serve purposes that are related to
The dry box acts as achamber for the collection boiler operation. Some of the fittings and con-
of dry steam. nections allow you to control the flow of feed
The chemical feed pipe shown in figure 6-8 water and steam. Others serve as_ safety
is connected to a nozzle on the end of the drum. devices. Still others allow youto perform opera-
The chemical feed pipe and nozzle are used to tional procedures—removing soot from the fire-
inject chemicals for boiler water treatment while sides, for example, or giving surface blows—
the boiler is in operation; they are also used that are necessary for efficient functioning of the
to draw samples of boiler water for testing. boiler. The instruments attached to or installed
281
MAIN STEAM OUTLET NOZZLE
DRY PIPE
HANGER BOLT AND

BOLT ANCHOR
SCRUBBER
STEAM DRUM BAFFLE
(INTEGRAL PART OF DRUM)
cr
J} jin — SCREEN PLATE
i
[|
at CYCLONE SURFACE
STEAM
BLOW NOZZLE
SEPARATOR
SURFACE BLOW PIPE
SUPPORT BAR
BAFFLE
FRONT VORTEX
ELIMINATOR
FRONT DOWNCOMERS FRONT DOWNCOMER

(TO WATER DRUM) (TO SIDEWALL HEADER)
BAFFLE
CHEMICAL FEED PIPE
FEEDWATER PIPE
38.231
Figure 11-7.—Arrangement of internal fittings in newer
single-furnace boiler (DLG 9-15 class ship).
external fittings and connections, then, it is

near the boiler give you essential information
necessary to see how each item is related to
concerning the conditions existing inside the
boiler. To understand the purposes of the boiler operation.
282
CHEVRON DRYERS
Sa DRviBOx
=
ry HORIZONTAL STEAM
SEPARATOR
STEAM OUTLET
BAFFLES ORIFICE
Ni
ye
/
/
NP
= DESUPERHEATER
CHEMICAL FEED DESUPERHEATER INLET
38.48
Figure 11-8.—Arrangement of internal fittings
in newer single-furnace boiler (DE 1006 class
ship).
Figures 11-10, 11-11, 11-12, and11-13 show

the locations of many external fittings and con-
nections on a recent 1200-psi single-furnace
boiler. As you study the following information on
external fittings and connections, you may find it 38.49
helpful to refer to these figures to see where the Figure 11-9.—Horizontal steam separator.
various units are installed on or connected to
the boiler. Remember, however, that the illus-
trations shown here are for one particular
boiler and that differences in boiler design lead The main part of the boiler may be drained
to differences—in the type and location of ex- through the bottom blow valves (described later
ternal fittings and connections. Drawings show- in this chapter) and through water wall header
ing the location of external fittings and connec- drain valves. It is vented through the aircock,
tions are usually included in the manufacturer’s which is a high pressure globe valve! installed
_ technical manuals for the boilers on each ship. at the highest point of the steam drum. The
The maintenance of external fittings is of aircock allows air to escape when the boiler is
vital importance to the proper operation of the being filled and when steam is first forming; it
boiler. Therefore, all maintenance shall be also allows air to enter the steam drum when
conducted in accordance with the Planned the boiler is being emptied.
Maintenance Subsystem of the 3-M System. The economizer is vented through a vent
valve on the economizer inlet piping. It is
drained through a drain line from the econono-
Drains and Vents
mizer outlet header. Another drain line, this
one coming from the drain pan installed below
The main part of the boiler, the economizer,
and the superheater—in short, all the steam and
water sections of the boiler—must be provided IBasic types of valves are discussed in chapter 14 of
with drains and vents. this text.
283
ECONOMIZER REMOTE WATER

ACCESS PANELS LEVEL INDICATOR
NOZZLES
STEAM
DRUM WATER GAGE
CUTOUT
$= (==)!
STATIONARY © O Ci im
SooT "i WATER GAGE
BLOWER iy
CONNECTION
CHEMICAL © |( CED
SOOT BLOWER AIR FEED @) 7]
PRESSURIZING CONNECTION
CONNECTION at
WATER GAGE
REMOTE WATER LEVEL DRAIN
GONNEGTION
INDICATOR NOZZLES
SUPERHEATER
ACCESS PANELS
AIR PRESSURE
GAGE
CONNECTION
SOOT BLOWER ~=4—4
CONNECTIONS
FURNACE
PEEPHOLE
MECHANISM
BURNER
STATIONARY
SOOT BLOWER
CONNECTION
SALINOMETER
VALVE
BOTTOM SLIDING BOTTOM FURNACE LIGHT PERISCOPE-TYPE LIGHTING
BLOW VALVE SADDLE BLOW FLOOR UNIT PEEPHOLE OFF
CONNECTION VALVE DRAIN PORT
38. 232
Figure 11-10.—External fittings and connections on
1200-psi single-furnace boiler (front view).
284
MAIN STEAM SAFETY SUPERHEATER

OUTLET VALVES PILOT VALVE
1S] iE
STEAM GAGE CONNECTION fA Om OW ‘Sh DRUM VENT
I
SURFACE
BLOW VALVE DAMPER
eS
QD
SLIDING SADDLE BOTTOM BLOW VALVES STATIONARY SADOLE

(SIDE WATER (SIDE WATER (SIDE WATER
WALL HEADER) WALL HEADER) WATER HEADER)
38. 233
Figure 11-11.—External fittings and connections on 1200-psi single-furnace
boiler (furnace side view).
285
ECONOMIZER
VENT. CONN.
STATIONARY
ECONOMIZER ECONOMIZER SOOT BLOWER
VESTIBULE PEEPHOLE a7CONN. ail
Arson
eocm BLOWER
me: L CONN. FOR AIR FLOW
- — i MEASURING DEVICE
“a
teSOOT BLOWER HEAD
H S
ECONOMIZER
ECONOMIZER
VESTIB DEE —
VESTIBULE = Ws
AS OUTLET CONN.
CONN.FOR AIR FLOW
cS : MEASURING DEVICE
BLANK FLANGE
ete
AND BOILER TEST
CONNECTION )
ECONOMIZER DRAIN
OUTLET CONN.
MAIN FEED PIPECONN.
ACCESS PANELS
38.234
boiler (economizer side view).
286
ECONOMIZER
ACCESS PANELS
WATER GAGE
CONNECTIONS
FEED WATER
REGULATOR
CONNECTIONS
DAMPER
SUPERHEATER INTER-~
MEDIATE HEADER ASO) SUPERHEATER
oF INLET AND
OUTLET
SUPERHEATER HEADER VENT
OUTLET
fa aa
DRAIN PAN
CONNECTION
RETRACTABLE
SOOT BLOWER
SUPERHEA
INLET
RETRACTABLE Yb
SOOT BLOWER
© ©) o
Wrst IN Ow, DESUPERHEATER

4 4 INLET
nt A New ee DESUPERHEATER
LOWER REAR (0) (0) OUTLET
WATER WALL UEP RADATER STATIONARY
HEADER UPERH A
BOTTOM BLOW VALVES INTERMEDIATE SADDLE
(REAR WATER WALL Hone! DRAIN (WATER DRUM)
HEADER)
SUPERHEATER
INLET & OUTLET
HEADER DRAIN
38.235
boiler (rear view).
287
the headers, serves aS a telltale? inthe event of the temperature of the sample water down below
handhole leakage in the economizer. the boiling point at atmospheric pressure and
Superheater vents are installed at or near thus keeps the water from flashing into steam
the top of each superheater header or header as it is drawn from the higher pressure of the
section; superheater drains are installed at or boiler to the lower pressure of the fireroom.
near the bottom of each header or header sec-
tion. Thus each pass of the superheater is Feed Stop and Check Valves
vented and drained.
Superheater drains discharge through gravity Manually operated feed stop and check valves
(open-funnel) drains to the fresh water drain are installed in the feed line to each boiler.
collecting system while steam is being raised Feed stop and check valves are operated man-
in the boiler. After a specified pressure has ually, with a separate handwheel for each valve.
been reached, the superheater drains are shifted In addition, the feed check valve has remote
to discharge through steam traps’ to the high operating gear so that it can be operated from
pressure drain system. The steam traps allow the firing aisle. In normal operation, the stop
continuous drainage of the superheater without valve is kept fully open and the check valve is
excessive loss of steam or pressure. used to regulate the supply of feed water to the
Figure 11-14 illustrates diagrammatically boiler. When automatic feed water controls are
the arrangement of superheater vents and drains in use, both the feed stop valve and the feed
on a newer type of single-furnace boiler. This check valve are kept fully open so that they will
illustration also shows the superheater protec- not interfere with the automatic feeding of the
tion steam connections. Note, also, the water- boiler. (Similarly, the automatic feed regulating
drum installation of the desuperheater. valve is kept fully open when the boiler is being
fed manually through the feed check valve.
Sampling Connections The feed stop and check valves shown in
figure 11-15 are combined in one manifold cast-
It is difficult to say just where the connec- ing. Note, however, that there are two separate
tion for drawing test samples of boiler water valves. In some installations the two valves are
may be located, since this connection is found housed in separate flanged castings which are
in different places on different types of boilers. bolted together. No matter what type of instal-
On some boilers the sampling connection is lation is used, the feed stop valve is always in-
located at the rear of the water drum. On others stalled between the feed check valve and the
it comes off of the bottom blow line between
economizer inlet.
the water drum and the bottom blow valve,
either at the front of the boiler or at about the
middle of the water drum. On boilers that have Steam Stop Valves
a chemical feed pipe in the steam drum, the test
samples may be drawn through the nozzle con- Main steam stop valves are used to cut
nection of the chemical feed pipe. On some ships boilers in on the main steam line and to dis-
the surface blow line connection is used to take connect them from the line. The main steam
boiler water samples. stop valve located just after the superheater
It is also difficult to say just what the sam- outlet is usually called the main steam boiler
pling connection may be called. On some draw- stop. Figure 11-16 shows an external view of
ings it is identified as a test cock; on others a main steam boiler stop. Figure 11-17 shows
as a salinity cock; on others as a salinometer a cross-sectional view of a globe-type main
valve; and on still others as a water test sample steam boiler stop. Gate valves instead of globe
connection. valves are used as main steam boiler stops on
A sample cooler is fitted to the outlet side many newer ships.
of the sampling connection. The cooler brings
4The stop valve is a regular globe-type stop valve.

2The term telltale is frequently used in connection
The so-called "check" valve is actually a stop-check
with engineering equipment to indicate any device which
valve which functions either as a stop valve or as a
shows leakage, flow, position, or other conditions.
check valve, depending upon the position of the valve
3Steam traps are discussed in chapter 14 of this text. stem.
288
SYMBOL DESIGNATIONS
RELIEF VALVE TO BILGE
BIMETALLIC STEAM TRAP
- > Solo ees VENT VALVES
SUPERHEATER Co X R ANGLE RELIEF VALVE

PROTECTION <J SUPERHEATER SAFETY
STEAM SUPPLY a S
bad VALVE TO ATMOSPHERE
FROM b — FUNNEL
150- PS! AUXILIARY
STEAM SYSTEM AN DRUM VENT GLOBE STOP-CHECK VALVE
bat
GLOBE STOP VALVE
DESUPERHEATER
TO BILGE
V
DRAIN TO BILGE AND MAIN STEAM LINE

CONTAMINATED TANK
yY ¥Y
A A
SUPERHEATER
VENTS
SUPERHEATER
INLET
E> DESUPERHEATER
To
RAIN TO
HIGH PRESSURE
DRAINS
“st BIMETALLIC TRAP iy 4 ASE v8
;
PTO AUXILIARY
RBINE
q LE +-b4J STEAM SYSTEM

aga =]
y) —
Y V
= - A KS
X x Y Y Y Y 1Y TO AUXILIARY
A A, ras A EXHAUST SYSTEM J
= =
iv, V
TEST BLOWDOWN TEST BLOWDOWN TO BILGE AND ——TO BILGE AND BLOWDOWN DRAIN TO TO BILGE AND
LINE LINE CONTAMINATED CONTAMINATED TO BILGE HIGH PRESSURE CONTAMINATED
DRAINS DRAINS DRAINS DRAINS
TEST LINE
TO BILGE TO BILGE
147,88
Figure 11-14.—Diagrammatic arrangement of superheater
vents, drains, and protection steam connections.
|iAame
“hss
STOP VALVE
DISK
DISCHARGE
FLANGE
Sass
SS CHECK VALVE
SS DISK yr
S
NS
Tall
COLLAR ON
VALVE STEM
38.51X
Figure 11-15.—Combined feed stop and check valves.
289
Auxiliary steam stop valves are smaller than

main steam stop valves but are otherwise simi-
lar. Special turbogenerator steam stop valves
control the admission of steam to the turbo-
generator line.
Safety Valves
Each boiler is fitted with safety valves which

allow steam to escape from the boiler when the
pressure rises above specified limits. The
capacity of the safety valves installed on a
boiler must be great enough to reduce the steam
drum pressure to a specified safe point when
the boiler is being operated at maximum firing
rate with all steam stop valves completely
closed. Safety valves are installed on the steam
drum and at the superheater outlet.
Several different kinds of safety valves are
used on naval boilers, but all are designed to
open completely (pop) when a specified pressure
is reached and to
remain open until a specified
pressure drop (blowdown) has occurred. Safety
valves must close tightly, without chattering, and
must remain tightly closed after seating.
There is an important difference between
boiler safety valves and ordinary relief valves.
The amount of pressure required to lift a relief
valve increases as the valve lifts, since the
<< resistance of the spring increases inproportion
to the amount of compression. Therefore a
relief valve opens slightly at a specified pres-
38.52 sure, discharges a small amount of fluid, and
Figure 11-16.—External view of main steam closes at a pressure which is very close to the
boiler stop valve. pressure that causes it to open. Such an ar-
rangement will not do for boiler safety valves.
If the valves were Set to lift for anything close
In use, the main steam boiler stop is always to boiler pressure, the valves would be con-
either fully open or fully closed. The valve can stantly opening and closing, pounding the seats
be opened and closed manually at the valve and disks and causing early failure of the valves.
itself. In some installations, it can also be Furthermore, relief valves would not discharge
closed pneumatically at the valve. The main the large amount of steam that must be dis-
steam boiler stop canalso be operated manually, charged to bring the boiler pressure down to a
by remote control cables, from a remote oper- safe point, since the relief valves would reseat
ating station; as a rule, the valve can only be very soon after they opened.
closed (not opened) from the remote station. To overcome this difficulty, boiler safety
For manual operation, the toggle operating gear valves are designed to open completely at the
shown in figures 11-16 and 11-17 provides the specified pressure. In all types of boiler safety
mechanical advantage required for closing the valves, the initial lift of the disk is caused by
valve against boiler pressure. static pressure of the steam, just as it would
Two-valve protection for each boiler is re- be in a relief valve. But just as soon as the
quired on all ships built to U. S. Navy specifi- safety valve begins to open, a projecting lip or
cations. A second steam stop valve is there- ring of larger area is exposed for the steam
fore provided in the main steam line just beyond pressure to act upon. The increase in force
the main steam boiler stop. that results from the steam pressure acting
290
OUTLET TO
STEAM LINE
cAGP
BONNET
DIFFERENTIAL
SCREW STUFFING BOX
BUSHING
HANDWHEEL
DRAIN GONNECTIONS
38.53X
Figure 11-17.—Cross-sectional view of main steam boiler stop valve.
upon this larger area overcomes the resistance the valve will pop. The position of the adjust-
of the spring, and the valve ‘‘pops’’—that is, it ing ring determines the shape of the huddling
opens quickly and fully. Because of the larger chamber and thereby determines the amount of
area now presented, the valve cannot reseat blowdown that must occur before the valve will
until the pressure has’ become considerably reseat.
smaller than the pressure which caused the A steam drum safety valve of the nozzle
safety valve to open. reaction type is shown in figure 11-19. The
A steam drum safety valve of the huddling initial lift of the valve occurs when the static
chamber type is shown in figure 11-18. As the pressure of the steam in the drum acts upon
static pressure of the steam in the steam drum the disk insert with force sufficient to overcome
causes the valve to open, the huddling chamber the tension of the spring. As the disk insert
(which is formed by the position of the adjust- lifts, the escaping steam strikes the nozzle
ing ring) fills with steam. The steam in the ring and changes direction. The resulting force
huddling chamber builds up a static pressure of reaction causes the disk to lift higher,
that acts upon the extra area provided by the up to above 60 percent of rated capacity.
projecting lip of the feather. The resulting in- Full capacity is reached as the result of a
crease in force overcomes the resistance ofthe secondary, progressively increasing lift which
Spring, and the valve pops. After the specified occurs as an upper adjusting ring is exposed.
blowdown has occurred, the valve closes clean- The ring deflects the steam downward, and the
ly, with a slight snap. The amount of tension resulting force of reaction causes the disk to
on the spring determines the pressure at which lift still higher. Blowdown adjustment in this
291
RELEASE NUT
COMPRESSION SCREW LOCKING NUT
LEVER PIN TOP LEVER

(AR j
ye LY
TT EY
COMPRESSION hers Nz
< fa LEVER PIN
SCREW nea BN
LOCKING NUT \/ arg
Laan
DROP LEVER
TOP SPRING
WASHER
O
— SPRING
BOTTOM SPRING WASHER
al e
FEATHER GUIDE
a_i
RETAINING RING LOCKING SCREW
SSSN
Wisrtyyi SS Wy
SPINDLE
‘A thS ACTUAL LOCATION

OF RING PIN IS 90°
FEATHER GUIDE
4Uy TO THE RIGHT
WHEN FACING THE
UMMM,
CHM Mh
“OL OUTLET
FEATHER LWNWMWWMWWOWV
NS
MMWKW
RAM y= ANANANASS
HUDDLING CHAMBER RING
V LILLLLL 2p g
U; S
: &
SX|ZAKG
Z
SEAT BUSHING Y, BASE
DDB
in
SLOTS FOR
WRENCHES
98.80
Figure 11-18.—Steam drum safety valve (huddling chamber type).
type of valve is made by raising or lowering Most double-furnace boilers are fitted with
the adjusting ring and by raising or lowering a pressure-pilot operated superheater outlet
the nozzle ring. safety valve assembly of the type shown in
Safety valves are always installed at the figure 11-20. This assembly consists of three
superheater outlet as well as onthe steam drum. connected valves: a small spring-loaded safety
Superheater safety valves are set to lift just valve installed on the steam drum; an actuating
below, at, or just above the pressure whichlifts valve installed on the steam drum; and an actu-
the steam drum safety valves, in order to en- ated (or unloading) valve installed on the super-
sure an adequate flow of steam through the heater. The stem of the drum valve is connected
Superheater when the steam drum safety valves mechanically, by means of a lever, to the stem
are lifted. of the actuating valve. The actuating valve is
292
SPINDLE LOCK CLIP
DISK
COTTER PIN
ADJUSTING RING
SET SCREW
ADJUSTING RING
DISK
HOLDER
DISK INSERT NOZZLE RING
29.219
Figure 11-19.—Steam drum safety valve (nozzle reaction type).
connected by piping to the space above the disk When the drum valve is opened by steam
in the superheater actuated (or unloading) valve. drum pressure, the mechanical connection be-
The unloading valve has no spring and relies tween the drum valve and the actuating valve
solely on pressure differential for its operation. causes the actuating valve to open also. With
Normally there is a static pressure above the the actuating valve open, steam flows from the
disk of the unloading valve, since asmall orifice space above the disk of the superheater un-
(or in some designs a small clearance around loading valve, through the actuating line, through
the disk) allows some steam at superheater out- the actuating valve, to atmosphere. The sudden
let pressure to enter the space above the disk. relief of pressure above the disk of the unloading
293
ACTUATING LINE
TO
ATMOSPHERE
c=
{\
A\
LEVER E Sex
ORIFICE
DISK
TO
ATMOSPHERE SUPERHEATER
UNLOADING
DRUM ACTUATING (ACTUATED)
VALVE VALVE VALVE
98.81
Figure 11-20.—Pressure pilot-operated superheater outlet safety valve assembly.
valve causes that valve to open fully, so that attached to the spindle of the superheater safety
steam is discharged from the unloading valve valve. The superheater valve is set to pop ata
to atmosphere. pressure about 2 percent higher than the pres-
Many 1200-psi single-furnace boilers, and sure which causes the drum pilot valve to pop.
also some 600-psi single-furnace ones, are When the drum pilot valve pops, the steam pres-
equipped with Crosby two-valve superheater sure is transmitted immediately through the
outlet safety valve assemblies of the type shown pressure line to the piston, and the superheater
in figure 11-21. In an assembly of this type, valve is thus actuated. If for any reason the
both of the valves are spring loaded. The drum pilot valve should fail to open, the super-
pilot valve on the steam drum and the superheater valve would open at a slightly higher
heater valve at the superheater outlet are pressure.
connected by a pressure transmitting line that The Consolidated three-valve superheater
runs from the discharge side of the drum pilot outlet safety valve assembly shown in figure
valve to the underside of the piston that is 11-22 is used on a number of 1200-psi
294
5| SUPERHEATER
VALVE
UNLOADING LINE
ATMOSPHERE
SUPERHEATER OUTLET
SUPERHEATER
98.82
Figure 11-21.—Crosby two-valve superheater outlet safety valve assembly.
single-furnace boilers. The assembly consists When the actuating valve opens, pressure
of a pilot valve, an actuating valve, and an un- bleeds off to atmosphere. Since the space
loading valve. above the unloading valve disk is connected
The spring-loaded pilot valve is mounted on to the actuating valve, relief of pressure in
the top centerline of the steam drum. The the actuating valve also causes relief of pres-
actuating valve and the unloading valve are assure above the disk in the unloading valve.
sembled as a unit and mounted on the piping at The unloading valve therefore opens, allowing
the superheater outlet; they are connected to steam to flow from the superheater to atmos-
each other by a rocker arm. The actuating valve phere. When the pilot valve reseats, the
has a cylinder with a piston inside it. The un- actuating valve also reseats. As steam bleeds
loading valve has a piston-type disk, without through the ports to the space above the disk
a stem which is held in line by the cylinder in in the unloading valve, pressure builds up and
which it works. The unloading valve is pres- rapidly equals the pressure below the disk. The
sure loaded, not spring loaded. unloading valve closes. In summary, then, the
Steam from the superheater outlet enters superheater unloading valve always opens im-
the unloading valve cylinder and gathers around mediately after the steam drum pilot valve
the valve disk above the seat. The steam bleeds opens and closes immediately after the pilot
through small ports to the space above the valve closes.
disk. When the actuating valve is closed, the
steam above the disk of the unloading valve
Soot Blowers
cannot escape, so the pressure above the
disk equalizes with the pressure below the
disk—that is, the pressure above the disk is Soot blowers are installed on each boiler
equal to superheater outlet pressure. for the purpose of removing soot from the
The cause of safety valve lifting in this firesides while the boiler is steaming. Soot
assembly is excessive pressure in the steam blowers are used only on steaming boilers,
drum, not excessive pressure in the super- not on idle boilers. Each steaming boiler utilizes
heater. When the pilot valve on the steam drum its own steam (superheated) to supply its own
opens, pressure is transmitted from the pilot soot blowers.
valve to the cylinder of the actuating valve. The soot blowers must be used frequently,
Pressure in the actuating valve cylinder is regularly, and in proper sequence in order to
applied under the piston, causing the spring prevent the accumulation of heavy deposits of
to compress. The rocker arm moves upward soot which would interfere with heat transfer
at the end over the actuating valve and down- and which would constitute a fire hazard. The
ward at the end over the unloading valve, process of using the soot blowers is usually
thus opening the actuating valve. called “blowing tubes.”
295
MANUAL @) ACTUATING ACTUATOR

OPERATION____ LINE
LEVER it
|a1) ——__ACTUATING
Ld VALVE
cae me
es
17 77
lan a3 TO ATMOSPHERE
DRAIN
TO ATMOSPHERE eee
; SUPERHEATER
To Tone WNW
(ON STEAM DRUM)
SUPERHEATER
UNLOADING VALVE
(ON SUPERHEATER
OUTLET ELBOW )
DRUM PRESSURE SUPERHEATER OUTLET PRESSURE

104,22
Figure 11-22.—Three-valve superheater outlet safety valve assembly (Consolidated).
Before instructing fireroom personnel to One common type of soot blower is shown in
blow tubes, the engineering officer of the watch figure 11-24. The part of the soot blower that may
must obtain permission from the officer of the be seen from the outside of the boiler is called
deck. Under some conditions, tubes cannot be the head. The soot blower element, a long pipe
blown without covering the upper decks with soot; with nozzle outlets, is the part of each soot
hence the need for obtaining permission from the blower that projects into the tube banks of the
officer of the deck. boiler. The soot blower shown in figure 11-24 is
Soot blowers are installed on the boiler with operated by an endless chain; when the chain is
their nozzles projecting into the furnace between pulled, the element is rotated and superheated
the boiler tubes or adjacent to them. The soot steam is admitted through the steam valve. The
blowers are arranged so that operation in the steam discharges at high velocity from the
proper sequence will sweep the soot progres- nozzles in the elements. The nozzles direct the
sively toward the uptakes. jets of steam so that they sweep over the tubes.
The number of soot blowers installed, the The soot is thus loosened so thatit can be blown
way in which they are arranged, and the blowing out of the boiler.
arcs for each unit differ from one typeof boiler Some soot blowers are operated by turninga
to another. Figure 11-23 shows the arrangement crank or handwheel, instead of by an endless
of soot blowers used on one of the newer 1200-psi chain. On some recent ships, the soot blowersare
single-furnace boilers; one of the soot blowers operated by pushbuttons. One pushbutton ispro- |
has a blowing arc of 220° and the others have vided for each unit. Pressing the pushbutton, |
blowing arcs of 360° F, onthis particular boiler. admits air to anair motor which drives the units.
296
For the sake of efficiency and for the pro-

tection of the boiler pressure parts, it is
necessary to remove some of this solid matter
from time to time. Blow valves and blow lines
are used for this purpose.
Light solids and scum are removed from
the surface of the water in the steam drum by
means of the surface blow line—which, as we
have already seen, is an internal boiler fitting.
Heavy solids and sludge are removed by using
the bottom blow valves which are fitted to each
water drum and header. Both surface blow
valves and bottom blow valves on modern naval
boilers are globe-type stop valves.
Both the surface blow and the bottom blow
valves discharge to a system of piping called
the boiler blow piping. The boiler blow piping
system is common to all boilers in any one
fireroom. Guarding valves are installed in the
line as a protection against leakage from a
steaming boiler into the blow piping and
38.57 against leakage from the blow piping back
Figure 11-23.—Arrangement of soot blowers into a dead boiler. A guarding valve installed
on a 1200 psi single-furnace boiler. at the outboard bulkhead of the fireroom gives
protection against salt water leakage into the
Some soot blowers on some boilers are of blow piping. After passing through this guard-
the retractable type—that is, the element does ing valve, the water is discharged through an
not remain in the furnace all the time but in- overboard discharge valve (sometimes called a
stead can be retracted into a housing or shroud skin valve) which leads overboard below the
between the inner and outer casings. ship’s waterline. Figure 11-25 shows the general
The scavenging air connection shown in arrangement of boiler blow piping for one of
figure 11-24 supplies air to the soot blower the newer single-furnace boilers.
element and thus keeps combustion gases from
backing up into the soot blower head and piping. Water Gage Glasses
A hole in the outer casing allows air to enter
the other end of the scavenging air line; thus, Every boiler must be equipped with at least
scavenging air is blown through the soot blower two independent devices for showing the water
whenever the forced draft blowers are in op- level in the steam drum, and at least one of
eration. A check valve is installed in the these devices must be a water gage glass.
scavenging air piping, very near the soot blower Some boilers have more than two devices for
head; this valve closes whenever steam is ad- indicating water level. Various combinations of
_ mitted to the soot blower element. water level indicating devices are used on
naval boilers. Perhaps the most common ar-
Blow Valves rangement on older boilers is two water gage
glasses, one 10 inches long and one 18 inches
Some solid matter is always present in long. Newer boilers may have two water gage
boiler water. Most of the solid matter is glasses and one remote water level indicator
heavier than water and therefore settles in or they may have one water gage glass and
the water drums and headers. Solid matter two remote water level indicators.
that is lighter than water rises and forms a
Scum on the surface of the water in the Several types of water gage glasses are
steam drum. Since most of the solid matter used on naval boilers. The older water gage
is not carried over with the steam, the con- glasses differ in some ways from the ones
centrationof solids remaining in the boiler installed on the newer 1200-psi boilers, and
water gradually increases as the boiler steams. gages made by different manufacturers may
297
SWIVEL TUBE
PACKING:
PACKING
ELEMENT
BRACKET
PACKING
GOOSENECK
SCAVENGING AIR LINE
=e >
Er)
38.54
Figure 11-24.—External view of multi-nozzle soot blower.
vary somewhat in design details. Detailed in- The entire assembly of frame, glass strips,
formation on the water gage glasses installed and mica sheets is supported between two steel
on any particular boiler may be obtained from cover plates which are held together by studs.
the manufacturer’s technical manual. Asbestos gaskets, 1/32 inch in thickness, are
used on each side of the frame. Asbestos cush-
An older type of water gage glass is shown ions, 1/16 inch in thickness, are used between
in figure 11-26. Figure 11-27 illustrates the the cover plates and the glass strips. The ar-
construction of this gage. The frame is the rangement of cushions and gaskets is shown in
centerpiece of the assembly. Hollow stems at figure 11-27.
each end of the frame connect with the cutout The drain connection shown in figure 11-26
valves at top and bottom, thus allowing water permits the water gage to be blown down and
and steam to enter the gage. Two glass plates also permits it to be drained, The regulator
or strips, ground to flat parallel faces, are connections shown at the top and bottom of
used in each water gage. The glass strips are this gage are not found on all gages; they are
backed up by thin sheets of mica which sep- installed only on boilers which were not orignal-
arate the glass from the high temperature ly designed to use feed water regulators but
water and steam. The mica sheets serve two which were later fitted with the regulators.
purposes. First, they keep the glass from be- A more recent type of water gage glass is
coming etched by the action of the hot water shown in figure 11-28. The gage is assembled
and steam. And second, they prevent shatter- springs, as shown in the illustration. This type
ing of the glass in case of breakage. of assembly makes it unnecessary to retorque
298
SURFACE
BLOW VALVE
SUPERHEATER
GENERATING BANK
SCREEN
TUBES
BOTTOM BLOW VALVE
OVERBOARD
DISCHARGE - GUARDING
CAPPED DRAIN
OR BLOW VALVE
fans GUARDING VALVES
<<
~—— FROM OTHER BOILER
\*__— SKIN OF SHIP
38.58
Figure 11-25.—Boiler blow piping for single-furnace boiler.
the studs after the gage has warmed up. (Notice gage glass works on the simple optical prin-
the numbering of studs in figure 11-28; the ciple that a ray of light bends (or refracts) a
numbers indicate the proper sequence of tighten- different amount when it passes through steam
ing the studs when assembling the gage.) than when it passes through water.
On some boilers of recent design, a bi- Each water gage is connected to the steam
color water gage is used. Bi-color gages show drum through two cutout valves, one at the top
RED in the portion of the glass which is filled and one at the bottom. The bottom cutout valve
with steam and GREEN in the portion of the connection contains a ball-check valve. The
glass which is filled with WATER. The bi-color ball rests on a holder. As long as there is
299
REGULATOR one or more water gage glasses. However, the

CONN. water level must always be maintained as
close to the normal level as possible. As
long as the water level is visible in one gage,
you can bring the water level back to normal
by increasing or decreasing the amount of
water fed to the boiler. If the water level
cannot be seen at all, the situation must be
treated as an emergency requiring the imme-
diate securing of the boiler.
Water gages must be blown down before
the boiler is cut in on the line, at the end of
each watch, and at any time when there is the
slightest doubt about the water level in the
boiler. Frequent blowing down is necessary
because the gage connections are easily clogged
with dirt, scale, or other solid matter. Failure
to blow through the water gages could lead to
false indications of water level.
Superheater Steam Flow Indicators
Many boilers—particularly double-furnace

boilers—are equipped with superheater steam
flow indicators. Where installed, these indica-
tors must be kept in good operating condition
at alltimes. ‘The superheater outlet thermom-
REGULATOR DRAIN eters indicate temperature at the superheater
CONN : CONN outlet, not inside the superheater; and, on a
double-furnace boiler, it is possible to have no
38.59
flow through the superheater while the ther-
Figure 11-26.—Older type of water gage glass.
mometers are giving perfectly normal readings
at the outlet. In other words, there is no way to
equal pressure on each side of the ball, the
be sure a superheater is not being overheated
ball remains on its holder. But if the water gage
unless both the superheater outlet thermometers
breaks, the sudden rush of water through the
and the superheater steam flow indicator are in
bottom connection forces the ball upward onto
good working condition.
its seat and thus prevents further escape of
hot water. No check valve is installed in the Superheater steam flow indicators measure
top cutout connection. the steam pressure differential between the
Most boilers are designed to carry the nor- superheater inlet and the superheater outlet.
mal water level at the middle of the steam Since the pressure drop across the superheater
drum, and most water gages are mounted in is proportional to the rate of steam flow
such a way that the normal water level shows through the superheater, the pressure drop can
at the midpoint of the water gages or, in the be used as an indication of the rate of steam
case of staggered gages, at the midpoint be- flow. Superheater steam flow indicators are
tween the bottom of the lower gage and the usually calibrated in inches of water, Since
top of the higher gage. However, this general they measure a relatively small pressure dif-
rule does not apply to some boilers. If the ferential.
designed normal water level is NOT intended Two types of superheater steam flow indi-
to be shown at the midpoint of the water gages, cators are in common naval use. Although
the location of the normal water level should both respond to the pressure differential be-
be marked on the gages. tween the superheater inlet and the super-
The water level is considered to be within heater outlet, they differ in the mechanism by
allowable limits as long as it can be seen in which this pressure difference is measured
300
COVER PLATE
ASBESTOS CUSHION
MICA
ASBESTOS
GASKET 7
SSS
SS
COVER PLATE
38.238
Figure 11-27.—Construction of older type of water gage glass.
measured and transmitted to an indicating chamber, and steam from the superheater out-
dial. : let is led to the lower head chamber. Exposed
The Yarway superheater steam flow indi- piping connects each head chamber with the
cator responds to the difference between super- indicating unit.
heater inlet pressure and superheater outlet
pressure as these two pressures act upon The interior of the indicating unit is shown
separate columns or heads of water. The gen- in figures 11-30 and 11-31. As may be seen,
eral arrangement of the Yarway superheater the water from the upper head chamber enters
steam flow indicator is shown in figure 11-29. the indicating unit on one side of the diaphragm,
A constant water level is maintained in the and the water from the lower head chamber
two head chambers (reservoirs). Both head enters on the other side. The pressure from
chambers are in one casting, but the upper head the upper head chamber is greater than the
chamber is located slightly above the lower pressure from the lower head chamber, so the
head chamber in order to provide a slight diaphragm is movedaccordingly. The diaphragm
constant pressure differential which serves to is connected by a pin linkage to a deflection
stabilize the zero reading. Steam from the plate which moves in sensitive response to
Superheater inlet is led to the upper head the movement of the diaphragm.
301
SEE ENLARGED VIEW

FOR BELLEVILLE
SPRING ASSEMBLY ——>
COVER
STUD BOLTS ASBESTOS GASKET
GLass ———>{__] - MICA GASKET
*STAMP
ASBESTOS GASKET SS
= BRASS GASKET
7 =
CENTERPLATE
ENLARGED VIEW OF COVER

(O)
BELLEVILLE SPRING ASSEMBLY
2
5rx
(IN SETS OF SIX SPRINGS)
*PLACE THIS SIDE
9
NEXT TO WATER
KO
Y,
Figure 11-28.—Recent type of water gage glass.
A permanent horseshoe magnet is rigidly The Jerguson superheater steam flow indi-
mounted on that side of the deflection plate cator, shown schematically in figure 11-32,
which is free to move. The poles of the magnet consists of three main parts: (1) a datum
straddle a tubular well in which a spiral-shaped chamber assembly, (2) a valve manifold, and
strip armature is mounted on jeweled bearings. (3) an indicating unit.
A counterbalanced pointer is attached to the end The Jerguson indicator is essentially a
of the armature mounting shaft. mercury-filled manometer witha stainless steel
When the deflection plate moves in response float in one leg. As the pressure differential
to variations in pressure, the magnet is made between the superheater inlet and the super-
to move along the axis of the well. As the magnet heater outlet varies, the mercury level in the
moves the spiral-shaped armature rolls in order instrument changes and thereby actuates the
to keep in alignment with the magnetic field be- indicating pointer. The movement of the float
tween the poles of the magnet. Thus a rotary in the manometer is transmitted to the pointer
motion is imparted to the armature mounting on the scale by means of a magnetic coupling
shaft; and the rotation of the shaft causes the drive. The coupling consists of an internal
pointer to move. The pointer moves over a magnetic armature on the end of the float shaft
brightly illuminated vertical dial which is divided and an external yoke with magnetically energized
into green and red zones to represent safe and arms. The yoke, forming a part of the pointer
unsafe operating conditions. system, pivots on precision bearings in order
302
Remote Water Level Indicators
Remote water level indicators are used on

most ships to provide a means whereby the
CENTRAL |: boiler water level may be observed from the
OVERFLOW |' lower level of the fireroom. The two types of
remote water level indicators discussed here
are in common use on combatant ships; other
types may be found on auxiliary ships.
The Yarway remote water level indicator
consists of three parts: (1) a constant-head
chamber which is mounted on the steam drum
at or near the vertical centerline of the drum-
head; (2) a graduated indicator which is usually
mounted on an instrument panel; and (3) two
reference legs that connect the constant-head
chamber to the indicator. The reference legs
are marked A and B in figure 11-33, which
shows the general arrangement of a Yarway
remote water level indicator.
A constant water level is maintained in
leg A, since the water level in the constant-
VENT OR FILLING head chamber does not vary. The level in leg
VALVES B is free to fluctuate with changes in the
steam drum water level. The upper hemisphere
lier Shek
g
B~ yA of the constant-head chamber is connected to
the steam drum at a point above the highest
water level to be indicated; because of this
Hel x connection, boiler pressure is exerted equally
upon the water in the two legs. The variable
{( } oo wy leg B is connected to the steam drum at a point
below the water level to be indicated; because
i—o || SUPERHEATER\, Loppep- of this connection, the water level in leg Bis
— OUTLET HEATER equalized with the water level inthe steam drum.
peesPOTS INLET As may be seen in figure 11-33, each leg
“> DRAIN VALVES is connected by piping to the indicator.
indicator, the two columns of water terminate
In the
98.90 upon opposite sides of a diaphragm. The in-

dicating unit is almost identical with the in-
Figure 11-29.—General ap taasement of Yarway
dicating unit of the Yarway superheater steam
superheater steam flow indicator.
flow indicator, previously described.
The general arrangement of a Jerguson
remote water level indicator is shown in figure
to maintain alignment withthe internal armature
11-34. As may be seen, the operating prin-
- attached to the float shaft; thus the yoke pivots
ciples of this device are very Similar to the
as the armature moves up and down.
operating principles of the Jerguson steam
flow indicator, previously discussed.
The datum chamber is connected by piping
to the superheater inlet and outlet connections
Superheater Temperature Alarms
and thus provides the means for impressing dif-
ferential pressure on the instrument. As noted Superheater temperature alarms are in-
previously, the pressure difference between stalled on most boilers to warn operating per-
superheater inlet and superheater outlet is used sonnel of dangerously high temperatures in the
as a measure of the rate of steam flow through superheater. One type of superheater temper-
the superheater, ature alarm is shown in figure 11-35. The bulb,
303
VENT OR
FILLING LINES
DEFLECTION
PLATE
CALIBRATION
ADJUSTING
SCREW
ZERO DIAPHRAGM
ADJUSTING
SCREW PIN
LINKAGE
POINTER |
HUB
SEALING
PLUG MAGNET
PRESSURE FROM PRESSURE FROM

SUPERHEATER SUPERHEATER
OUTLET INLET
98.91
Figure 11-30.—Cross section of Yarway indicating unit (front view).
one for observing the combustion gases coming

the capillary tube, and the spiral-shaped Bour-
don element are filled with mercury. As the from the saturated side and the other for ob-
from the
temperature rises, the mercury expands and serving the combustion gases coming
superheater side.
causes the Bourdon tube to move so that an
attached cantilever arm is moved toward an A smoke indicator is shown in figure 11-36.
the
electric microswitch. When the temperature A light bulb is installed in a lamp unit at
of the boiler ,
reaches a predetermined point, the cantilever rear of the boiler. At the front
the lamp, is a re-
arm closes the microswitch, actuating a warn- in direct line of sight with
to a
ing light and a warning howler. flector unit which reflects the image
d mirro r. The secon d mirro r is locate d
secon
the firer oom.
Smoke Indicators so that it may be seen from
Naval boilers are fitted with smoke indi-
cators (sometimes called smoke periscopes)
Oil Drip Detector Periscopes
which permit visual observation of the gases
Some boilers are equipped with oil drip
of combustion as they pass through the up-
detector perisco pes which permit inspection
takes. Most single-furnace boilers have one
smoke indicator installed in the uptake. Double-
of the floor between the inner and outer boiler
furnace boilers have two smoke indicators, castings, to see if oil has accumulated there.
304
DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE FROM PIN LINKAGE

SUPERHEATER INLET
oD
CALIBRATION
ADJUSTING
SCREW
pee
DEFLECTION ARMATURE
POINTER PLATE
ARMATURE
WELL
ADJUSTING PRESSURE FROM “POINTER POINTER

SEALING PLUGS SCREW SU PERHEATER OUTLET HUB BALANCE
98.92
Figure 11-31.—Cross section of Yarway indicating unit
(plan view).
The oil drip detector periscope operates on much combustion air pressure are installed on the
the same principle as the smoke periscope. boiler front. As a rule, however, the indicating
units of all pressure gages are mounted on a
Pressure and Temperature Gages boiler gage board which is easily visible from
the firing aisle, Distant-reading thermometers
Boiler operation requires constant aware- are also installed with the indicating unit mounted
ness of the pressures andtemperatures existing on the boiler gage board. In some installations,
at certain locations within the boiler and in a common gage board is used for all the boilers
associated machinery and systems. Operating in one space, instead of having separate gage
personnel depend upon a variety of pressure boards for each boiler.
and temperature gages to provide them with the Most of the pressure gages used in con-
necessary information. Pressure gages are in- nection with boilers are of the Bourdon-tube
stalled on or near each boiler to indicate steam type, although some diaphragm-type gages and
drum pressure, superheater outlet pressure, some manometers are also used in the fire-
auxiliary steam pressure, auxiliary exhaust room. The temperature gauges most commonly
pressure, feed water pressure, steam pressure used in the fireroom are direct-reading liquid-
to the forced draft blowers, air pressure in the in-glass thermometers and _ distant-reading
double castings, and fuel oil pressure. Tempera- Bourdon-tube thermometers. The basic operat-
ture gages are installed to indicate superheated ing principles of these pressure andtemperature
steam temperature, desuperheated steam tem- gages are discussed in chapter 7 of this text.
perature (if the boiler has a desuperheater),
feed water temperature at the economizer inlet Single-Element Feed Water Regulators
and outlet, fuel oil temperature at the fuel oil
manifold before the boiler, and—insome ships— Single-element automatic feed water regu-
uptake temperature, lators are installed on many boilers which are
In some firerooms, the gages that indicate not equipped with complete automatic feed water
steam drum pressure, superheater outlet and combustion control systems. Single-element
pressure, superheater outlet temperature, and regulators, unlike the multi-element control
305
DATUM CHAMBER ASSEMBLY
CONDENSATE
RETURN LINES
SUPERHEATER SUPERHEATER
INLET OUTLET
BLOWDOWN
VALVE BLOWDOWN VALVE
SHUTOFF
VALVE
EQUALIZING
VALVE
MERCURY
BLEEDER
VALVE
FLOAT
MERCURY
MAGNETIC
ARMS
INDICATING UNIT
98.96
Figure 11-32.—Jerguson superheater steam flow indicator.
systems, are controlled by one variable only— Single-element regulators can control the
namely, the water level variation in the steam water level within acceptable limits under rela-
drum. Hence single-element regulators are not tively steady steaming conditions, but not under
able to compensate for swell and shrink. severe maneuvering conditions. Since complete
Single-element regulators are intended pri- reliance cannot be placed on the single-element
marily for keeping the boilers supplied with regulator, a checkman must remain on station
feed water in battle or under other conditions and be ready to take manual control if necessary
when manual feeding of the boilers might be- when the single-element regulator is in use in
come difficult or impossible. These regulators other than emergency conditions.
must be cut in immediately when General Quar- A single-element automatic feed water regu-
ters is sounded. They may also be used at lator is shown in figure 11-37. An inner tube,
enclosed by a generator, is connected to the
other times, and in fact should be used fre-
quently enough to keep them in good working boiler steam drum through valves A and B.
order and ready for use under emergency con- Thus the water level in the inner tube is depend-
ditions. ent upon the water level in the steam drum.
306
BOILER CUTOUT VALVES thus increasing the pressure on the water in

the closed regulator system and expanding the
bellows, which are normally compressed by
spring pressure. Expansion ofthe bellows opens
the feed-regulating valve in the feed line and
HIGH W.L.
allows more water to flow to the boiler. When
the water level in the steam drum rises, the
reverse process occurs and the feed-regulating
valve tends to close.
BOILER CONTROLS
Automatic boiler controls consisting of in-

dependent combustion control and feed water
control systems have been installed on a num-
ALARM BOX
CONTROL —. ber of naval ships. All indications point to an
increasing use of automatic controls, particular-
ly as boilers are designed for higher operating
pressures and temperatures. Many high pres-
sure boilers require such rapid and sensitive
response to feed water, fuel, and combustion
EQUALIZING
VALVE
air demands that the use of automatic controls
is almost a necessity.
The function of an automatic combustion con-
trol system is to maintain the fuel input and
the combustion air input tothe boiler in accord-
INDICATOR
CUTOUT VALVES ance with the demand for steam and to proportion
SETTLING POTS
WITH MAGNETS
the amount of air to the amount of fuel in such
a way as to provide maximum combustion ef-
ficiency. The feed water control system func-
tions to provide the required boiler feed and
maintain the steam drum water level at or near
VALVES -normal position (middle of the water gage glass
at all steaming rates.
98.97 An installed control system is quite often
Figure 11-33.—General arrangement of Yarway simpler in theory than one would suppose when
remote water level indicator. first viewing the complex assortment of com-
ponents and tubing. To begin with, then, let us
Cooling fins attached to the pipe that carries look at the basic principles of automatic control
water from the steam drum to the inner tube and see how they apply to a very simple control
ensure that the water in the inner tube will be system.
at a slightly lower temperature than the steam Any control system, simple or complex, must
in the inner tube. Cooling fins on the generator perform four functions. It must:
ensure that the water and steam inthe generator Measure something on the output side of a
' will be cooler than the water and steam in the process;
inner tube. For a number of reasons, the trans- Compare the measured value with the desired
fer of heat is more rapid from the steam in value;
the inner tube to the steam in the generator Compute the amount and direction of change
than it is from the water in the inner tube to required to bring the measured output value
the water in the generator. back to the desired output value;
As the water level in the steam drum drops, Correct something on the input side of the
cauSing a corresponding drop in the water level process so that the output side of the process
in the inner tube, more of the generator is ex- will be brought back to the desired value.
posed to the steam inthe inner tube. This causes Measurement, comparison, computation, and
more water in the generator to flash into steam, correction—these are the basic operations
307
DATUM COLUMN
SHUTOFF VALVE
><[-—3 To
HORIZONTAL RUN OF BOILER
AT LEAST 2 FEET
DATUM LEVEL TUBE REQUIRED
DATUM NWL MARK

COLUMN
HORIZONTAL RUN OF AT
LEAST 2 FEET
REQUIRED DATUM COLUMN
x
SHUTOFF VALVE,
BOILER LEVEL
VALVE [><J-3 TO BOILER
MANIFOLD
DIRT TRAP
DIRT TRAP
BLOWDOWN
|.DIRT TRAP BLOWDOWN
VALVE
GAGE SHUTOFF GAGE SHUTOFF VALVE

VALVE
7 EQUALIZING VALVE
SLIDE }
ADJUSTMENT!
98.98
Figure 11-34.—Jerguson remote water level indicator.
performed by a control system. Takentogether, Now let us examine a Simple automatic con-
they constitute a closed loop of action and trol system such as the one shown in figure 11-
counteraction by which some quantity or con- 39. The process being controlled is a heat
dition is measured and controlled. The closed exchange process in which steam is usedto heat
control loop is often called a feedback loop, cold water. The two inputs, steam and cold
since it requires a feedback signal from some- water, produce one output—hot water at some
thing on the output side of the process to some- desired temperature. Such a process could be
thing on the input side of the process. The closed controlled by various kinds of automatic con-
loop concept is illustrated in figure 11-38. trol systems—electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
308
Chapter 11~BOILER FITTINGS AND CONTROLS
or some combination of these. A simple pneu-

matic control system has been selected because
PIVOT POINT boiler control systems are, almost without ex-
SPIRAL ception, pneumatic.
To perform the control functions of measure-
ment, comparison, computation, and correction,
the automatic control system must have a meas-
MERCURY FILLED BULB uring means, a controlling means, and some
arrangement for comparison and computation.
CANTILEVER
MICROSWITCH ARM
The measuring means in the system shown
in figure 11-39 consists of a thermometer bulb,
a Bourdon tube, and connecting capillary tubing.
ADJUSTER FOR
SETTING ALARM A change in the controlled variable—that is, the
TEMPERATURE
temperature of the hot water—leads to a change
in the pressure transmitted to the Bourdon tube
and thus leads to a change in the position of the
61.31X Bourdon tube. Through a series of mechanical
Figure 11-35.—Superheater temperature alarm. linkages, the position of the Bourdon tube affects
BULL’S-EYE UPTAKE GLASS

LENS CASING
SSSsssssy
Sara all LINE OF SIGHT
are | ANS Sooy SR Wu ili

7
LAMP UNIT] GSSssssssog BSSSSSSssssos
+=:
aaa
ELL
LOCK
NUT
1 p
<@, ADJUSTABLE B
Z~" MIRROR =
" L
Figure 11-36.—Smoke indicator.
309
TOP SHUTOFF VALVE
GENERATOR INNER TUBE
GENERATOR
GENERATOR OUTER TUBE
COPPER TUBE END

AT GENERATOR
BOTTOM SHUTOFF
VAL VE INNER TUBE COOLING
FINS
COPPER TUBE END AT BELLOWS
BLOWDOWN VALVE
BELLOWS GUARD
HANDJACK
FEED-REGULATING VALVE
ane
es,
Thitmoslk
38.184
Figure 11-37.—Single-element feed water regulator.
the position of the vane in a nozzle-and-vane setting of the set point knob affects the position
assembly located in the transmitter. of the nozzle, the distance between the nozzle
and the vane at all times represents a compari-
A set point knob is linked in some way to
the nozzle of the nozzle-and-vane assembly, so
son of the actual measured value (Bourdon tube)
and the desired value (set point knob). The
that the setting of the set point knob affects the
distance between the tip of the nozzle and the
position of the nozzle. The set point knob is
vane is responsible for the computation of the
positioned to represent the desired temperature
amount and direction of change that must be
of the hot water output.
made in the position of the steam valve, since:
The nozzle-and-vane assembly is the com-
paring and computing device in this pneumatic (1) the rate of air flow from the nozzle de-
transmitter. Since the position of the Bourdon pends upon the distance between the nozzle and
tube affects the position of the vane and the the vane; and
310
—> — — (CLOSEDLOOP) — — — — —»— — — i
| CORRECTION THE MEASUREMENT.

=— OF INPUT PROCESS OF OUTPUT ———
|
|
|
|
'
|
|
COMPARISON OF MEASURED |
|
VALUE AND DESIRED VALUE
AND
COMPUTATION OF CORRECTION
REQUIRED TO RESTORE |
DESIRED VALUE
|
|
Noa ied.Br oeizagewry pet —— (ELOA (ees) —}$. ees = == Y
98.100
Figure 11-38.—Closed control loop.
(2) the rate of air flow from the nozzle ships, a separate combustion control compress-
determines the intensity of the pneumatic pres- ed air system, with its own air compressor, is
sure imposed upon the valve motor operator. installed for the boiler controls.
In any pneumatic boiler control system, a
If the vane and the nozzle are relatively far great many units are used to develop, transmit,
apart, a good deal of air will flow out of the and receive pneumatic ‘‘messages”’ or ‘‘sig-
nozzle and there will be relatively low air nals’’ in the form of variable air pressures.
pressure acting on the motor operator. [If the The pneumatic units are interconnected by cop-
vane and the nozzle are closer together, the flow per tubing. A typical pneumatic unit in a boiler
of air from the nozzle will be retarded and control system operates by receiving one or
higher pressure will act upon the motor oper- more pneumatic pressures from one or more
ator. The level of air pressure acting on the sources (frequently from other pneumatic units),
motor operator determines the position of the altering or combining the pressure or pressures,
steam valve, since the motor operator positions and then sending a new pneumatic pressure to
the valve in accordance with the air pressure another pneumatic unit in the system.
received from the transmitter. The motor oper- The actual mechanisms which develop, trans-
ator and the steam valve together thus form the mit, and receive pneumatic signals vary, depend-
controlling means of this system. ing upon the manufacturer and upon the function
As previously noted, practically all boiler of the units. The nozzle-and-vane assembly
control systems aboard ship are of the pneu- shown in figure 11-39 is only one of a number
matic type, depending upon compressed air for of pneumatic devices that could be used to ac-
their operation. Compressed air is used as the complish the functions of comparison and com-
controlling or balancing force for the operation pution. Bellows, escapement valves, and various
of the many pneumatic transmitters and relays other devices are used in pneumatic control
in the system and, at a higher pressure, as the systems to compare the measured value with
source of power to operate some or all of the the desired value and to compute the amount
control drives and control valves that control of correction required, Similarly, the measur-
the flow of fuel, combustion air, and feed water. ing means and the controlling means shown in
In some older ships, the compressed air supply figure 11-39 are commonly used in pneumatic
is obtained from the ship’s service compressed control systems, but they are not the only
air system, through reducing valves. In newer possible devices for such applications.
311
(CLOSED LOOP) —SS— eC
( COLD WATER INPUT

| CORRECTION | MEASUREMENT \
STEAM THERMO - |
VALVE THE HEAT EXCHANGE —_P METER BULB] HOT WATER OUTPUT —>
— (FINAL
| CONTROL
ELEMENT)
PROCESS
|
| VALVE
MOTOR NYT
VEUVELET
EGTT
ALP
|
| é CAPILLARY
|
: TUBING
COMPARISON |
|
AND 5
: |
| COMPUTATION
:
: |
| ACTUATING
| SIGNAL
NOZZLE BOURDON |
TUBE
:
PNEUMATIC
TRANSMITTER !
|
SUPPLY AIR
|
ntact ey !
,
t abae gt tfpel
$e 5ye(GL OSED LOOP) ho
Pease
gees, sel po tepee |
|ise
98.101
Figure 11-39.—Simple automatic control system for control
of heat exchange process.
The remainder of this discussion deals with pressure is the term used to describe the pneu-
Bailey boiler controls which have been installed matic signal pressure between two pneumatic
On several ships that have 1200-psi boilers. It units of the control system, except when the
should be noted that boiler control systems in- pressure is imposed upon a control valve or a
stalled in naval ships are by no means identical. control drive. Control pressure is the term used
The systems made by different manufacturers to describe the pneumatic pressure going to the
(including Bailey, General Regulator, and Hagan) diaphragm of a control valve or to the piston of
are different in many respects. Although the a control drive. For example, we would call
systems made by any one manufacturer tend to the pneumatic output of a steam pressure trans-
utilize the same kind of components, the layout mitter loading pressure because it goes to a
of the systems and the variables involved may pneumatic relay; if the pressure were imposed
vary considerably. Hence the following discus- directly upon a control drive or a control valve,
sion of Bailey boiler controls should be regarded instead of upon the intervening relay, the pres-
as an example rather than as a standard. sure would be called control pressure. Each
In Bailey boiler control systems, we must pneumatic unit in the system requires a supply
distinguish three kinds of air pressure. Loading of compressed air so that it can develop the
312
appropriate loading pressures or control pres- It is important to remember that a pneu-

sures; the air pressure supplied
for this purpose matic unit may have more than one pneumatic
is called supply pressure. Signal coming into it and that it may transmit
It is not necessary to take up the operating a penumatic signal to more than one unit. In
principles of the various pneumatic units, pro- describing the sequence of events, it is some-
vided we remember their basic function: to times necessary to ignore some signals while
develop, transmit, and receive pneumatic signals following others throughtotheir final conclusion.
in the form of variable air pressures. We should But the system functions as a whole, not as a
also have some idea of the specific functions series of isolated or separate events. This
served by the various kinds of pneumatic units means that a great many Signals are being
listed below. transmitted and received at any given time
Transmitters. In general, a transmitter may and that a number of actions are taking place
be defined as an instrument that produces a pneu- Simultaneously.
matic signal (in the form of variable air pres- Combusion Control System.—The combustion
sure) proportional to one of the basic variables control system maintains the energy input to
in the controlled process. the boiler equal to the energy output by regu-
Relays. A relay is a pneumatic device that
lating combustion air flow and fuel flow so
that the main steam line pressure is main-
receives one Or more pneumatic signals, alters
tained at 1200 psig. In other words, the con-
or combines signals in various ways, and pro-
duces an output signal which goes to one or trolled variable is steam pressure, the desired
more other pneumatic units. There are several
value is 1200 psig, and the manipulated vari-
ables are fuel flow and combustion air flow.
different kinds of relays: ratio relays, Standa-
Combustion air flow and fuel flow are read-
trols, rate relays, selective relays, andlimiting
justed in accordance with steam demand, as
relays. The specific functions of these units will
indicated by the measurement of steam flow.
become apparent later, as we trace the sequence
of events in the boiler control system. The actual measured steam flow thus provides
the system with an additional feedback signal.
Control Drives. A power unit that mechan-
There are five initial signals in the com-
ically positions valves or dampers in accord-
bustion control system: steam pressure, fuel
ance with the amount of control pressure re-
supply flow, fuel return flow, combustion air
ceived is called a control drive.
flow, and steam flow. Each of these variables
Control Valve. A control valve is a valve
used to control the flow of fluid in a line. The is measured, and pneumatic transmitters de-
control valve is positioned by a control drive velop loading pressures that correspond to the
in accordance with control pressure. In other measured values of the variables. The two fuel
words, a control valve is the final control
flow signals are combined in a fuel flow dif-
element. ferential relay, as described later; in one
Sense, therefore, it is possible to say that this
Selector Valves. A selector valve is a pneu- system has four basic signals instead of five.
matic instrument that provides selection of The combustion control system is set to
manual or automatic control of the system com- maintain the superheater outlet steam pressure
ponents that follow it. A selector valve also at 1200 psig, with variations not exceeding
provides a means for manual control of the sys- +0.25 percent of the set pressure at all steam-
tem. ing rates. Steam pressure transmitters (Cla)
Figure 11-40 shows the control relationships measure steam pressure from the superheater
in the combustion control system and the feed outlet of each of the two boilers and establish
water control system. The relationship of the output loading pressure signals that are directly
major components is illustrated schematically proportional to the measured steam pressure.
in figure 11-41. Using this schematic diagram For the range of steam pressures being meas-
as a guide, we will trace the sequence of events ured (900 to 1500 psig), the output loading pres-
in order to arrive at an understanding of the sure of the steam pressure transmitter is 3 to
basic control relationships. Notice that each unit 27 psig; for the set steam pressure of 1200 psig,
in figure 11-41 is identified by a Bailey number the steam pressure transmitter develops and
(and in some cases by a name). The numbers transmits a pneumatic loading pressure of 15
and names are given in the legend for figure psig. In other words, the loading pressure varies
11-41 and are used in the following discussion. directly with the applied steam pressure between
313
STEAM STEAM FLOW FUEL

PRESSURE BURNED
LIMITER
STEAM
FLOW
Cua ~
/ STEAM ~
FLOW — FEE
\WATER FLOW
UNBALANCE/
ee 4
98.108:.109
Figure 11-40.—Control relationships, Bailey combustion control system and
feed water control system.
the minimum and the maximum points of the to maximum. The loading pressure from each
range. of the steam flow transmitters is applied to the
steam flow selective relay (F2b). The selective
The output signal from each of the steam
relay then transmits the higher of the two load-
pressure transmitters is applied to the steam
ing pressures to the steam demand relay
pressure selective relay (Clb). The selective
(C4al).
relay selects and transmits the higher of the
The output steam demand signal from the
two signals to the steam demand relay (C4a1).
steam demand relay (C4al) passes through the
This relay is so adjusted that its output remains
boiler master selector valve (C5a). The boiler
constant when the steam pressure is constant at
master selector valve has no effect onthe signal
1200 psig.
during automatic operation. After passing
While this is going on, steam flow from each through the boiler master selector valve, the
boiler is being measured by steam flow trans- output loading pressure from the steam demand
mitters (F2). The steam flowtransmitters meas- relay is applied to the combustion air Standa-
ure the pressure drop acrossa restriction in the trol (C4b) and to the fuel limiting relay (C15).
steam line and extract the square root of this A measured combustion air flow signal is trans-
pressure drop. The output loading pressures mitted from the air flow transmitter (C3) through
from the steam flow transmitters are propor- the excess air remote adjustable relay (C9),
tional to the square root of the pressure where the signal can be manually adjusted for
drop—or, in other words, proportional to the excess air requirements for low-load steaming,
rate of flow. The output loading pressure of a maneuvering, or soot blowing. The air flow
steam flow transmitter ranges from 3 psig to signal is then applied to the combustion air
27 psig as the steam flow ranges from minimum Standatrol (C4b).
314
LEGEND FOR FIGURE 11-41,
ITEM NO. [ ITEM ITEM NO. ITEM
Claes sieay Superheater outlet pressure Cl5a.... . Bias hand relay

transmitter C15b..... Rate relay
Clb. .... . Steam pressure selective Fl..... .. Feed water flow transmitter
relay Fla... . . . Volume chamber with bleed
C2a.... .. . Supply fuel flow area meter valve
transmitter Flb, .... . Feed water flow nozzle
C2be ee es Return fuel flow area meter IY og oa0 a0 Steam flow transmitter
transmitter F2a..... . Steam flow nozzle
C2c..... . Fuel flow differential relay F2b..... . Steam flow selective relay
C3 ..... . Air flow transmitter IVA 6 oa0 6 Volume chamber with bleed
C3a..... . Volume chamber valve
C4al.... . Steam demand relay F3a. ...
. . Drum water level indicating
(CREVAG 5 4 60 Fuel flow — air flow Standatrol transmitter
C4a3.... .. Transient compensating relay WO 5 a coo Drum water level indicator
C4b. . . . . . Combustion air Standatrol F4-1... . . Steam flow — water flow dif-
C5a. ..... Boiler master selector valve ferential relay
C5b. . . . . . Blower selector valve F4-2..... Feed water Standatrol
G5 es tole, Air pushbutton (for blower) WB Os estatesee Feed water selector valve
C5b2icueys) si Air pushbutton (for blower) Gale. eomrotren Dual operator feed water flow
CSc. .... .. Fuel selector valve control valve
COPn cs, caeas Blower speed control drive FF3 ... . . Blower indicating light
C6a, .... . 3-way air trapping valve IG2...... Fuel flow —air flow indicating
C7... . ... Blower damper control drive gage
Cva..... . 3-way air trapping valve ee) 5. Gland Fuel temperature gage
So cepacine . Fuel control valve IG5-1. . . . . Steam drum pressure gage
C8awt.e. cee 3-way air trapping valve NWO 5 6 8 6 Steam drum pressure gage
C9 ...... Excess air remote adjustable IGG=1 os, oe Fuel supply pressure
relay indicator
C9a..... . Pressure gage IG6-2. . . . . Fuel return pressure
C9b. ..... Excess air bias (low range) indicator
Cl1l0a..... Fuel cutoff valve and IG6a .... . Fuel separating chamber
operator MedG Gath cs th Superheater outlet pressure gage
C13. .... . Minimum back pressure valve IG11 .... . Drum water level indicator
C15. . - . Fuel limiting relay os oo 0 0 Recorder
TORI
BOILER A
MAIN
SUPERHEATER
STEAM SUPERHEATER OUTLET FUEL
OUTLET PRESSURE PINE FUN OCS seyCVS ECONOMIZER RESERVOIRS 53 XXX XXX AK AH KKK AHH HKKKK KKK KKK KK
zy
(©) GAGE SURINGUTOFE PRESSURE DROP FROM FLOW | FROMFLOW FROM FLOW FROMOTHER & %
VALVE AND OPERATOR AIR FLOW Trew
ITEM F2a ||REMIED:
ITEM F2a TEM
ITEM Fb Six
(aoc BOM Tigr
|
Hl
TRANSMITTER —— pa EAS. ( See 7 ch BOILER
x x =
2X00, HX XXX HOR, x % % § 3 XXX SIX IG5-1 IG5-4
e----- a Sine to Reconoeei =i : : ceeeeee
x PRESSURE
YR. BC |
BURNER C3 RMeeed F218 EI Fle eg FE GAGES
BOILER A id
§ § BOILER a BLOCK
bese = t=
ie :. ‘ie ie = Ns anda ameeninane
EED WATER F IM
ca : SER WIELGY LOW TRANS Eo °° }INDICATING TRANSMITTER
Sees cay Penney
UPERHEATER |cig at METER FUEL
AREASUPPLY FLOW / 4
TRANSMITTE (ee : ava FUEL
CONTROL PRESSURE BACK
MINIMUM VALVE VOLUME { TRANSMITTERS MITTER na
PENSE t 1900005 _ _Boox VALVE CHAMBER : DRUM WATER} : |
TRANSMITTERS cry PTORECORDER
FUEL FLOW
DIFFERENTIAL
| FUEL
SUPPLY PRESSURE] | |
h ff FUEL RETURN
1 | |PRESSURE INDICATOR ee
:: F2b
REVECINDIs;
CATOR |
| (WSsSo—
‘ 1 ELECTRICAL
ro RECORDER
RI FOR BOILER A
ei
SeLECHINE
Po ea ee l= | I]
aes
CAS :
SELECTIVE 2 TORECOROER
4
© —-—3-——-—|_conNECTIONS
:
=
To
| \WATER LEVEL ALARM
---- I” RELAY ; FUEL SHAM
FLOW - AIR FLOW
BYATISOIL AUS |C5c
SELECTOR (LOW RANGE) EXCESSAIR
REMOTE $2 3 TO RELAY ees
: Si || LIGHTS,
ALARM, FLAME FAILURE
AND CONTROL
| Senet G2 VALVE coe ADJUSTABLE: § C403, BOILER A : | AIR FAILURE ALARM
TO CONTROLS RELAY PRESSURE RELAY | 5 STEAM FLOW =WATER : |
FOR BOILER AZ=> q $ :
: C5a BOILER MASTER eas :
:: SELECTOR VALVE LIMITING a ve Y
D RELAY : .
. [F4-1]wenn] Fla a
:: * TRANSIEN 2
perth eccatenednererecs esse cereresadaess ssensseeaccssasadssesecedsvieseeeeinescudsceatiseerisecteaserian mas ¢oasigneenssecacremerse : PEM Na q
VOLUME CHAMBER ?
WITHBLEED ;
5 = == Ss VALVE :
FEED WATER eT
[O00] Cl5b RATE RELAY STANDATROL IG11 DRUMWATER
FF3 LEVEL INDICATOR
BLOWER
INDICATING FEED WATER
LIGHT © SELECTOR
ROWER HON FF3.O BLOWER NO 2 VALVE SYMBOLS
COLOR KEY
SELECTOR VALVE BLOWER SEERGTOR VACME
INDICATING STEAM FLOW SIGNAL CONTROL LINE
AIR LIGHT C5b2 Féa DUAL OPERATOR STEAM PRESSURE SIGNAL
PUSH AIR PUSHBUTTON FEED WATER FLOW TOTAL STEAM DEMAND (AIR DEMAND) SIGNAL
pe CONTROL VALVE AIR FLOW SIGNAL DIRECT CONNECTION KAA ANAK AKA AK KIA K
C5b1
FUEL FLOW TO BURNERS, FROM BURNERS
ce Neon FUEL BURNED SIGNAL

FUEL DEMAND SIGNAL AIR SUPPLY CONNECTION @——
FEED WATER FLOW SIGNAL TOE
PRIMARY FEED WATER DEMAND SIGNAL SS ee
o 4
ne al WATER LEVEL SIGNAL
TOTAL FEED WATER DEMAND SIGNAL
see weeseeceseee ELECTRICAL WIRING
NO. 1 BLOWER NO. 1 BLOWER NO. 2 BLOWER NO. 2 BLOWER DAMPER

DAMPER CONTROL DRIVE SPEED CONTROL DRIVE SPEED CONTROL DRIVE CONTROL DRIVE
Figure 11-41,— Schematic diagrams of Bailey combustion and feed water control system
(Facing page 314).
Under steady boiler loads, the output of line from the burners. This control pressure
the combustion air Standatrol is steady at some from the Standatrol C4a2 positions the fuel con-
value which will maintain combustion air to the trol valve so that the required amount of fuel will
furnace at the rate required to maintain the be burned in order to maintain steam pressure at
superheater outlet steam pressure at 1200 psig. 1200 psig at the superheater outlet. Notice that
For each boiler, the combustion air demand the amount of fuel burned is controlled by limit-
signal from C4b is applied, through a bias relay ing the return flow of fuel; the supply pressure
(C15a) and a rate relay (C15b), tothe two forced in the line to the burners is fixed.
draft blower selector valves (C5b). Thus, far, we have been considering the com-
The bias relay acts to maintainthe minimum bustion control system as it operates when the
air flow demand signal at a value consistent with steam demand (steam flow from the boiler) re-
minimum blower speed and damper position. The mains constant. Now let us see what happens
rate relay acts in combination with the bias re- when there is an increase in steam demand.
lay to accelerate any changes in the input steam For simplicity, the various changes that occur
demand signal by providing an exaggerated load- are presented as a numbered list. Remember,
ing pressure. The rate relay may also be ad- however, that some changes may be occurring
justed to decrease the effects of changes in the at the same time as others.
steam demand signal. The exaggerated signal
of the rate relay is slowly returned to normal 1, Steam flow increases, so there is an
through the action of a bleed valve within the increased steam flow signal from the steam
rate relay. flow transmitters (F2) to the steam demand
Each blower selector valve (C5b) transmits relay (C4al).
a penumatic pressure through the 3-way air 2. Steam pressure drops below 1200 psig,
trapping valves (C6a and C7a) to the blower so there is a decrease in the steam pressure
speed control drive (C6) and to the blower signals from the steam pressure transmitters
damper control drive (C7). Note that the pneu- (Gia):
matic pressure transmitted by the selector valve 3. The steam demand relay (C4al) is con-
is control pressure rather than loading pressure, nected so that an increased signal from the
since it goes to a control drive. The control steam flow transmitter and a decreased signal
pressure causes the blower speed control drive from the steam pressure transmitter result in
and the blower damper control drive to be posi- an increased output loading pressure from C4al.
tioned in accordance with the demand for This increased loading pressure from C4al goes
combustion air. The blower selector valves to the combustion air Standatrol (C4b) andto the
(C5b) are provided with bias control knobs which fuel limiting relay (C15).
can be used to equalize the distribution of com- 4. The increased loading pressure from
bustion air when both blowers are in operation. C4al to the combustion air Standatrol (C4b)
The 3-way air trapping valves (C6a and C7a) causes an increase in the output loading pres-
function to close the forced draft blower dampers sure from the combustion air Standatrol; the
to their mechanical bottom stops and to reduce ultimate effect of this increase is to increase
blower speed to the minimum required for stable the control pressure to the blower damper con-
combustion, in the event of loss of control air trol drives and to the blower speed control
supply. drives. The blowers speed up and the dampers
The output from the air flow transmitter open wider. Actually, during this period in which
(C3) is also applied to the fuel limiting relay the unbalance is just beginning to be corrected,
(C15). The output of the fuel limiting relay, the blowers speed up enough to allow a temporary
representing fuel demand, is applied to the fuel ‘‘overfiring’’ rate sothat the steam pressure can
flow-air flow Standatrol (C4a2). In the fuel flow- quickly be restored to normal.
air flow Standatrol, the signal from the fuel 5. As the blowers begin to pick up speed, the
limiting relay (C15) is balanced against a signal measured air flow signal from the air flow
representing the amount of fuel burned; this transmitter (C3) to the combustion air Standa-
"fuel burned" signal comes to the fuel flow-air trol (C4b) and to the fuel limiting relay (C15)
flow Standatrol (C4a2) from the fuel flow dif- also increases.
ferential relay (C2c). The output signal of the 6. In the fuel limiting relay, the fuel de-
fuel flow-air flow Standatrol (C4a2) is applied mand signal is held back to a value which
to the fuel control valve (C8) in the return fuel corresponds to the value of the measured air
315
flow signal. Even if the steam demand signal is functioning to control the amount of feed
from C4al is higher than the measured air flow water going to the boiler.
signal from C3, the output of C15 cannot exceed There are three elements in the feed water
the air flow signal during the period in which the control system: steam flow, feed water flow, and
firing rate is increasing. boiler drum water level. The feed water flow
7. The output signal of the fuel limiting re- transmitter (Fl) and the steam flowtransmitter
lay (C15) is applied to the fuel flow-air flow (F2) act together to provide a proportioning
Standatrol (C4a2). The fuel control signal—that control—that is, to provide a flow of feed water
is, the output of the fuel flow-air flow Standa- that is proportional to the flow of steam. The
trol—begins to increase, thus closing the fuel drum water level indicating transmitter (F3a)
control valve and increasing the fuei supply to introduces a secondary signal that continuously
the burners. Since the rate of increase in fuel adjusts the position of the feed water flow con-
flow is caused by steam demand but limited by trol valve (F6a) in order to maintain the de-
the measured air flow, the system can never sired water level in the boiler steam drum.
supply too much fuel to the burners for the
The feed water flow transmitter (F1) de-
amount of combustion air being supplied.
velops a pneumatic signal that is proportional
8. As the steam pressure at the superheater
to feed water flow. This signal is applied,
outlet returns to the set pressure of 1200 psig,
through a volume chamber (Fla), to the steam
the steam pressure transmitter signal also
flow-water flow differential relay (F4-1), The
rises. Increasing signals from the steam pres-
other input to relay F4-1 is the output pressure
sure transmitters result in a decreasing loading
from the steam flow transmitter (F2). The out-
pressure from the steam demand relay (C4a1)
put pressure from F2 is applied to F4-1 through
and decreasing control signal from the com-
the transient compensating relay (C4a3); under
bustion air Standatrol (C4b) to the forced draft
conditions of steady steam demand, the output
blower and damper drives (C6 and C7, respec-
signal of C4a3 exactly duplicates the output
tively). This reduces the temporary “over-
Signal of the steam flow transmitter (F2), but
firing’’ rate previously mentioned. When the
when there is a change in steam demand the
measured air flow signal from the air flow
output signal of C4a3 is not the same as the
transmitter (C3) reaches a value which returns
output signal of F2.
the combustion air Standatrol to balance, the
output pressure of C4b stabilizes at a value The output from the steam flow-water flow
which will maintain this air flow. The output differential relay (F4-1) is applied to the feed
pressure of the fuel flow-air flow Standatrol water Standatrol (F4-2), where it is balanced
(C4a2) stabilizes in a similar way to maintain against a signal from the drum water level
the same rate of fuel flow to the burners. At indicating transmitter (F3a). When the two in-
this time, the main line steam pressure has puts to the feed water Standatrol (F4-2) are at
returned to 1200 psig and the air flow and fuel their set point values, a constant pneumatic
flow are adjusted so as to maintain this pres- output pressure is transmitted from the Standa-
sure under the new (and higher) steam demand trol through the feed water selector valve (F5)
conditions, to the feed water flow control valve (F6a). A
spring adjustment in the feed water Standatrol
When there is a decrease in steam demand, (F4-2) maintains the steam drum water level
the system functions to slow down the forced at a set height.
draft blowers, partially close the blower damp - When steam demand increases, there is a
ers, and open the fuel control valve so that the proportional increase in the loading pressure
supply of fuel to the burners will be decreased. output of the steam flow transmitter (F2) which
After seeing how the system operates when the is transmitted to the transient compensating
steam demand is constant and when the steam relay (C4a3), At the compensating relay, the
demand is increasing, it should not be too dif- signal is temporarily reversed—that is, the in-
ficult to trace the signals and events that occur put signal representing an increase in steam
when the steam demand is decreasing. flow becomes an output signal representing a
decrease in steam flow. This output signalfrom
Feed Water Control System.—While the com- C4a3 is applied to the steam flow-water flow
bustion control system is functioning to control differential relay (F4-1), which also receives
combustion air and fuel, the feed water system an input signal from the feed water flow
316
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transmitter (F1). The difference in the two water Standatrol (F4-2) and causes its output
signals put into the differential relay (F4-1) to increase, thus opening the feed water flow
causes a decreased output pressure to be control valve wider and allowing more feed
transmitted from the differential relay to the water to flow to the boiler.
feed water Standatrol (F4-2). The feed water When the feed water flow is equal to the
Standatrol therefore sends a decreased signal steam flow, and when the steam drum water
through the feed water selector valve (F5) to level has returned to normal, the system
the feed water flow control valve, causing stabilizes and the output of the feed water
the valve to begin to close. Standatrol (F4-2) stays at the higher value
Let us examine this point more closely. which will maintain the new and higher rate
The steam demand has increased but the feed of feed water flow.
water flow control valve is closing. Why? Be- A similar (but of course reversed) series
cause it is necessary to compensate for swell— of events occurs when there is a decrease in
the momentary increase in the volume of the steam demand. The first effect of the de-
water that occurs when the firing rate is increased steam demand is a wider opening of
creased. As swell occurs, the pneumatic signal the feed water flow control valve to compen-
from the drum water level indicating trans- sate for shrink—that is, the decrease in the
mitter (F3a) increases. As a result, the out- volume of the boiler water that occurs when
put pressure of the feed water Standatrol (F4-2) the firing rate is reduced. The final effect is
begins decreasing even more rapidly, closing a smaller opening of the feed water flow con-
down on the feed water flow control valve (F6a) trol valve and a reduced flow of feed water to
and further restricting the flow of feed water the boiler.
to the boiler.
As the feed water flow decreases, there is
Maintenance
a proportional drop in the pneumatic pressure
from the feed water flow transmitter. The ef-
fects of this pressure decrease are felt slowly, To ensure trouble-free operation of the
however, because of the restricting action of the control system, it is important that the sys-
bleed valve in volume chamber Fla. tem be properly maintained and calibrated at
As the steam drum water level begins to all times. Maintenance and calibration should
drop, there is a proportional decrease in the be conducted in accordance with the Planned
pneumatic pressure from the drum water level Maintenance Subsystem of the 3-M System.
indicating transmitter (F3a), At the same time, An example of maintenance actions and tests
the bleed valve in volume chamber F2c is de- to be conducted on an Automatic Control Sys-
creasing the pneumatic signal between the steam tem are shown in figure 11-42. Particular
flow transmitter (F2) and the transient compen- emphasis should also be placed on the use of
sating relay (C4a3) and increasing the pressure maintenance, repair, calibration procedures
in another chamber of the compensating relay. found in the applicable manufacturer’s technical
The effect of this bleed valve action isto balance manual. If each component is kept in a properly
the inputs to the two chambers of the compensa- maintained and adjusted condition, the need for
ting relay so that the compensating relay output a general overhaul or major recalibration of the
pressure is now equal to the pressure it is re- control system will be minimized.
ceiving from the steam flow transmitter. In NOTE: When checking the adjustments and
other words, the reversing action of the trans- calibration of any component of the control
ient compensating relay (C4a3) has been stopped, system the settings should not be changed ex-
and the compensating relay is now transmitting cept under the supervision of ‘‘QUALIFIED”’’
a pneumatic signal that is exactly the same as the maintenance personnel. It is also extremely
new (and higher) steam flow signal it receives. important, when making adjustments to the’
The increased loading pressure from the control system, that the person doing the work
transient compensating relay (C4a3), together know the effect adjustments have on the op-
with the decreased loading pressure from the eration of the entire control system. In other
feed water flow transmitter (F1), increases the words only ‘‘QUALIFIED’’ personnel should be
output pressure of the steam flow-water flow allowed to perform maintenance, repair, and
differential relay (F4-1). The increased output calibration of any automatic control system
pressure of F4-1 reverses the action of the feed components.
318
CHAPTER 12
PROPULSION STEAM TURBINES
In beginning the study of steam turbines, STEAM FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

the first point to be noted is that we have now
reached the part of the thermodynamic cycle The basic purpose of a nozzle is to con-
in which the actual conversion of thermal vert the thermal energy of the steam into
energy to.mechanical energy takes place, mechanical kinetic energy. Essentially, this is
We know by simple observation of pres- accomplished by shaping the nozzle in such a
Sures and temperatures that the steam leaving way as to cause an increase in the velocity of
a turbine has far less thermal energy than it the steam as it expands from a high pressure
had when it entered the turbine, By observa - area to a low pressure area, The nozzle also
tion, again, we know that work is performed as serves to direct the steam so that it will flow
the steam passes through the turbine, the work in the right direction to impinge upon the tur-
being evidenced by the turning of a shaft and bine blades.
the movement of the ship through the water. Within certain limitations, the velocity of
Since we know that energy can be transformed steam flow through any restricted channel such
but can be neither created nor destroyed, the as a nozzle depends upon the difference be-
decrease of thermal energy and the appearance tween the pressure at the inlet of the nozzle
of work cannot be regarded as separate events, and the pressure at the region around the out-
Rather, we must infer that thermal energy has let of the nozzle, Let us begin by assuming
been transformed into work—that is, mechanical equal pressure at inlet and outlet. No flow
energy in transition. exists in this static condition. Now, if we
maintain the pressure at the inlet side but
Disregarding such irreversible energy
gradually reduce the pressure at the outlet
losses as those caused by friction and by heat
area, the steam will begin to flow and its
flow to objects outside the system, it can be
velocity will increase as the outlet pressure
shown that two energy transformations are in-
is reduced. However, if we continue to re-
volved, First, there is the thermodynamic
duce the outlet pressure, we will reach a
process by which thermal energy is trans-
point at which the velocity of steam is equal
formed into mechanical kinetic energy as the
to the velocity of sound in steam, At this
steam flows through one or more nozzles.
point, a further reduction in pressure at the
Second, there is the mechanical process by
which mechanical kinetic energy is transformed outlet region will not produce any further in-
crease in velocity at the entrance to the noz-
into work as the steam impinges upon pro-
zle, nor will it produce any further increase
jecting blades of the turbine, thereby turning
the turbine rotor. in the rate of steam flow.
The ratio of outlet pressure to inlet pres-
In order to understand the process by which sure at which the acoustic velocity (also called
thermal energy is converted into mechanical the critical flow) is reached ‘is known as the
kinetic energy, we must have some understand- acoustic pressure ratio or the critical pres-
ing of the process that takes place as steam sure ratio. This ratio is about 0.55
for super-
flows through a nozzle. The second energy heated steam. In other words, the velocity of
transformation, from kinetic energy to work, flow through nozzles is a function of the pres-
is best understood by considering some basic sure differential across the nozzle, and steam
principles of turbine design. velocity will increase as the outlet pressure
319
PRINCIPL*S OF NAVAL ENGINEERING
decreases (in relation to the inlet pressure).

However, no further increase in steam ve-
locity will occur when the outlet pressure
is reduced below 55 percent of the inlet pres-
INLET ' OUTLET
sure. REGION ' REGION
When the pressure at the outlet area of
a nozzle is designed to be higher than the
critical pressure, a simple convergent (para-
llel-wall) nozzle may be used. In this type of 147.91
nozzle, shown in figure 12-1, the cross-sectional Figure 12-2.—Convergent-divergent nozzle.
area at the outlet is the same as the cross-
sectional area at the throat. This type of nozzle The kinetic energy of the steam jet leaving
is often referred to as a nonexpanding nozzle the nozzle may be determined by using the
because no expansion of steam takes place equation for mechanical kinetic energy:
beyond the throat of the nozzle.
_wv2
KE = 26
INLET OUTLET
REGION REGION
KE = mechanical kinetic energy, in foot-
THROAT pounds
weight of the flowing substance, in
pounds per second
147.90 |= velocity,
Figure 12-1.—Simple convergent nozzle. in feet per second
= I acceleration
aod due to gravity (32.2 feet
When the pressure at the outlet area of a
per second)
nozzle is designed to be lower than the critical
pressure, a convergent-divergent nozzle is used Since we have taken the enthalpy per pound
to control the turbulence that occurs when of the entering and departing steam, let us as-
steam expansion takes place below the critical sume 1 pound of steam per second flowing from
pressure ratio. In this type of nozzle, shown the nozzle. The kinetic energy of this pound of
in figure 12-2, the cross-sectional area of the steam will then be expressed by
nozzle gradually increases from throat to out-
let. The critical pressure is reached in the
throat of the nozzle, but the gradual expansion
from throat to outlet allows the steam to emerge
finally in a steady stream or jet. Because
expansion takes place from the throat to the where V9 is the velocity, in feet per second,
outlet, this type of nozzle is often called an of the steam leaving the nozzle. We may now
expanding nozzle. equate the expression for the decrease inthermal
The decrease in thermal energy of the energy and the expression for the increase in
steam passing through a nozzle must equal kinetic energy, Thus,
the increase in kinetic energy (disregarding
irreversible losses). The decrease in thermal v2
energy may be expressed in terms of enthalpy 2

64.4 = (hy = ho) (778) ft-lb
as
h, - ho Since 1 BTU is equal to 778 foot-pounds,

we have multiplied the expression for the de-
where crease in thermal energy by 778. This puts
both sides of the equation in terms of foot-
hy = enthalpy of the entering steam, in BTU
per pound pounds.
ho = enthalpy of the steam leaving the nozzle, The kinetic energy of the steam leaving the
in BTU per pound nozzle is directly proportional to the square of
320
Chapter 12—PROPULSION STEAM TURBINES
the velocity. By causing an increase invelocity, Vj = absolute velocity of steam at blade

therefore, the nozzle causes an increase in the entrance
kinetic energy of the steam. Thus it is clear V2 = absolute velocity of steam at blade
that our last equation has actually described exit
the purpose of a nozzle by equating the decrease Boe relative velocity of steam at blade
in thermal energy with the increase in kinetic entrance
energy. Ro = relative velocity of steam at blade
exit
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TURBINE DESIGN Vb peripheral velocity of blade
In essence, a turbine may be thought of as Let us consider, first, a theoretical elemen-

a bladed wheel or rotor that turns when a jet tary impulse turbine such as the one shown in
of steam from the nozzles impinges upon the figure 12-3. The blades of this imaginary tur-
blades. The basic parts of a turbine are the bine are merely flat vanes or plates. As the
rotor, which has blades projecting radially steam jet flows from the nozzle and impinges
from its periphery; a casing, in which the upon the vanes, the rotor is moved.
rotor revolves; and nozzles, through which Assuming that there is no friction as the
the steam is expanded and directed. As we steam flows across the blade, R1 must be
have seen, the conversion of thermal energy equal to Vy - Vp and Rg must also be equal
to mechanical kinetic energy occurs in the to Vj, - Vp, Since theoretically there is no
nozzles. The second energy conversion—that change in velocity as the steam flows across
is, the conversion of kinetic energy to work— the blade.
occurs on the blades. It will be apparent that, in order to convert
The basic distinction to be made between all of the kinetic energy into work, it would be
types of turbines has to do with the manner in necessary to design a blade from which the
which the steam causes the turbine rotor to steam would exit with zero absolute veolcity.
move. When the rotor is moved by a direct This blade would be curved in the manner
push or ‘‘impulse’”’ from the steam impinging shown in figure 12-4, and the jet of steam would
upon the blades, the turbine is said to be an enter the blade tangentially rather than at an
impulse turbine. When the rotor is moved by the angle. As we shall see, the shape of this blade
force of reaction, the turbine is said to bea very closely approximates the shape of the
reaction turbine. blades used in actual impulse turbines; in a
Although the distinction between impulse real turbine, however, the steam enters the
turbines and reaction turbines in a useful one, blade at an angle, rather than tangentially.
and one which is followed in this text, it should
not be considered as an absolute distinction in When this curved blade is used, the di-
real turbines. An impulse turbine utilizes both rection of the steam is exactly reversed. The
the impulse of the steam jet and, to a lesser relative velocity of the steam at the blade
extent, the reactive force that results when the entrance, Rj, is again Vj - Vp and Rgis
curved blades cause the steam to change di- again Vj ~ Vp. Since the direction of flow is
rection. A reaction turbine is moved primarily reversed, however, absolute velocity of the
by reactive force, but some motion of the rotor steam at blade exit is now
is caused by the impact of the steam against
the blades.
Vara ae ip)
Theory of Impulse Turbines
a NG = 2Vp
In discussing the manner in which kinetic

energy is converted to work on the turbine As previously noted, the absolute velocity
blades, it is necessary to consider both the of the departing steam (V9) should ideally be
absolute velocity of the steam and the relative zero. Therefore, by transposition of the above
velocity of the steam—that is, its velocity equation,
relative to the moving blades. The following
symbols will be used in the remainder of this
discussion:
321
In other words, maximum work is obtained from Vy cos a, the resultant velocity may be
from a reversing blade when the blade velocity expressed as
is exactly one-half the absolute velocity of the
steam at the blade entrance.” The maximum Wl cos a- Vg cosc
amount of work obtainable from a reversing
blade is twice the amount obtainable from the or, alternatively, as
flat vane shown in figure 12-3.
In actual turbines, it is not feasible to Ry cos b+ Ro cosd
utilize the complete reversal of steam in the
blades, since to do so would require that the Assuming a steam flow of W pounds per
nozzle be placed in a position that would also second,
be swept by the blades—an obvious impos-
Wisse
sibility. Furthermore, if the steam entered ec = mass per second ;
the blade tangentially it would not be carried }
}
through the turbine axially (longitudinally). How- and
ever, it is only the tangential component of the
steam velocity that produces work on the tur- WwW
73 V=
— rece
fore
bine blades; hence the nozzle angle is made as
small as possible.
As we know, the work done onthe blade must Therefore, the force on the blade is
equal the total energy entering minus the total
energy leaving. The velocity diagram for an = (Rj cos b+ Rg cos d) pounds
impulse turbine shown in figure 12-5 provides
a way of determining the work done on the
=a (V} cosa - Vp cos c) pounds
blade in terms of the various velocities and
angles.
The tangential component (which is the only Work is force through distance. There-
component that produces work) of the velocity fore, the rate of doing work on the blade is
of the entering steam is
Wk, = FpVb
Vj cosa
WR, ae b+Ro cos d) Vp foot-pounds
which is also equal to
8 per second
Vp + Ri cos b
5 yw, cos a- Vy cos c) Vp foot-
pounds per second
The tangential component of the velocity of
the departing steam is
NOZZLE vy Vp
Vo cos c oo
STEAM JET
which is also equal to
Vp - Rg cos d
Since entering and leaving velocities are

opposed to each other if V9 cos cis in the same
direction as Vj cos a, and supplementary to
each other if Vp cosc is inthe opposite direction
I this statement assumes, of course, that the nozzle

is tangential to the blades. In actual impulse turbines,
the maximum amount of work is done when the blade
speed is one-half the cosine of the nozzle angle times 147,92
the absolute velocity of the entering steam. Figure 12-3.—Elementary impulse turbine.
322
Chapter 12— PROPULSION STEAM TURBINES
The rate of doing work on the blade may “discovered”? by Newton, it is interesting to
also be derived from consideration of the note that the first reaction turbine—and, in-
thermal energy and kinetic energy entering deed, perhaps the first steam engine of any
the system and leaving the system. Although kind ever made—was developed by the Greek
the actual derivations are not given here, it mathematician Hero about 2000 years ago,
may be of interest to note the relationships This turbine, shown in figure 12-8, consisted
expressed in the following equations: of a hollow sphere which carried four bent
nozzles. The sphere was free to rotate on the
2 2 tubes that carried steam from the boiler, be-
W(Vy - Vo) low, to the sphere. As the steam flowed out
Wk = W (hi - hg) + 50, 000
Btu per second

and
Wk,=_ WR
2
a R?) a RY WV - v3)
50, 000
Btu per second

Saas
The pressure and velocity changes that oc-

cur in the nozzle and in the blades of an impulse
turbine are shown in figure 12-6. As may be
seen, the pressure is the same at the entrance
and at the exit of the blade; the only pressure
drop occurs in the nozzle. Figure 12-7 shows
a section of an impulse turbine rotor, with the
blades in place.
147.94
Theory of Reaction Turbines Figure 12-5.—Velocity diagram for impulse
blading.
Reaction turbines, as their name implies, through the nozzles, the sphere rotated rapidly
are moved by reactive force rather than by a in a direction opposite to the direction of steam
direct push or impulse. Although we com- flow. Atm ae
monly think of reactive force as having been Reaction turbines used in modern times
utilize the reactive force of the steam in quite
a different way. In a modern reaction turbine,
NOZZLE there are no nozzles as such, Instead, the blades
that project radially from the periphery of the
rotor are formed and mounted in such a way
that the spaces between the blades have, in cross
section, the shape of nozzles.2 Since these
2The distinction between actual nozzles and the blading

which serves the purpose of nozzles in reaction tur-
bines is mechanical rather than functional. The pre-
vious discussion of steam flow through nozzles ap-
plies equally well to steam flow through the
147.93 nozzle-shaped spaces between the blades of reaction
Figure 12-4.—Curved impulse blade. turbines.
323
blades are mounted on the revolving rotor, thermal energy is converted into mechanical
they are called moving blades. kinetic energy in the blading of a reaction
Fixed or stationary blades of the same shape turbine. The second required energy transfor-
as the moving blades are fastened to the casing mation—that is, from kinetic energy to work—
in which the rotor revolves; these fixed blades also occurs in the blading. A velocity diagram
are installed between successive rows of the such as was used to analyze the work done on
moving blades. The fixed blades guide the impulse blading may be similarly used to analyze
steam into the moving blade system and, since the work done on reaction blading; however, the
they are also shaped and mounted in such a angles and velocities are different in the two
way as to provide nozzle-shaped spaces be- types of blading.
tween the blades, the fixed blades also act as Since the velocity of the steam is increased
nozzles. The general arrangement of the fixed in the expansion through the moving blades, the
and moving blades, together with the pressure initial velocity of the entering steam (V1) must
and absolute velocity relationships in a reaction be lower in a reaction turbine than it would be
turbine, are shown in figure 12-9. Figure 12-10 in an impulse turbine with the same blade speed
shows a section of a reaction turbine rotor with (Vp); or, alternatively, the reaction turbine must
one row of moving blades and one row of fixed run at a higher speed than a comparable im-
blades. pulse turbine in order to operate at approxi-
A reaction turbine is moved by three main mately the same efficiency.
forces: (1) the reactive force produced on the
TURBINE CLASSIFICATION
moving blades as the steam increases in veloc-
ity as it expands through the nozzle-shaped As we have seen, turbines are divided into
spaces between the blades; (2) the reactive two general groups or classes—impulse turbines
force produced on the moving blades when the and reaction turbines—according to the way in
steam changes direction; and (3) the push or which the steam causes the rotor to move.
“impulse’’ of the steam impinging upon the Turbines may be further classified according
blades. Thus, as previously noted, a reaction to (1) the manner of staging and compounding,
turbine is moved primarily by reactive force and (2) the mode of steam flow through the
but also to some extent by direct impulse. turbine.
From what we have already learned about
the function of nozzles, it will be apparent that Staging and Compounding
Thus far in this chapter, we have more or

less assumed that an impulse turbine had one
set of nozzles and one row of blading on the
PRESSURE rotor, and that a reaction turbine had one row
of fixed blades and one row of moving blades.
In reality, however, propulsion steam turbines
are not this simple. Instead, they use several
ABSOLUTE rows of blading, arranged in variouS ways.
VELOCITY It has been shown that the amount of ther-
mal energy which can be utilized in a turbine
depends upon the relationship between the veloc-
ity of the entering steam (Vj) and the blade
Speed (Vp). It might seem reasonable, there-
fore, to think that the work output of the tur-
bine could only be increased by increasing
Vi and Vp in the proper ratio. However,
BLADES
mechanical considerations and problems con-
cerning strength of materials impose certain
limits on blade speed. In modern naval ships,
the amount of available energy per pound of
38.76X steam is so great that there is no practicable
Figure 12-6.—Nozzle position and pressure- way of utilizing the major portion of it in one
velocity relationships in an impulse turbine. row of blades. When several rows of blades are
324
147,95X
Figure 12-7.—Section of impulse turbine rotor
(with blades).
139.23
used, the steam passes through one row after Figure 12-8.—Hero’s steam turbine.
another, and each row uses part of the energy
of the steam. important difference: a reaction stage includes
two pressure drops, whereas an impulse stage
IMPULSE STAGE.—In an impulse turbine, a includes only one.
stage is defined as one set of nozzles and the
succeeding row or rows of moving and fixed VELOCITY-COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TUR-
blades. Since the only place a pressure drop BINE.—One way of increasing the efficiency of
occurs in an impulse turbine is in the nozzles, an impulse turbine is by velocity-compounding—
another way of defining an impulse stage is to that is, by adding one or more rows of moving
say that it includes the nozzles and blading in blades to the rotor.3 Figure 12-12 shows
which only one pressure drop takes place. A an impulse turbine that has two rows of moving
- Simple impulse stage is often called a Rateau blades on the rotor. This type of turbine is
stage. Turbines consisting of a single Rateau called velocity-compounded because the residual
stage (fig. 12-11) are not used as propulsion velocity of the steam leaving the first row of
turbines but are frequently used to drive small moving blades is utilized in the second row of
auxiliary units, moving blades. If a third row is added, the
velocity of the steam leaving the second row
REACTION STAGE.—In reaction turbines, is utilized in the third row. The fixed blades,
one row of fixed blades and its succeeding row
of moving blades are taken as constituting one
stage. Since the fixed blades in a reaction 3 Velocity-compounding can also be achieved when only
one row of moving blades is used, provided the steam
turbine are comparable to the nozzles in an is directed in such a way that it passes through the
impulse turbine, this definition of a reaction blades more than once, This point is discussed in
stage may Seem very similar to the definition more detail in chapter 16 of this text, in connection
of an impulse stage. However, there is this with helical-flow auxiliary turbines.
325
FIXED
BLADES
FIXED BLADES
ENTERING
STEAM
PRESSURE
VELOCITY
38.77.2X
Figure 12-9.—Arrangement of fixed and moving
blades and pressure-velocity relationships in
a reaction turbine.
which are fastened to the casing rather than ROTOR

to the rotor, serve to direct the steam from
one row of moving blades to another. MOVING BLADES
As may be seen in figure 12-12, the velocity-
compounded impulse turbine has only one pres- 38.771X
sure drop and therefore, by definition, only Figure 12-10.—Section of reaction turbine rotor,
one stage. This type of velocity-compounded showing fixed and moving blades.
impulse stage is usually called a Curtis stage.
compounded (Rateau) stages is generally re-
PRESSURE-COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TUR- ferred to as a pressure-velocity-compounded
BINE.—Another way to increase the efficiency impulse turbine. Turbines of this type are
of an impulse turbine is to arrange twoor more commonly used in the propulsion plants of
Simple impulse stages in one casing. The casing naval ships.
is internally divided by nozzle diaphragms. The
steam leaving the first stage is expanded again PRESSURE - COMPOUNDED REACTION
through the first nozzle diaphragm, to the sec- TURBINE.—Because the ideal blade speed ina
ond stage; from the second nozzle diaphragm, reaction turbine is so high in relation to the
to the third stage; and so on. This type of tur- velocity of the entering steam (V1), all reaction
bine is known as a pressure-compounded tur- turbines are pressure-compounded—that is, they
bine because a pressure drop occurs in each are so arranged that the pressure drop from
stage. Figure 12-13 shows a pressure-com- inlet to exhaust is divided into many steps by
pounded impulse turbine with four stages. A means of alternate rows of fixed and moving
pressure-compounded impulse turbine is fre- blades. The pressure drop in each set of
quently called a Rateau turbine, since it is es- fixed and moving blades (i.e., in each stage) is
sentially a series of simple impulse (Rateau) therefore small, thus causing a lowered steam
stages arranged in sequence in one casing. velocity in all stages and consequentlya lowered
ideal blade velocity for the turbine as a whole.
PRESSURE-VELOCITY-COMPOUNDED IM-
PULSE TURBINE.—An impulse turbine which COMBINATION IMPULSE AND REACTION
consists of one velocity-compounded (Curtis) TURBINE.—A combination impulse and reaction
stage followed by a _ series of pressure- turbine employs a velocity- compounded impulse
Chapter 12—-PROPULSION STEAM TURBINES
(Curtis) stage at the high pressure end of the

turbine, followed by impulse staging and then
by reaction blading. The impulse blading effects
large pressure and temperature drops in the
beginning, with a high initial utilization of
thermal energy. The reaction blading is more
efficient at the low pressure end of the turbine.
Hence the combination impulse and reaction
turbine is a highly efficient machine that utilizes HOLE
the advantages of both impulse and reaction
blading. Combination impulse and reaction tur-
bines are very commonly used as propulsion
turbines.
Mode of Steam Flow
Turbines may be further classified accord- 38.78X

ing to the manner in which steam flows through Figure 12-11.—Simple impulse turbine
the turbine. The three aspects of steam flow (Rateau stage).
considered here are (1) the direction of flow,
(2) the repetition of flow, and (3) the division of passes through the blades only once, the turbine
flow. is called a single-entry turbine. All multistage
turbines are of the single-entry type.
DIRECTION OF STEAM FLOW.—The di- Re-entry turbines are those in which the
rection of steam flow through a turbine may be steam passes more than once through the blades.
axial, radial, or helical. In general, the direc- Re-entry turbines are used todrive some pumps
tion of flow is determined by the relative posi- and forced draft blowers, but are not used as
tions of nozzles, diaphragms, moving blades, propulsion units.
and fixed blades.
Most turbines are of the axial flow type—that DIVISION OF STEAM FLOW.—Turbines are
is, the steam flows in a direction approximately classified as single-flow or double-flow, depend-
parallel to the long axis of the turbine shaft. ing upon whether the steam flows in one direc-
As we have seen, the blades in an axial-flow tion or two. In a single-flow turbine, the steam
turbine project outward from the periphery of enters at the inlet or throttle end, flows once
the rotor. through the blading in a more or less axial
In a radial-flow turbine, the blades are direction, and emerges at the exhaust end of
mounted on the side of the rotor near the the turbine. A double-flow turbine consists
periphery. The steam enters in such a way essentially of two single-flow units mounted on
that it flows radially toward the long axis of one shaft, in the same casing. The steam enters
the shaft. Radial flow is not used for propul- at the center, between the two units, and flows
' sion turbines, but is used for some auxiliary from the center toward each end of the shaft.
turbines. The main advantages of the double-flow arrange-
In a helical-flow turbine, the steam enters ment are (1) the blades can be shorter than
at a tangent to the periphery of the rotor and they would have to be in a single-flow turbine
impinges upon the moving blades. The blades of equal capacity, and (2) axial thrust is avoided
are shaped in such a way that the direction of by having the steam flow in opposite directions.
steam flow is reversed in each blade. Helical This second point applies primarily to reaction
flow is not used for propulsion turbines, but is turbines, since impulse turbines develop rela-
used for some auxiliary turbines. tively little axial thrust in any case.
The turbines shown in figures 12-11, 12-12,
REPETITION OF STEAM FLOW.—Turbines and 12-13 are single-flow turbines. A double-
are classified as single-entry turbines or re- flow reaction turbine of the type used asthe low
entry turbines, depending on the number of pressure turbine in some propulsion plants is
times the steam enters the blades. If the steam shown in figure 12-14.
327
arrangement results in minimum Stresses in

the I-beam over the complete range of turbine
expansion. The fixed end of the turbine is aft,
so the motion resulting from expansion cannot
be transmitted to the reduction gears, where
distortion and serious damage would occur if
the after end of the turbine were free to move.
Steam lines connected to the turbines are
curved, as shown in figure 12-15, to allow for
expansion of the steam line and avoid un-
acceptable strains on turbine casings that could
cause distortion or misalignment.
Turbine Casings
Casings for propulsion turbines are divided

horizontally to permit access for inspection and
38.79X repair. Flanged joints on casings are accurately
Figure 12-12.—Velocity-compounded impulse machined to make a steamtight metal-to-metal
turbine (one Curtis stage). fit, and the flanges are bolted together. Some
high pressure turbine casings are also split
TURBINE COMPONENTS vertically to facilitate manufacture, particularly
AND ACCESSORIES when different alloys are used for the high
temperature inlet end andthe lower temperature
Propulsion turbine components and acces- exhaust end. However, these vertical joints are
sories include foundations, casings, nozzles (or never unbolted and they are usually seal welded.
the equivalent stationary blading), nozzle dia- Each casing has a steam chest to receive the
phragms, rotors, blades, bearings, shaft glands, incoming steam and deliver it to the first-stage
gland seals, oil seal rings, dummy pistons and nozzles or blades. An exhaust chamber receives
cylinders (on some reaction turbines), flexible the steam from the last row of moving blades
couplings, reduction gears, lubrication systems, and delivers it to the exhaust connection. Open-
and turning gears. ings in the casing include drain connections,
steam bypass connections, and openings for
Turbine Foundations
pressure gages, thermometers, and relief
Foundations for propulsion turbines are built valves.
up from strength members of the hull so as to
provide a rigid supporting base. The after end Nozzles
of the turbine is secured rigidly to the struc-
tural foundation, The forward end of the turbine As previously discussed, the function of a
is secured in such a way as to allow a slight nozzle is to convert the thermal energy of the
freedom of axial movement which allows the steam into mechanical kinetic energy. Its sec-
turbine to expand and contract slightly with ondary function is to direct the steam to the
temperature changes. turbine blades. Some turbines have a full are
The freedom of movement at the forward admission of steam; in this case, the first
end is accomplished by one of the two methods. stage nozzles extend around the entire circle
Elongated bolt holes or grooved sliding seats of the first row of blades. Other turbines have
may be used to permit the forward end to slide partial arc admission; in this case, only a
Slightly fore-and-aft, as expansions and con- section of the blade circle is covered by the
traction occur. Or the forward end may be nozzles. In general, the arrangement of nozzles
secured to a deep flexible I-beam (fig. 12-15) in any turbine depends upon the range of power
installed with its longitudinal axis lying athwart- requirements and upon a number of design
ship. When the turbine is cold, this I-beam is factors.
deflected slightly aft from the vertical position. A nozzle is essentially an opening or a
When the turbine is operating at maximum passageway for the steam. When we speak
power, the I-beam is deflected forward. This of nozzle construction or arrangement,
328
therefore, we are actually concerned with the the valves open in succession, depending upon
construction or arrangement of the nozzle their stem length—the shorter ones open first,
blocks in which the openings occur. In most then the longer ones.
modern turbines, the nozzle blocks are ar-
ranged so that the nozzle openings occur in Nozzle Diaphragms
groups, with each group being controlled by
Nozzle diaphragms are installed as part of
a separate nozzle control valve. The quantity
each stage of a pressure-compounded impulse
of steam delivered to the first stage of the
turbine. The diaphragm serves to hold the
turbine is thus a function of the number of
nozzles of the stage. Figure 12-17 shows a
nozzles in use and the pressure differential
typical nozzle diaphragm. The nozzle walls are
across the nozzles.
machined, ground, and polished. The nozzles are
On some auxiliary ships, hand controlled
fitted into a steel plate inner ring. An outer
nozzle valves are used in conjunction with a
ring fits over the outside of the nozzles. The
throttle valve to admit steam to the turbine.
entire assembly is then welded together. In
Any throttling of the inlet steam will reduce
order to seal against steam leakage, labyrinth
efficiency. To avoid throttling losses, allnozzle
packing (discussed later in this chapter) is
control valves in use are opened fully before
used between the inner bore of the diaphragm
any additional valve is opened. Minor variations
and the rotor.
in speed within any one nozzle control valve
combination are taken care of by the throttle.
Turbine Rotors
On modern combatant ships, the nozzle con-
trol valve arrangement shown in figure 12-16 The turbine rotor carries the moving blades
is employed. The throttle valve is omitted and which receive the steam. Insome older turbines,
steam enters the turbine through nozzle con- the rotors were forged separately, machined,
trol valves. Speed control is effected by vary- shrunk or pressed onto the shaft, and keyed to
ing the number of nozzle valves that are opened. the shaft. In most modern turbines, particularly
The variation in the number of nozzle valves large ones such as those used for ship pro-
is accomplished through the operation of a pulsion, the rotors are forged integrally with
lifting beam mechanism, The lifting beam mech- the shaft. Figure 12-18 shows an integrally
anism consists of a steel beam drilled with forged turbine rotor to which the blades have
holes which fit over the nozzle valve stems. not yet been attached.
The valve stems are of varying lengths and
Turbine Blades
are fitted with shoulders at the upper ends.
When the beam is lowered, all valves rest The purpose and function of turbine blading
upon their seats. When the beam is raised, has already been discussed. At this point, it is
merely necessary to note that the moving blades
are fastened securely and rigidly to the turbine
rotor. Figure 12-19 shows several ways of
fastening blades to the turbine rotor wheels.
Turbine Bearings
Turbine rotors are supported and kept in
position by bearings.4 The bearings which
serve to maintain the correct radial clearance
between the rotor and the casing are called
radial bearings. Those which serve to limit
s
SQ
N
the axial (longitudinal) movement of the rotor
are called thrust bearings.
Propulsion turbines have one radial bearing
on each end of the rotor. These bearings are of
the type generally known as journal bearings or
sleeve bearings. The two metallic surfaces are
38.80X
Figure 12-13.—Pressure-compounded
impulse turbine (Rateau turbine). 4 Bearings are discussed in chapter 5 of this text.
329
ASTERN STEAM INLET AHEAD STEAM FROM ASTERN STEAM INLET

HP. TURBINE
CARBON
NOZZLE PACKING
BLOCK
Figure 12-14.—Double-flow reaction turbine.
separated only by a fluid film of oil. The Carbon packing is suitable only for relatively
effectiveness of oil-film lubrication depends low pressures and temperatures. When both
upon a number of factors, including properties types of packing are used in one gland, there-
of the lubricant (cohesion, adhesion, viscosity, fore, as shown in figure 12-20, the labyrinth
temperature, etc.) and the clearances, align- packing is used at the initial high pressure
ment, and surface condition of the bearing and area and the carbon packing is used at the
the journal. Except for the momentary metal- lower pressure area. Since most modern ships
to-metal contact when the turbine is started, utilize relatively high pressures and tempera-
the metallic surfaces of the bearing and the tures, most modern propulsion turbines are
journal are constantly separated by a thin film only labyrinth packing.
of oil. Labyrinth packing consists of rows of me-
As previously noted, impulse turbines do not, tallic strips or fins. These strips are fastened
in theory, develop end thrust. In reality, how- to the gland liner in such a way as to make a
ever, a Small amount of end thrust is developed very small clearance between the strips andthe
which must be absorbed in some way. Kingsbury shaft. As the steam from the turbine leaks
or pivoted-shoe thrust bearings are usually used through the small spaces between the packing
on propulsion turbines. strips and the shaft, the steam pressure is
gradually reduced.
Shaft Glands Where carbon packing rings are used, they
restrict the passage of steam along the shaft
Shaft glands are used to minimize steam in much the same manner as do the laby-
leakage from the turbine casing (or air leakage rinth packing strips. Carbon packing rings are
into the casing) at the points where the shaft mounted around the shaft and are held in place
extends through the casing. Two types of packing, by springs. As a rule, three or four carbon
carbon packing and labyrinth packing, are used rings are used in each gland; each ring is
in shaft glands. fitted into a separate compartment of the gland
housing.
Gland Sealing Systems
> Lubricants and the oil-film theory of lubrication are On propulsion turbines, the shaft gland
discussed in chapter 6 of this text. packing is not sufficient to entirely stop the
330
of the steam leaking through the shaft gland

packing may be slightly higher than the pressure
of the gland sealing steam. When this situation
prevails, it causes a reversal in the direction
CURVED STEAM LINE of flow of the gland sealing steam. At such
times, the gland seal line is closed and the
TURBINE excess steam is led through gland leak-off
connections to a later stage of the turbine, to
the gland exhaust condenser, or to other glands
to be used as gland seal steam. In the illustra-
tion (fig. 12-20) the excess steam leaking past
the labyrinth packing is being led back into the
eighth and twelfth stages of the high pressure
turbine.
Dummy Pistons and Cylinders
The steam passing through a multistage im-

pulse turbine does not impart any appreciable
FORWARD axial thrust to the rotor, since the pressure
<I —S drop actually takes place in the nozzles.8 Ina
reaction turbine, however, considerable axial
47.12X thrust does result from the drop in steam pres-
Figure 12-15.— Foundation for propulsion sure, Since a pressure drop occurs in the
turbine. moving blades as well as in the stationary
blades.
In single-flow reaction turbines, this axial
flow of steam out of the turbine or to entirely thrust is partially counterbalanced by the use of
prevent the flow of air into the turbine. For a dummy piston and cylinder arrangement such
this reason, gland sealing steam® is brought as that shown in figure 12-21. Space ‘‘A’’ sur-
into the shaft gland in the manner shown in rounds the inlet area of the turbine rotor and
figure 12-20. In this illustration, the gland seal- is connected by an equalizing pipe to space ‘‘B’’
ing steam enters a space between the labyrinth which surrounds the outlet area of the rotor.
packing and the carbon packing. In more recent The shoulder on the rotor, shown in figure 12-
installations, the sealing steam enters between 21, is under full inlet steam pressure, while
the segments of the labyrinth packing. The the corresponding area on the other side of the
sealing steam enters at a pressure of about 2 dummy piston is under exhaust pressure. This
psig (17 psia). This pressure is, of course, difference in pressure causes a thrust toward
slightly greater than the atmospheric pressure the high pressure end of the turbine which
in the engineroom. partially counterbalances the thrust in the op-
When the pressure of the gland sealing steam posite direction caused by the pressure drop
is greater than the pressure inside the turbine through the turbine.
casing, the sealing steam flows both into the Dummy pistons and cylinders are not re-
casing and into a_line leading to the gland ex- quired in double-flow reaction turbines, since
haust condenser,’ excluding all air from the the axial thrust caused by the pressure differ-
turbine in the process. When a high pressure ential across one-half of the turbine is counter-
turbine is operating at high speed, the pressure balanced by the equal and opposite axial thrust
in the other half of the turbine.
SGiand seal and gland exhaust systems are dis-

cussed in chapter 9 of this text. 8 ie ,
An equalizing hole drilled axially through each rotor
‘The gland exhaust condenser is discussed in chapter wheel also helps to minimize thrust in an impulse
13 of this text. turbine.
331
IS NY
NZ
uur
ary
WW
RN
I
FH
Zz ite
| Y iStat!
\ \
RATSEQERN GOK
mmsYt
a
v hop
y
147.96
Figure 12-16.—Arrangement of nozzle control valves.
Flexible Couplings
Propulsion turbine shafts are connected to

the reduction gears by flexible couplings which
are designed to take care of very slight mis-
alignment between the two units. Flexible cou-
plings are discussed in chapter 5 of this text.
Reduction Gears
Reduction gears for propulsion turbine in-

stallations are described and illustrated in
chapter 5 of this text. At this point, it is im-
portant merely tonote that turbines must operate
at relatively high speeds for maximum efficiency,
while propellers must operate at lower speeds
96.19 for maximum efficiency. Reduction gears are
Figure 12-17.—Nozzle diaphragm. used to allow both turbine and propeller to
332
Chapter 12—-PROPULSION STEAM TURBINES
Main lubricating oil systems are discussed in

chapter 9 of this text; the theory of lubrication
is discussed in chapter 6.
Turning Gears
All geared turbine installations are equipped

Lh MU with a motor-driven jacking or turning gear.
The unit is used for turning the turbine during
warming-up and securing periods so that the
turbine rotor will heat and cool evenly. The
rotor of a hot turbine, or one that is in the
process of being warmed up, will become bowed
47,15X and distorted if left stationary for even a few
Figure 12-18.—Integrally forged turbine rotor minutes. The turning gear is also used for
(without blades). turning the turbine in order to bring the reduc-
tion gear teeth into view for routine inspection
and for making the required daily jacking of the
main turbines. The turning gear is mounted on
top of and at the after end of the reduction gear
casing, as shown in figure 12-22. The brake
shown in figure 12-22 is used when it is neces-
sary to lock the shaft after the shaft has been
stopped.
STEAM TURBINE PROPULSION PLANTS
The two principal types of steam turbine

propulsion plants now in use on naval ships are
the geared turbine drive and the turboelectric
drive. Direct drive installations, once in com-
mon use, are now practically obsolete; however,
it is possible that an occasional application for
direct drive could again develop in the future.
INVERTED PINE TREE STRADDLE-TEE
CIRCUMFERENTIAL DOVETAIL
CLASSIFICATION OF PROPULSION
DOVETAIL
TURBINE UNITS
147.97
Figure 12-19.—Methods. of fastening blades to Naval propulsion turbines are classified as
turbine rotor wheels. Class A, Class B, and Class C turbines accord-
ing to the type ship for which they are designed.
operate. within their most efficient rpm Class A turbines are designed for use in sub-
ranges. marines. Class B turbines are designed foruse
in amphibious warfare ships, surface combatant
Lubrication Systems ships, mine warfare ships, and patrol ships.
Class C turbines are designed for uSe in auxil-
Proper lubrication is essential for the opera- iary ships.
tion of any rotating machinery. In particular, Naval propulsion turbines are alsoclassified
the bearings and the reduction gears of turbine according to design features. The six major
installations must be well lubricated at alltimes. types are:
1. Type I (single-casing unit).—The TypeI

Reduction .gears are not used in ships having turbo- propulsion unit consists of one or more ahead
electric drive. In these ships, speed reduction is elements, each contained in a separate casing
accomplished electrically. and identified as a single-casing turbine. Each
333
—L9
47,19X
Figure 12-20,—Turbine gland.
EXHAUST
SQ SSs
INLET
N DUMMY
N EQUALIZIN Ry CYLINDER
\ PIPE SSSC pummy
| Wy y YS)
SPACE "BQ
{
47.5X
Figure 12-21.—Dummy piston and cylinder arrangement.
turbine delivers approximately equal power toa and LP elements are contained in a separate |
reduction gear. casing and are commonly known as the HP and |
Type II-A (straight-through unit).—The LP turbines, respectively. The HP and LP tur- ‘
Type II-A propulsion unit is a two element bines deliver power toa single shaft througha |
straight-through unit, and consists of two ahead gear train and are coupled separately to the
elements, known as a high pressure (HP) ele- reduction gear. Steam is admitted to the HP
ment and a low pressure (LP) element. The HP turbine and flows straight through the turbine
334
CENTER OF WORM
GEAR AND PINION
ENGAGING
LEVER
BRAKE HANDLE
BRAKE LOCK SCREW
47.35
Figure 12-22.—After end of main reduction gear, showing
turning gear and propeller locking mechanism.
axially without bypassing any stages (there is some installations have the valves separate, but
partial bypassing of the first row of blades at bolted directly to the casing, with suitable con-
high power), and then is exhausted to the LP necting piping between the first-stage shell and
turbine through a crossover pipe. valve to the bypass belt.
3. Type II-B (EXTERNAL bypass unit).—The 5. Type III (series-parallel unit).—The Type
Type II-B propulsion unit is similar to the Type III propulsion unit consists of three ahead ele-
II-A, except that provision is made for bypass- ments, known as the HP element, intermediate
ing of steam around the first stage or first pressure (IP) element, and LP element. The
several stages of the HP turbine at powers above HP and IP elements are combined in a Single
the most economical point of operation. Bypass casing, and known as the HP-IP turbine. Steam
valves are located inthe HP turbine steam chest, is admitted to the HP-IP turbine and exhausted
with the nozzle control valves. to the LP turbine through a crossover pipe.
4. Type II-C (INTERNAL bypass unit).—The For powers up to the most economical point of
Type II-C is similar to the Type II-A, except operation, only the HP element receives inlet
that provision is made for bypassing steam from steam, with the IP element being supplied in
the first-stage shell around the next several (one series with steam from the HP element ex-
or more) stages of the HP turbine at powers haust. At powers above this point of operation,
above the most economical point of operation. both elements receive inlet steam in a manner
Bypass valves and steam connections are usually similar to that in a double-flow turbine. During
integral with the HP turbine casing; however, ahead operation no ahead blading is bypassed.
335
Series-parallel units are being used on some of reaction turbine. In some ships, double-flow
the more recent naval combatant vessels, such pressure-compounded impulse turbines are used
as DEs, DDs, and CVAs. as low pressure turbines.
6. Type IV (cruising geared and vented A typical cruising turbine is shown in figure
unit).—The Type IV propulsion unit consists of 12-28. This is an eight-stage impulse turbine.
a crusing element, HP element, and LP element— The first stage is a velocity-compounded (Cur-
each contained in a separate casing. The cruis- tis) stage; the remaining seven stages are pres-
ing turbine is connected in tandem through a sure-compounded (Rateau) states. The turbine
cruising reduction gear to the forward end of is therefore a pressure-velocity-compounded
the HP turbine. The cruising turbine contributes impulse turbine.
power to the propeller shaft for powers up to Unlike the geared turbine propulsion plants,
the most economical point of operation, and for the turboelectric drive installations have a single
higher powers it is idled in a partial vacuum turbine unit for each shaft. Figure 12-29 shows
and supplied with cooling steam to prevent over- the general arrangement of a turboelectric pro-
heating. For cruising power, steam is admitted pulsion unit. As may be seen, the plant includes
to the cruising turbine and then exhausted tothe a turbine, a main generator, apropulsion motor,
HP turbine inlet, and thence from the HP tur- a direct-current generator for supplying excita-
bine exhaust into the LP turbine througha cross- tion current to the generator and the propulsion
over pipe. The arrangement of the HP and LP motor, and a propulsion control board.
turbine is identical to the Type II units, It is Although the speed reduction is brought about
possible to disconnect the cruising turbine to al- electrically, rather than by the use of reduction
low for repair. Once disconnected, the HP tur- gears, the speed reduction ratio between turbine
bine may be placed in service. and propeller in the turboelectric drive is ap-
All of these six types of propelling units con- proximately the same as it is in the geared
tain an astern element for backing or reversing. turbine drive.
An astern element is located in each end of a One of the outstanding differences between
double flow LP turbine casing or canbe in either the geared turbine drive and the turboelectric
end of each single-casing turbine or single flow drive is that the turboelectric drive does not
LP turbine. have an astern element. In the turboelectric
Figure 12-23 illustrates the flow of steam drive, the direction of rotation of the propulsion
in a Type IV propulsion unit when the cruising motor controls the direction of rotation of the
turbine is in use; figure 12-24 illustrates the propeller. Hence there is no need to reverse
flow of steam at higher rates of operation. turbine rotation for astern operation.
Astern elements in noncombatant ships are
usually velocity-compounded impulse stages PLANT OPERATION
(Curtis stages) mounted in the exhaust end of
the ahead turbine. Astern elements in com- Operating a ship’s propulsion plant requires
batant ships are velocity-compounded (Curtis) sound administrative procedures and the coop-
stages installed at each end of the low pressure eration of all engineering departmental person-
turbine, Each astern element has its own steam nel. The reliability and the economical operation
inlet but the admission of steam to both ele- of the plant is vital to the ship’s operational
ments is controlled by one astern throttle. The readiness.
astern elements exhaust through the low pres- A ship must be capable of performing any
sure turbine exhaust chamber to the condenser. duty for which it was designed. A ship is con-
Figure 12-25 illustrates the flow of steam for sidered reliable when it meets all scheduled
astern operation in a Type IV propulsion unit. operations and is in a position to accept un-
Figure 12-26 illustrates a typical highpres- scheduled tasks. In order to do this, the ship’s
sure turbine. This turbine has one velocity- machinery must be kept in good condition so
compounded impulse stage followed by eleven that the various units will operate as designed.
pressure-compounded impulse stages; hence it In order to obtain economy, the engineering
is a pressure-velocity-compounded impulse plant, while meeting prescribed requirements,
turbine. must be operated so as to use a minimum
A low pressure double-flow turbine is shown amount of fuel. The fuel performance ratios
in figure 12-27. Note the astern elements. are good overall indications of the condition
This particular lowpressure turbine is a straight of the engineering plant and the efficiency of
336
T BS
Bl ASTERN
VALVE
!
'
HIGH AHEAD
PRESSURE eee oH |p VALVE
VALVES '
i)
1
STRAINER
>
—
ll
U
(Ea
Fs }—r
=
ASTERN
VALVE
CRUISING
VALVES /
FY CRUISING
TURBINE
TILTING
| CHECK
| VALV STOP-CHECK
VALVE
ORIFICE
[==] HIGH PRESSURE STEAM

VZZZZA \NTERMEDIATE PRESSURE STEAM
BERS Low PRESSURE STEAM
5 Exnaust sTeAM
147.98
Figure 12-23.—Flow of steam in Type IV propulsion
unit (cruising turbine in use).
the operating personnel. The fuel performance on the Monthly Summary, is a general indica-
ratio is the ratio of the amount of fuel oil used tion of the ship’s readiness to operate eco-
as compared to the amount of fuel oil allowed nomically and within established standards. In
for a certain speed or steaming condition. determining the economy of a ship’s engineer-
The fuel performance ratio, which is reported ing plant, the same consideration is given to
337
al ASTERN
VALVE
1
HIGH Lf] AHEAD

PRESSURE ae. ——— | VALVE
VALVES
STRAINER
aa a
(_
7
=
ASTERN
VALVE
HIGH PRESSURE
TURBINE °6 S CRUISING 0°"
52,8. TURBINE °°©
piclebobonenereroicies
ob oo
po 0 STOP-CHECK
VALVE
[X=] HIGH PRESSURE STEAM

PRSSEERY Low PRESSURE STEAM
=] Exnaust steam
Odcco| COOLING STEAM
147.99
unit (cruising turbine not in use).
the amount of water used on board ship. Water The increase or decrease in a ship’s fuel
consumption is computed in (1) gallons of make- economy depends largely on the operation of
up feed per mile under way, (2) gallons of make- each unit of machinery; economical operation
up feed per hour at anchor, and (3) gallons of further depends on personnel understanding the
potable water per man per day. function of each unit and knowing how units are
338
A
a ASTERN
VALVE
HIGH AHEAD
PRESSURE le eng
oH
ae |q VALVE
VALVES
STRAINER
ASTERN
VALVE
CRUISING
VALVES
HIGH PRESSURE
TURBINE CRUISING
TURBINE
STOP-CHEGK
VALVE
ORIFIGE
HIGH PRESSURE STEAM

Ey _exuaust steam
147.100
unit (astern operation).
used in combination with other units and with affecting the health and comfort of the crew
the plant as a whole. should meet the standards set by the Navy.
Good engineering practices and safe opera- Indoctrination of the ship’s crew in methods
tion of the plant should never be violated in of conserving water is ofthe utmost importance,
the interest of economy—furthermore, factors and should be given constant consideration.
339
CONTROL VALVE |
ey
EXHAUST
SIGHT FLOWS
CLEARANCE INDICATOR
SIGHT FLOW
THRUST BEARING
FLEXIBLE COUPLING FLEXIBLE COUPLING
Pee
DRAI LEAK-OFF
CARBON PACKING VENT
SEALING STEAM _LEAK‘OFF FROM H.P. PACKING STEAM FROM CRUISING TURBINE
96.10
Figure 12-26.—High pressure turbine.
Aboard naval ships, economy measures can- within reasonable limits, (7) conserving elec-
not be carried to extremes, because there are trical power, (8) using the correct number of
several safety factors that must be considered. boilers for best efficiency at the required load
Unless proper safety precautions are taken, levels, and (9) maintaining minimum excess
reliability may be sacrificed; and in the opera- combustion air to the boilers.
tion of naval ships, reliability is one ofthe more Maintaining a constant steam pressure is
important factors. In operating an engineering important to the overall efficiency of the engi-
plant as economically as possible, safety factors neering plant. Wide or frequent fluctuations in
and good engineering practice must not be over- the steam pressure or degree of superheat above
looked. or below that for which the machinery is de-
There are Several factors that, if given signed will result in a considerable loss of
proper consideration, will promote efficient and economy. Excessively high temperatures will
economical operation of the engineering plant, result in severe damage to superheaters, piping,
Some of these factors are: (1) maintaining the and machinery.
designed steam pressure, (2) proper accelera- Proper acceleration and deceleration of the
tion of the main engines, (3) maintaining high main engines are important factors in the eco-
condenser vacuum, (4) guarding against exces- nomical operation of the engineering plant. A
sive recirculation of condensate, (5) maintenance fast acceleration will not only interfere with
of proper insulation and lagging, (6) keeping the safe operation of the boilers but will also
the consumption of feed water and potable water result in a large waste of fuel oil. The officer
sd
ASTERN STEAM ASTERN AHEAD STEAM .INLET ASTERN STEAM INLET
INLET BLADE a H.P. TURBINE
GROUP BLADING ASTERN NOZZLE BLOCK
ASTERN BLADE GROUP
ROTOR POSITION
vad
CARBON MICROMETER
PACKING
GLAND EMERGENCY OIL
\ Fp GOVERNOR:
THRUST
Oi. DRAIN
‘\ A,
EXHAUST FLANGE BLADE EXHAUST STEAM DRAIN EXHAUST STEAM BLADE BAFFLE GLAND \, 2 seaRING OL
TO CONDENSER SHIELD DEFLECTOR DEFLECTOR SHIELD CENTERING PIN DRAIN DRAIN
147.101
Figure 12-27.—Low pressure turbine
(with astern elements).
or CPO in charge of an engineroom watch, can problems in the fireroom, Each throttleman
contribute a great deal to the economical and should have a revolution - pressure table which
safe operation of the boilers if they use the gives the approximate pressure required in the
acceleration and deceleration charts provided first stage of the high pressure turbine to de-
for that particular propulsion plant. velop a certain rpm. By using such a table,
Acceleration and deceleration charts are together with the acceleration and deceleration
posted at each main engine throttle board. These charts, the throttleman can make his watch-
charts give the exact amount of time that the standing much easier and, at the same time,
throttleman should use in changing speed. When contribute to economical and efficient operation
a speed change is ordered, the throttleman can of the plant. There must always be complete
tell instantly, by checking the chart, the minutes understanding between the engineroom and the
and seconds necessary for him to accelerate bridge as to how many rpm are to be maintain-
or decelerate to the new speed. Main engine ed for one-third, two-thirds, standard, and full
control has tachometers indicating the number speed. The throttleman should never relieve
of rpm each shaft is doing. By means of the the watch without knowing the rpm for these
tachometers, the engineering officer of the watch speeds.
can coordinate the rpm of the shafts; if one For most efficient turbine operation, the
throttleman accelerates or decelerates too highest possible vacuum must be maintained
rapidly or too slowly, the engineering officer in the condenser. Air must not be allowed to
of the watch can detect the trouble and have leak into the condenser, exhaust trunks, throt-
it corrected. tles, lines to air ejectors, gage lines, idle
Improper acceleration or deceleration condensate pump packing, makeup feed lines,
wastes fuel, leads to uneconomical operation of or any other part of the system under vacuum.
the propulsion plant, and may cause operational A steam pressure of 1/2 to 2 psi must be
341
THERMAL ALARM CONN.
1ST. STAGE NOZZLE PLATE

STEAM EXTRACTION CONN. | COOLING STEAM CONN.
sae é
OPENING FOR BEARING WEAR GAGE
SHAFT SUPPORTED THRUST BEARING
<el
BY: CRUISING GEAR
\ i
PINION BEARING aa a
CLEARANCE
INDICATOR
EXHAUST « (|.14 OL INLET -
THRUST BEARING
OIL INLET -
MAIN BEARING
LEAK-OFF
CASING OIL DRAIN
DRAIN
147,102
Figure 12-28.—Cruising turbine.
maintained on the glands when the turbine is in On ships that have a cruising turbine, the
operation, and the gland packing must be kept cruising combination should be used for all
in good condition. An adequate supply of water underway operations requiring speeds of less
must be maintained for the makeup feed tank than 18 knots. The officer of the watch (or
so that air will not be drawn intothe condenser. the petty officer of the watch) should obtain
A combatant ship operates most of the time permission from the OOD to operate on cruis-
at speeds far below maximum. At cruising ing combination whenever possible.
speeds, only a fraction of turbine capacity is To prevent casualties to cruising turbines,
required. At low speeds, economy is obtained the protective devices (sentinel valve, direct-
by one of the following methods: (1) by using reading thermometer, crossover valve lock,
cruising turbines which are designed to operate and thermal alarm) should be checked con-
economically at speeds up to about 18 knots, tinuously.
(2) by using cruising stages in the high pres- In order to be a good engineering officer of
sure turbine, and (3) by using turbines which the watch, he must acquaint himself with all
are designed so that they can be operated in standing orders and operating instructions for
series. his ship. These are made up for each ship and
TURBINE SPEED
LEVER SPEED-
(AUTOMATIC CONTROL) GOVERNING
VALVES
COMBINED
FIELD &
REVERSING
LEVER EMERGENCY SPEED
LEVER
(MANUAL CONTROL)
MOTOR-FIELD
CONTACTORS‘a
DIRECT-
CURRENT TURBINE
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
PROPULSION
MOTOR \ MAIN
GENERATOR-FIELD
CONDENSER
CONTACTORS
47.2
Figure 12-29.—Diagram of turboelectric drive installation.
show the various plant arrangements (split plant, under the superheater side of the boiler. When.
cross-connected steaming, cruising arrange- the superheater is operating and the steam flow
ment, etc.) for the different speeds. Each watch- drops below a safe minimum, the superheater
stander must read and understand the steaming fires must be secured immediately. On de-
orders and any additional orders issued by the stroyers the superheater fires are usually
engineer officer. At this point the engineering secured when the speed of the ship drops below
officer of the watch will request permission to 10 knots.
light fires under the superheater if two-furnace From the standpoint of maintenance and re-
single-uptake superheater control boilers is in- pairs to the steam piping, turbine caSings,
stalled. and superheater handhole plates, it is not
On large combatant ships, there is usually feasible to put superheaters into operation until
sufficient steam flow (even when steaming for it is expected that the ship’s speed will be
auxiliary purposes) to maintain fires under the more than 10 knots for a considerable period
superheater side. However, in most installa- of time. Furthermore, continually lighting off
tions, and particularly in destroyers, it is and securing the superheater fires will cause
usually necessary to be underway and making extensive steam leaks throughout the sys-
about 12 knots before the fires can be lighted tem subjected to fast changing temperature
343
ra er eee ee cA eI PP RE OS ee ee
conditions. These steam leaks will waste more be increased. Ifthese measures do not reduce the
fuel than could be saved by a few minutes of bearing temperature, the unit must be stopped or
superheat operation. slowed.
The no-control, integral superheater boiler A sight-flow indicator is fitted in the lube oil
creates a different types of problem. The super- line of each main engine bearing and each re-
heater tubes must be protected from the heat of duction gear bearing. When the plant is in op-
the furnace in the interval during which fires eration, each sight-flow indicator should always
are lighted but the rate of steam generation is show a steady flow of lube oil.
still insufficient to ensure a safe flow through The rotor position indicator for eachturbine
the superheater. During operation, there is no must be checked every hour and the reading
problem since all steam passes through the must be logged. Any abnormal reading must be
superheater and leaves the boiler at superheat investigated at once.
temperature, After the boiler is on the line and Once of the first indicationsof engineroom
furnishing steam, there will be sufficient flow trouble is anabnormal readingona thermometer
because all steam passes through the super- or pressure gage. All gages should be checked
heater. frequently.
It is sometimes necessary to light off and put The oil level in the main engine sump must
additional boilers on the line, when a ship is be checked every hour and logged in the main
underway. Withno-control superheat boilers, the engine operating record. In addition, other
steps are much the same as for putting the first checks should be made in between the required
boiler or boilers ontheline. Withsuperheat con- hourly checks. A rise in the oil level may mean
trol boilers, additional precautions must be that water is entering the lube oil system or that
taken. the system is gaining oil inan abnormal manner.
When the steam lines are carrying super- A drop in the oil level of the main engine sump
heated steam, it would be dangerous to admit may indicate a leak in the lube oil system or
saturated steam to the lines. It is not usually incorrect operation of the lube oil purifier.
possible to establish enough steam flow to light The water level in each operating deaerating
off the superheaters of the incoming boilers, feed tank should be kept between the minimum
until they are on the line. It is permissible to and the maximum allowable levels. If the water
bring in the incoming boilers, without their level goes above the maximum, the tank no
superheaters in operation, if the superheater longer deaerates the water. If the water levelis
outlet temerature of the steaming boilers is below the minimum, a sudden demand for feed
lowered to 600° F. Lowering of the superheat water may empty the deaerating feed tank and
temperature on the steaming boilers should be cause cumulative casualties to the feed booster
started in time so that the cutting-in tempera- pump, the main feed pump, and the boilers.
ture can be reached before the incoming boilers A salinity indicator is located at or near the
are up to operating pressure. Except in an throttle board in each engineroom so that engine-
emergency, the temperature ofthe superheaters room personnel can detect the entrance of salt
should NOT be lowered or raised at a faster water into the condensate system. The salinity
rate than 50° F every 5 minutes. indicator must be checked constantly. Even a
A number of other items must be checked or very small amount of salt in the condensate
inspected at frequent intervals when a ship is system will very rapidly contaminate a steaming
underway. Engineeroom personnel must be con- boiler. Any abnormal reading of the salinity
stantly alert for abnormal pressures, temper- indicator must be investigated immediately and
atures, sound and vibrations. the source of contamination must be found and
The first indication of bearing trouble is corrected.
usually a rise in temperature. There is no ob-
jection to a bearing running warm as long as PLANT MAINTENANCE
the temperature is not high enough to cause
damage to the bearing. Any RAPID rise in The maintenance of maximum operational
temperature, or any increase over the normal reliability and efficiency of steam propulsion
operating temperature, is probably a sign of plants requires a carefully planned and executed
trouble. The first things to check are the program of inspections and preventive mainte-
quantity of lube oil and the quality of lube oil. nance, in addition to strict adherence to pre-
If possible, the amount of oil going to the over- scribed operating instructions and safety pre-
heated bearing should be increased and the flow cautions. If proper maintenance procedures are
of cooling water through the lube oil cooler should followed, abnormal conditions may be prevented.
344
Preventive inspection and maintenance are or it may indicate a design or material de-
vital to successful casualty control, since these ficiency. Unless corrective action can be taken
activities minimize the occurrence of casualties which will ensure that such failures will not
by material failures. Continuous and detailed occur, special inspections to detect damage
inspection procedures are necessary not only should be undertaken as a routine matter.
to discover partly damaged parts which may Strict attention must be paid to the proper
fail at a critical time, but also to eliminate the lubrication of all equipment, and this includes
underlying conditions which lead to early failure frequent inspection and sampling to determine
(maladjustment, improper lubrication, cor- that the correct quantity of the proper lubricant
rosion, erosion, and other enemies of machinery is in the unit. It is goodpracticeto make a daily
reliability). Particular and continuous attention check of samples of lubricating oil in all aux-
must be paid to the following symptoms of mal- ilaries. Such samples should be allowed to
functioning: stand long enough for any water tosettle. Where
auxiliaries have been idle for several hours,
Unusual noises. particularly overnight, a sufficient sample to
Vibrations. remove all settled water should be drained from
Abnormal temperatures. the lowest part of the oil sump. Replenishment
Abnormal pressures. with fresh oil to the normal level should be in-
Abnormal operating speeds. cluded in this routine.
The presence of salt water in the oil can be
Operating personnel should thoroughly famil- detected by drawing off the settled water by
iarize themselves with the specific tempera- means of a pipette and by running a standard
tures, pressures, and operating speeds of equip- chloride test. A sample of sufficient size for
ment required for normal operation, in order test purposes can be obtained by adding dis-
that departures from normal operation will be tilled water to the oil sample, shaking vig-
more readily apparent. orously, and then allowing the water to settle
If a gage, or other instrument for recording before draining off the test sample. Because of
operation conditions of machinery, gives an its corrosive effects, salt water in the lubricating
abnormal reading, the cause must be fully in- oil is far more dangerous to a unit than is an
vestigated. The installation of a spare instru- equal quantity of fresh water. Salt water is par-
ment, or a calibration test, will quickly indicate ticularly harmful to units containing oil-
whether the abnormal reading is due to instru- lubricated ball bearings.
ment error. Any other cause msut be traced to An an example, the maintenance require-
its source. ments which shall be conducted in accordance
Because of the safety factor commonly in- with the 3-M System is shown in figure 12-30,
corporated in pumps and similar equipment, (Maintenance Index Page).
considerable loss of capacity can occur before
any external evidence. is readily apparent. CASUALTY CONTROL
Changes in the operating speeds from normal
for the existing load in the case of pressure- The mission of engineering casualty control
governor-controlled equipment should be viewed is to maintain all engineering services ina state
with suspicion. Variations from normal pres- of maximum reliability, under all conditions. To
sures, lubricating oil temperatures, andsystem carry out this mission, it is necessary for the
pressures are indicative of either inefficient op- personnel concerned to know the action nec-
eration or poor condition of machinery. essary to prevent, minimize, and correct the
In cases where a material failure occurs in effects of operational and battle casualties on
any unit, a prompt inspection should be made of the machinery and the electrical and piping
all similar units to determine if there is any installations of their ship. The prime objective
danger that a similar failure might occur. of casualty control is to maintain a ship asa
Prompt inspection may eliminate a wave of re- whole in such a condition that it will function
peated casualties. effectively as a fighting unit. This requires ef-
Abnormal wear, fatigue, erosion, or corro- fective maintenance of propulsion machinery,
sion of a particular part may be indicative of a electrical systems, interior and exterior com-
failure to operate the equipment within its de- munications, fire control, electronic services,
signed limits or loading, velocity and lubrication, ship control, firemain supply, and miscellaneous
345
High-Pressure, Low-Pressure and

Cruising Turbines
Bureau Card
eas, cs ace a4 ae
Circulate oil through lube oil

system.
. Jack over idle turbines and reduc-
tion gears.
. Lubricate and operate all valve

operating linkage.
. Take depth micrometer readings on

the journal bearings of the main
propulsion turbines.
. Lift the turbine sentinel relief

valves by hand.
. Measure thrust clearances of main

. Inspect interior of turbine casings.
. Clean, inspect, and preserve exter-

ior of turbine casing.
. Sound and tighten foundation bolts.
. Remove and test turbine sentinel ooo

uUuooo000
uu
relief valves.
Inspect turbine thrust bearings.
. Inspect main propulsion bearings,

journals, and oil deflectors.
Measure clearances.
. Measure nozzle clearances of main

. Clean and inspect main steam

Sccainer. ooFf
oou
NM
NDE
.
r] fad
. Inspect shaft packing and journals.

Measure clearances.
O00
000
#00
C00
uUUMw
MAINTENANCE
Sena INDEX PAGE
rommraieticted BUREAU PAGE CONTROL NUMBER E-1/55-A5
98.171
346
services such as heating, air conditioning, and tions may vary on different ships, but in all
compressed air systems. Failure of any of these cases they give the organization and the proce-
services will affect a ship’s ability to fulfill dures to be followed in case of engineering
its primary objective, either directly by reducing casualties, damage to the ship, and other emer-
its power, or indirectly by creating conditions gency conditions,
which lower personnel morale and efficiency. A The basic factors influencing the effective-
secondary objective—which contributes consid- ness of engineering casualty control are much
erably to the successful accomplishment of the broader than the immediate actions taken at the
first—is the minimization of personnel casual- time of the casualty. Engineering casualty con-
ties and of secondary damage to vital machinery. trol reaches its peak efficiency by a combination
The details on specific casualties are beyond of sound design, careful inspection, thorough
the scope of this manual. Detailed information plant maintenance (including preventive mainte-
on casualty control can be obtained from the nance), and effective personnel organization and
Engineering Casualty Control Manual, the Dam- training. CASUALTY PREVENTION IS THE
age Control Book, the Ship’s Organization Book, MOST EFFECTIVE FORM OF CASUALTY
and the Damage Control Bills. These publica- CONTROL.
347
CHAPTER13
CONDENSERS AND OTHER HEAT EXCHANGERS
This chapter deals with the major pieces of turbines are designed for a full-power exhaust
heat transfer apparatus found in the condensate vacuum of 27.5 inches of mercury when the cir-
and feed system of the conventional steam turbine culating water injection temperature is 75° F;
propulsion plant. Heat exchangers discussed others are designed for a full-power exhaust
here include the main condenser, the air ejector vacuum of 25 inches of mercury witha circulat-
condenser, the gland exhaust condenser, the vent ing water injection temperature of 75° F.
condenser, the deaerating feed tank, and the aux- It is often said that an engine cando a greater
iliary condenser. The arrangement of piping that amount of useful work if it exhausts to a low
connects these units is discussed in chapter9 of pressure space than if it exhausts against a high
this text. pressure. This statement is undeniably true, but
for the condensing steam power plant it may be
MAIN CONDENSER somewhat misleading because of its emphasis on
pressure. The pressure is important because it
determines the temperature at which the steam
The main condenser is the heat exchanger in condenses. As noted in chapter 8 of this text, an
which exhaust steam from the propulsion tur- increase in the temperature difference between
bines is condensed as it comes in contact with the source (boiler) and the receiver (condenser)
tubes through which cool sea water is flowing. increases the thermodynamic efficiency of the
The main condenser is the heat receiver of the cycle. By maintaining the condenser under vac-
thermodynamic cycle—that is, it is thelowtem- uum, we lower the condensing temperature, in-
perature heat sink to which some heat must be crease the temperature difference between
rejected. The main condenser is also the means source and receiver, and increase the thermody-
by which feed water is recovered and returned namic efficiency of the cycle.
to the feed system. If we imagine a shipboard Given a tight condenser and anadequate sup-
propulsion plant in which there is no main con- ply of cooling water, the basic cause of the vac-
denser and the turbines exhaust to atmosphere, uum in the condenser is the condensation of the
and if we consider the vast quantities of fresh steam. This is true because the specific volume
water that would be required to support even one of steam is enormously greater than the specific
boiler generating 150,000 pounds of steam per volume of water. Since the condenser is filled
hour, it is immediately apparent that the main with air when the plant is cold, and since some
condenser serves a vital function in recovering air finds its way into the condenser during the
feed water. course of plant operation, the condensation of
The main condenser is maintained under a steam is not Sufficient to establish the initial vac-
vacuum of approximately 25 to 28.5 inches of uum nor to maintain the required vacuum under
mercury. The designed vacuum varies accord- all conditions. In modern shipboard steam plants,
ing to the design of the turbine installation and air ejectors are used to remove air and other
according to such operational factors as the load noncondensable gases from the condenser. The
on the condenser, the temperature of the outside condensation of steam is thus the major cause
sea water, andthe tightness of the condenser. The of the vacuum, but the air ejectors are required
designed full-power vacuum for any particular to help establish the initial vacuum and then to
turbine installation may be obtained from the assist in maintaining vacuum while the plant is
machinery specifications for the plant. Some operating.
348
Chapter 13—CONDENSERS AND OTHER HEAT EXCHANGERS
SE ES re ke
When the temperature of the outside sea injection system! provides automatic flow of sea
water is relatively high, the condenser tubes are water through the condenser. The scoop, which
relatively warm and heat transfer is retarded. is open to the sea, directs the sea water into the
For this reason, a ship operating in warm trop- injection piping; from there, the water flows into
ical waters cannot develop as high a vacuum in an inlet water chest, flows once through the tubes,
the condenser as the same ship could develop goes into a discharge water chest, andthen goes
when operating in colder waters. overboard through a main overboard sea chest.
Two basic rules that apply to the operation A main circulating pump provides positive cir-
of single-pass main condensers should be kept culation of sea water through the condenser at
in mind, The first is that the OVERBOARD TEM- times when the scoop injection system is not ef-
PERATURE should be about 10° higher than the fective—when the ship is stopped, backing down,
INJECTION TEMPERATURE. The second rule or moving ahead at very low speeds.
is that the condensate discharge temperature All main condensers that have scoop injec-
should be withina few degrees of the temperature tion are of the straight-tube, single-pass type.
corresponding to the vacuum in the condenser. A main condenser may contain from 2000
The accompanying chart lists vacuums (based on to 10,000 copper-nickel alloy tubes. The length
a 30.00-inch barometer) and corresponding tem- of the tubes and the number of tubes depend upon
peratures. the size of the condenser; and this, in turn, de-
pends upon the capacity requirements. The tube
Corresponding ends are expanded into a tube sheet at the inlet
Inches of Mercury Temperature (°F) end and expanded or packed into a tube sheet at
the outlet end. The tube sheets Serve as parti-
ZONG* Sis, ee Mais Gea coats 53 tions between the vapor-condensate circuit and
COA ecdia.s stoke erent. 64 the circulating water (sea water) circuit.
Ora OMe > a ewone Bemenaltons 72 Various methods of construction are used to
COMO MMR A ach ones lo mere 79 provide for relative expansion and contraction of
OMOL ewMerty clans elie oue a 85 the shell andthe tubes in main condensers, Pack-
CAS ages ie a aa 90 ing the tubes at the outlet end sometimes makes
Orta earweerWear stoma hhsoothe 94 sufficient provision for expansion and contrac-
PAST aoe NA Cho SCOR ORET OER EG 98 tion. Where the tubes are expanded into each tube
Be Olean, clap cite.tava bia teh atic 101 sheet, the shell may have an expansion joint. Ex-
7ATL SR ne Rete ee 2 104 pansion joints are also provided in the scoop in-
ARTO} tccete, cat Pave). oss ve 107 jection line and in the overboard discharge line.
Additional means such as flexible support feet
A main condenser is shown in cutaway view or lubricated sliding feet are provided to com-
in figure 13-1. Aslightly different main con- pensate for expansion and contraction differen-
denser is shown in outline drawing in figure 13-2. tials between the shell and the condenser sup-
The operating principles of the two condensers porting structure.
are identical except for minor details. As shown in figure 13-3, a central steam lane
In any main condenser, there are two Separate extends from the top of the condenser all the way
circuits, The first is the vapor-condensate through the tube bundle, down tothe hot well. The
circuit in which the exhaust steam enters the con- exhaust steam which reaches the hot well through
denser at the top of the shell andis condensed as this steam lane tends to be drawn under the tube
it comes in contact withthe outer surfaces of the bundle toward the sides of the condenser Shell,
condenser tubes. The condensate then falls tothe in the general direction of the air cooling sec-
bottom of the condenser, drains into a space tions, thus Sweeping out any air which would
called the hot well, and is removed by the con- otherwise tend to collect in the hot well. Part of
densate pump. Air and other noncondensable the steam which is drawn through the hot well
gases that enter with the exhaust steam or that
otherwise find their way into the condenser are
la major advantage of scoop injection is that it pro-
drawn off by the air ejector through the air
vides a flow of cooling water at a rate which is con-
ejector suction opening in the shell of the controlled by the speed of the ship and hence is automat-
denser, above the condensate level. ically correct for various conditions. Scoop injection
The second circuit is the circulating water is standard for naval combatant ships and for many
circuit. During normal ahead operation, a scoop of the newer auxiliary ships.
349
RECIRCULATING | MAKEUP FEED AIR EJECTOR | | CIRCULATING

CONNECTION * CONNECTION SUCTION | WATER OUTLET
ee ee ee
EXHAUST STEAM
FROM PROPULSION
g___ TURBINES ,
a a
AUXILIARY EXHAUST)
ABSOLUTE —
/ PRESSURE GAGE
STEAM INLET
DISCHARGE FROM
MAIN CIRCULATING
PUMP
CONDENSATE |
GAGE GLASS
VACUUM GAGE
CONNECTION
CONDENSATE CIRCULATING
OUTLET | WATER INLET SHEET
47.70X
Figure 13-1.—Cutaway view of main condenser.
under the tube bundle is condensed by the condensate must be reheated in the feed system, with
densate dripping from the condenser tubes. In a consequent expenditure of steam. Excessive
this process, the condensate (which has been condensate depression also allows an increased
subcooled by its contact withthe cold tubes) tends absorption of air by the condensate, and this air
to become reheated to a temperature which ap- must be removed in orderto prevent oxygen cor-
proaches the condensing temperature corre- rosion of piping and boilers.
sponding tothe vacuum maintained in the hot well. Main condensers have various internal baffle
The difference between the temperature of the arrangements for the purpose of separating air
condensate discharge and the condensing tem- and steam so that the air ejectors will not be
perature corresponding to the vacuum maintained overloaded by having to pump large quantities of
at the exhaust steam inlet to the condenser is steam along with the air. Air cooling sections
called the condensate depression. One measure and air baffles may be seen in figure 13-3.
of the efficiency of design and operation of any In some installations the condenser is hung
condenser is its ability to maintain the conden- from the low pressure turbine in sucha way that
sate depression at a reasonably low value under the turbine supports the condenser. Where this
all normal conditions of operation. Excessive type of installation is used, sway braces are used
condensate depression decreases the operating to connect the lower part of the condenser shell
efficiency of the plant because the subcooled con- with the ship’s structure. Spring supports are
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STEAM LANE
AIR OFFTAKE CROSSOVER PIPES
TUBE SUPPORT PLATE
(IN EXHAUST OPENING STRUTS)
CONDENSER TUBES
TUBE PLATE
STAYS
CONDENSER
SIDEWALL
STIFFENERS
AIR BAFFLE
SUPPORTING SUPPORTING
FLANGE FLANGE
ei AIR COOLING
AIR COOLING
SAS OS SECTION
SS
SECTION
OD
HOT WELL 1}
GAGE GLASS
CONDENSATE OUTLET
98.33
Figure 13-3.—Cross-sectional view of main condenser.
sometimes used to support part of the weight of leaving condensate and the thermal energy of the
the condenser so that it will not have to be en- leaving sea water.
tirely supported by the turbine.
Condenser performance may be evaluated by AIR EJECTOR ASSEMBLIES
a simple energy balance which takes account of
all energy entering and leaving the condenser. The function of air ejectors is to remove air
In theory, the entering side of the balance should and other noncondensable gases from the con-
include (1) the mechanical kinetic energy of the denser. An air ejector is a type of jet pump,
entering steam, (2) the thermal energy of the en- having no moving parts. The flow throughthe air
tering steam, (3) the mechanical kinetic energy ejector is maintained by a jet of high velocity
of the entering sea water, and (4) the thermal steam passing through a nozzle. The steam is
energy of the entering sea water. Intheory, again, taken from the 150-psi auxiliary steam system
the leaving side of the balance should include (1) on most ships.
the mechanical kinetic energy of the leaving con- The air ejector assembly (fig. 13-4) used to
densate, (2) the thermal energy of the leaving remove air from the main condenser usually con-
condensate, (3) the mechanical kinetic energy of sists of a first-stage air ejector, an inter con-
the leaving sea water, and (4) the thermal energy denser, a second-stage air ejector, and anafter
of the leaving sea water. In considering real con- condenser. The two air ejectors operate in se-
densers, however, the entering and leaving me- ries, The first-stage air ejector raises the pres-
chanical kinetic energies of the sea water tend sure from about 1.5 inches of mercury absolute
to be small and tendto cancel each other out, the (condenser pressure) to about 7 inches of mer-
mechanical kinetic energy of the entering steam cury absolute; the second-stage air ejector
is SO small as to be negligible, andthe mechan- raises the pressure from 7 inches of mercury
ical kinetic energy of the leaving condensate is absolute to about 32 inches of mercury absolute
small enough to disregard. With all of these rel- (about 1 psig).
atively insignificant quantities omitted, the en- The first-stage air ejector takes suction on
tering side of the balance includes only the ther- the main condenser and discharges the steam-air
mal energy of the entering steam and the thermal mixture to the inter condenser, where the steam
energy of the entering sea water, andthe leaving content of the mixture is condensed. The result-
side includes only the thermal energy of the ing condensate drops to the bottom of the inter
352
FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE AFTER VENT TO

AIR EJECTOR AIR EJECTOR CONDENSER ATMOSPHERE
(VIA
EXHAUST FAN)
AUX. STEAM >
EXHAUST
ad
TO
} DEAERATING
TANK
GLAND
EXHAUST
DRAIN CONDENSER
nee CONDENSATE
CONDENSER VAPOR
47.77X
Figure 13-4.—Two-stage air ejector assembly.
condenser shell, and from there it drains to the discharge through piping to the atmosphere above
condenser through a U-shaped loop seal line. The decks. This is necessary to avoid filling the
air passes to the suction of the second-stage air engineroom with steam should the air ejector
ejector, where another jet of steam entrains the cooling water supply fail, thereby allowing the
air and carries it to the after condenser. In the steam to pass through the inter condenser and
after condenser, the steam is condensed and re- after condenser without being condensed. The
turned to the condensate system by way of the cooling medium in the gland exhaust condenser,
fresh water drain collecting tank, and the air is as in the air ejector condensers, is condensate
vented to atmosphere. from the main condenser, on its way to the de-
Note that the air ejectors remove air only aerating feed tank.
from the condenser, not from the condensate In most installations, the gland exhaust con-
which passes through the tubes of the inter and denser appears to be part of the air ejector as-
after condensers. The condensate merely serves sembly, since it is attached to the after con-
as the cooling medium in these .condensers, just denser. However, the gland exhaust condenser
as itnext serves this purpose inthe gland exhaust is functionally a separate unit even though it is
condenser and in the vent condenser. physically attached to the air ejector after con-
denser.
GLAND EXHAUST CONDENSER In serving as the cooling medium in the air
ejector condensers and in the gland exhaust con-
The gland exhaust condenser receives a denser, the condensate picks up a certain amount
steam-air mixture from the propulsion turbine of heat. To some extent this is desirable, since
glands. The steam is condensed and returned to it saves heat which would otherwise be wasted
the condensate system by way of the fresh water and it reduces the amount of steam required to
drain collecting tank, and the air is discharged heat the condensate in the deaerating feed tank.
to atmosphere. The atmospheric vent is usually However, overheating of the condensate could
connected to the suction of asmall motor-driven result in inefficient operation of the air ejectors
fan (gland exhauster), which provides a positive and consequent loss of vacuum in the main
353
condenser. To avoid this difficulty, provision is tank) are collected in a cone-shaped baffle which
made for returning some of the condensate to the leads them through a central port, to the
main condenser when the condensate reaches a deaerating unit.
certain temperature. As a rule, the recirculat- Steam enters the deaerating unit, picks up the
ing line branches off the condensate line just after partially deaerated water, and throws it tangen-
the gland exhaust condenser. In most installa- tially outward through the curving baffles of the
tions, the recirculating valve in this recirculat- deaerating unit. Inthis process, the water is even
ing line is thermostatically operated. more finely divided and is throughly scrubbed by
the incoming steam. Thus the last traces of dis-
VENT CONDENSER solved oxygen are removed from the water. Since
the water enters the deaerating unit at saturation
The vent condenser is actually a part of the temperature, having already been heated by the
deaerating feed tank, being installed in the tank steam in the upper part of the deaerating feed
near the top. It is described separately here tank, the incoming steam does not condense to
because it is functionally quite separate from the any marked degree in the deaerating unit.
deaerating feed tank. Therefore all (or practically all) of the incoming
In the vent condenser, as in the air ejector steam is available for breaking up, scrubbing,
condensers and the gland exhaust condenser, and deaerating the water.
condensate on its way from the main condenser The thoroughly deaerated water falls intothe
to the deaerating feed tank is used to cool and storage space at the bottom of the tank, where it
condense the steam from a steam-air mixture. remains under a blanket of air-free steam until
The vent condenser receives steam andair from it is pumped to the boilers. Meanwhile, the mix-
the deaerating feed tank. The steam condenses ture of steam plus air and other noncondensable
into water, which falls toward the bottom of the gases travels over the spray head (where much
tank. The air goes tothe gland exhaust condenser of the steam is condensed as it heatsthe incom-
and is vented to atmosphere. The condensate ing condensate) and over the tubes of the vent
which is used as the cooling medium in the vent condenser (where more steam is condensed into
condenser is sprayed out into the deaerating feed water which then goes into the deaerating unit).
tank and is deaerated before being used as boiler The air and other noncondensable gases, together
feed. with a little remaining steam, gotothe gland ex-
haust condenser.
DEAERATING FEED TANK As shown in figure 13-5, the deaerating feed
tank has a recirculating connection that allows
The deaerating feed tank serves to heat, dewater to be sent back to the condenser from the
aerate, and store feed water. The water is heated deaerating feed tank. The recirculating line is
by direct contact with auxiliary exhaust steam used to provide a high enough condensate level
which enters the tank at a pressure just slightly in the condenser so that the condensate pump can
greater than the pressure in the tank. The take suction. The recirculating line is alsoused
deaerating feed tank is usually designedto operat slow speeds and when the plant is first started
ate at a pressure of about 15 psig and to heat the up to ensure a Sufficient supply of cooling con-
water to between 240° and 250° F. densate to the air ejector condensers and to the
One type of deaerating feed tank is shown in gland exhaust condenser and to keep the deaerat-
figure 13-5, Condensate enters the tank through ing feed tank at the prescribed temperature.
the tubes of the vent condenser and is forced out The deaerated feed water from the deaerat-
through a number of spray valves ina spray head. ing feed tank is pumped to the boiler by the feed
The spray valves discharge the condensate in a booster pump and the main feed pump. The feed
fine spray throughout the steam-filled upper sec- booster pump takes suction from the bottom of
tion of the deaerating feed tank. The very small the deaerating feed tank and discharges to the
droplets of water are heated, scrubbed, and par- suction side of the main feed pump. The
tially deaerated by the relatively air-free steam. feed booster pump provides a positive suction
As the steam gives upits heattothe water, much pressure for the main feed pump and thus pre-
of the steam is condensed into water. The vents the hot water from flashing into steam at
droplets of water (including both the entering the main feed pump suction. The main feed
condensate sprayed out from the vent condenser pump operates at variable speed in order to
and the steam condensed in the deaerating feed maintain a constant discharge pressure under all
354
SPRAY
VENT
CONDENSER MOL VES
TO GLAND
EXHAUST
CONDENSER
CONDENSATE
RECIRCULATING
CONNECTION
CONDENSATE STEAM
INLET INLET
CONICAL
BAFFLE
DEAERATING
UNIT
AUTOMATIC
CHECK VALVE
AUTOMATIC CHECK
VALVE CONTROL
RECIRCULATING
CONNECTION TO
MAIN CONDENSER
FEED WATER
LEGEND — OUTLET
CONDENSATE
STEAM
MIXTURE OF STEAM PLUS AIR AND [Pees ar]

OTHER NONCONDENSABLE GASES
WATER CONDENSED ON ate

VENT CONDENSER
DEAERATED WATER
SECTION A-A
THROUGH DEAERATING
UNIT
Figure 13-5.—Deaerating feed tank. 38.17

355
conditions of load. The discharge pressure of the b. Foreign matter lodged in the air ejec-
main feed pump is considerably higher than the tor nozzle(s).
pressure carried in the boiler steam drum. Pro- c. Erosion of the air ejector nozzle, over
vision is made for the recirculation of water a period of time.
from the main feed pump discharge back to the 3. IMPROPER DRAINAGE OF CONDEN-
deaerating feed tank, in order to protect the pump SATE FROM THE CONDENSER may be
from overheating at very low capacity. caused by:
a. Low speed of condensate pump, indi-
SAFETY AND CASUALTY CONTROL cating malfunctioning of the pump’s
speed-limiting governor.
In the event of a casualty toa component part
b. Condensate pump air-bound because
of the propulsion plant, the principal doctrine to
of the vent connection from the first
be impressed upon operating personnel is the
stage being closed or not opened wide.
prevention of additional or major casualties.
4, INSUFFICIENT FLOW OF CIRCULATING
Under normal operating conditions, the safety of
WATER may be caused by:
personnel and machinery should be given first
a. Improper adjustment of the overboard
consideration. Where practicable, the propulsion
discharge valve (the main injection
plant should be kept in operation by means
valve being wide open whenever the
of standby pumps, auxiliary machinery, and
condenser is under vacuum).
piping systems. The important thing is to prevent
minor casualties from becoming major cas- b. Inadequate speed of the main circulat-
ualties, even if it means suspending the opera- ing pump.
tion of the propulsion plant. It is better to stop
c. Plugged tubes, resulting from mud,
the main engines for a few minutes than to put
shells, small fish, or kelp being
them completely out of commission, so that
trapped against the injection strainer
major repairs are required to place them back
bars or in the inlet water chest.
into operation. In case a casualty occurs, the of-
ficer or CPO in charge of the watch should be d. Air trapped in condenser.
notified as soon as possible; he in turn must
5. HIGH INJECTION TEMPERATURE
notify the OOD if there will be any effect on the
ship’s speed or on the ability to answer bells.
Basically, the injection temperature limits
LOSS OF VACUUM the maximum vacuum (minimum absolute pres-
sure) obtainable in a specific plant, assuming the
The major causes of a loss of vacuum are: condenser, associated equipment, and piping
excessive air leakage into the vacuum system, under vacuum to be clean and properly operated.
improper functioning of the air-removal equip- Whenever there is a loss of vaccum, the first
ment, improper drainage of condensate from the step in correcting the trouble is to locate the
condenser, insufficient flow of circulating water, cause of the casualty. The major possible causes
and high injection temperature. are so numerous that no attempt will be made to
list the proper action required for eachone. The
1. EXCESSIVE AIR LEAKAGE INTO THE required action may be very simple, such
VACUUM SYSTEM may be caused by: as closing the loop seal filling valve, or it may
a. Insufficient gland sealing steam. be much more complicated, such as leaning the
b. Vent valve on idle condensate pump main condenser or replacing air ejector nozzles.
open.
Loop-seal filling valve open.
SALT WATER LEAKAGE
Bypass valve on drain tank open.
INTO CONDENSER
Drain tank float valve stuck open.
Hm
20
O Taking make-up feed from empty feed
bottom. If a condenser salinity indicator showsa rise
g. Leakage of flanges, fittings, or valve in the chloride content, the source of the contam-
stem packings under vacuum, ination must be determined immediately. To lo-
2. IMPROPER FUNCTIONING OF THEAIR- cate these sources, test the fresh water from
REMOVAL EQUIPMENT may be due to: different units in the system by checking the
a. Insufficient steam to the air ejectors. proper salinity indicators (if installed) and by
356
maxing chemical chloride tests. There are four Before starting a steam air ejector, the steam
major causes of a salty condenser: line should be drained of all moisture; moisture
in the steam will cut the nozzles, and slugs
Leaky tube(s) in the condenser. of water will cause unstable operation.
Make-up feed tank salted up. Before cutting steam into the air ejectors,
Low pressure drain tank salted up. make sure that sufficient cooling water is flow-
Fr
PODLeaky feed suction and drain lines which ing through the condenser and that the condenser
run through the bilges. has been properly vented.
The loop seal line must be kept airtight, an
Each of the aforementioned possibilities must air leak may cause all water to drain out of the
be investigated to determine the source of the seal.
contamination and its elimination. If it is necessary to operate both sets of air
If it is determined that there is aminor leak ejectors to maintain proper condenser vacuum,
in the condenser and the ship’s prospective ar- air leakage is indicated. It is more desirable
rival time is less than 24 hours, the affected plant to eliminate the air leakage than to operate two
will probably be continued in operation. Isolate sets of air ejectors.
the condensate system, and limit the number of Unstable operation of an air ejector may be
boilers on the engine involved. When operating caused by any of the following: the steam pres-
under these conditions it will be necessary to sure may be lower than the designed amount, the
blow down the boiler(s) asnecessary, to keep the steam temperature and quality may be different
boiler salinity within the specified limit. How- than design condition, there may be scale onthe
ever, if the leak is serious, secure the plant and nozzle surface, the position of the steam nozzle
locate the leaks. may not be right in relation to the diffuser, or
If leaky tubes are found, they must be the condenser drains may be stopped up.
plugged so that the condenser can be kept in Difficulties due to low pressure are generally
service. Plugs, whichare furnished by the manu- caused by improper functioning or improper ad-
facturer, should be driven into the tube ends with justment of the steam reducing valve supplying
light hammer blows. If it becomes necessary to motive steam to the air ejector assembly. It is
plug tube sheet holes after a tube has been re- essential that DRY steam at FULL operating
moved, a short section of tube should be expanded pressure be supplied to the air ejector nozzles.
into the tube hole before the tube plug is inserted; Erosion of fouling of air ejector nozzles is
this will protect the tube holes from damage. evidence that wet steam is being admitted to the
Plugged tubes should be renewed during the unit. Faulty nozzles make it impossible to oper-
next shipyard availability if the water chestsare ate the ejector under high vacuum. In some in-
removed for other work; or ifmorethan10 per- stances, the nozzles may be clogged withgrease,
cent of the tubes are plugged, a retubing request boiler compound, or some other deposit which
should be submitted, via the type commander, to will decrease the jet efficiency.
NavShips.
For the procedure in locating and plugging DEAERATING FEED TANK
leaking condenser, tubes, refer to either the CONTROL AND SAFETY
manufacturer’s technical manual for the specific
equipment or chapter 9460 of NavShips Technical During normal operation, the only control
Manual, necessary is maintaining the proper water level.
(On some of the newer ships, this is done with
AIR EJECTOR ASSEMBLY
automatic control valves.) If the water level is
CONTROL AND SAFETY
too high, the tank cannot properly remove the
Inorder to provide for continuous operation, air and noncondensable gases from the feed
two sets of nozzles and diffusers are furnished water. A low water level may endanger the main
for each stage of the air ejectors. Only one set feed booster pumps, the main feed pumps, and
is necessary for operation of the plant; the other the boilers.
set is maintained ready for use in case of damage Deaerating feed tanks remove gases from the
or unsatisfactory operation of the setinuse. The feed water by using the principle that the solu-
sets can be used simultaneously when excessive bility of gases in feed water approaches zero
air leakage into the condenser necessitates when the water temperature approaches the boil-
additional pumping capacity. ing point. During operation, steam and water are
357
IIE oeititel PRINCIPLES
einai eae OF She
NAVAL ENGINEERING
mixed by spraying the water so that it comes in feed water leaving the deaerating feed tank, or
contact with steam from the auxiliary exhaust by inspecting the spray nozzles.
line. The quantity of steam must always be pro- Inspection of the spray nozzles should be
portional to the quantity of water, otherwise, scheduled at frequent intervals.
faulty operation or a casualty will result. In most deaerating feed tanks, the manhole
Overtfilling the deaerating tank may upset the provides access for the inspection of spray
steam-water balance and cool the water to such nozzles; other tanks are so designed that the
an extent that ineffective deaeration will take spray nozzle chamber and the vent condenser
place. Overfilling the deaerating tank also wastes must be removed in order to inspect the nozzles.
heat and fuel. The excess water, which willhave Complete information on constructing and
to run down to the condenser, will be cooled—and using a test rig for spray valves canbe found in
when it reenters the deaerating tank, more steam chapter 9560 of NavShips Technical Manual.
will be required to reheat it. If an excessive
amount of cold water enters the deaerating feed SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
tank, the temperature drop in the tank will cause FOR CONDENSERS
a corresponding drop in pressure. As the deaer-
ating feed tank pressure drops, more auxiliary When opening a main condenser for cleaning
exhaust steam enters the tank. This reduces the or inspection, or when testing a main condenser,
auxiliary exhaust line pressure, which causes the there are several safety precautions that must
augmenting valve (150 psi line to auxiliary be observed. The following procedures and pre-
exhaust line) to open and bleed live steam into the cautions, when carried out properly, will help
deaerating feed tank. prevent casualties to personnel and machinery:
When an excessive amount of cold water sud-
denly enters the deaerating feed tank, a serious 1. Before the salt water side of a condenser
casualty may result. The large amount of cold is opened, all sea connections, including the main
water will cool (quench) the upper area of the de- injection valve, circulating pump suction valve,
aerating feed tank and condense the steam so fast and main overboard valve, are to be closed tightly
that the pressure is reduced throughout the de- and secured against accidental opening with wire,
aerating feed tank. This permits the hot conden- and tagged, DO NOT OPEN, and signed by
sate in the lower portion of the deaerating feed the person tagging the valve. This is necessary
tank and feed booster pump to boil or flash into to avoid the possibility of flooding an engineroom,
vapor causing the booster pump to lose suction Safety gates, where provided, are to be installed.
until the pressure is restored and the boiling of 2. On condenser having electrically operated
the condensate ceases. With a loss of feed injection and overboard valves, the electrical
booster pump pressure, the main feed pump suc- circuits serving these motors are to be opened
tion is reduced or lost entirely, causing serious and tagged to prevent accidentally energizing
damage to the feed pump and loss of feed water these circuits.
supply to the boiler(s). Some of the newer ships 3. Before a manhole or handhole plate is re-
have safety devices installed on the main feed moved, drain the salt water side of the condenser
pumps which will stop the main feed pump when by using the drain valve provided in the inlet
a partial or total loss of main feed booster pres- water box. This is doneto make sure that all sea
sure occurs. connections are tightly closed.
The mixture of condensate, drains, and make- 4. If practicable, inspection plates are tobe
up feed water, constituting the inlet water to the replaced and secured before work is discontinued
deaerating tank, enters through the tubes of the each day.
vent condenser. The condensate pump discharge 5. Never subject condensers to a test pres-
pressure forces the water through the spray sure in excess of 15 psig.
valves of the spray head and discharges it ina 6. When testing for leaks, do not stop because
fine spray throughout the steam filled top or one leak is found. The entire surface of both tube
preheater section of the deaerating feed tank. sheets must be checked, as other leaks may exist.
If a spray nozzle sticks open, or if a spray Determine whether each leak is in the tube joint
nozzle spring is broken, the flow from the nozzle or in the tube wall, so that the proper repairs can
will not be in the form of a spray and the result be made.
will be ineffective deaeration. This condition 7. There is always a possibility that hydro-
cannot be discovered except by analysis of the gen or other gases may be present in the steam
358
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or the salt water side of a condenser. No open 13. No permanent connection which could
flame or tool which might cause a spark should allow salt water to enter the steam side of the
be brought close to a newly opened condenser. condenser, is to be retained.
Personnel are not to be permitted to enter a 14. Test the main circulating pump bilge suc-
newly opened condenser until it has been tion, when so directed by the engineer officer. To
thoroughly blown out with steam or air. conduct this test, it is generally necessary only
8. The salt water side of a condenser must to start the main circulating pump, open the bilge
be drained before flooding of the steam side and suction line stop or check valve, and then close
must be kept drained until the steam side is down on the sea suction line valve to about 3/4
emptied. closed, or until the maximum bilge suction
9. The relief valve (set at 15 psig) mounted capacity is obtained.
on the inlet water chest is to be lifted by hand
MAINTENANCE
whenever condensers are secured.
10. If a loss of vacuum is accompanied by a Condensers, heat exchangers and associated
hot or flooded condenser, the units exhausting equipment should be periodically tested and in-
into the condenser must be slowed or stopped spected to ensure that they are operating
until the casualty is corrected. Condensate must efficiently. Preventive maintenance is much
not be allowed to collect in condenser and over- more economical than corrective maintenance.
flow into the turbines or engines. All preventive maintenance should be conducted
11. Condenser shell relief valves are to be in accordance with the 3-M System (PMS Sub-
lifted by hand before a condenser is put into serv- system). As an example, figure 13-6 shows two
ice. maintenance requirement cards, one for a main
12. No permanent connection which could condenser and the other for a deaerating feed
subject the salt water side to a pressure in ex- tank. Note: These cards contain specific infor-
cess of 15 psig, is to be retained between any mation for conducting the specified preventive
condenser and a water system. maintenance actions.
360
PART IV—AUXILIARY MACHINERY
AND EQUIPMENT
Chapter 14 Piping, Fittings, and Valves

Chapter 15 Pumps and Forced Draft Blowers
Chapter 16 Auxiliary Steam Turbines
Chapter 17 Compressed Air Plants
Chapter 18 Distilling Plants
Chapter 19 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Plants
Chapter 20 Shipboard Electrical Systems
Chapter 21 Other Auxiliary Equipment
The chapters included in this part of the text deal with the auxiliary
machinery and equipment of the shipboard engineering plant. Some of
the units and plants described here are directly related to the operation
of the major units of propulsion machinery; others may be regarded as
supporting systems. Major emphasis in this part of the text is on the
auxiliary machinery and equipment found on conventional steam-driven
ships; however, a substantial amount of the information given here applies
also to ships with other kinds of propulsion plants.
It should be noted that diesel engines, gasoline engines, and gas
turbine engines-all of which may be used to drive auxiliary machinery
and equipment—are not included here. These units are discussed in part
V of this text.
361
CHAPTER 14
PIPING, FITTINGS, AND VALVES
This chapter deals with pipe, tubing, fittings, systems are covered in detail by contract
valves, and related components that make up Specifications and by a number of plans and
the shipboard piping systems used for the trans- drawings. The information given here is not
fer of fluids. The general arrangement and lay- intended as a detailed listing but merely asa
out of the major engineering piping systems is general guide to the design requirements of
discussed in chapter 9 of this text; inthe present shipboard piping systems.
chapter, we are concerned with certain practical All shipboard piping is installed in such a
aspects of piping system design and with the way that it will not interfere with the operation
actual piping system components—pipe, tubing, of the ship’s machinery or with the operation
fittings, and valves. of doors, hatches, scuttles, or openings covered
by removable plates. As far as possible, piping
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS is installed so that it will not interfere with the
maintenance and repair of machinery or of the
Each piping system and all its components ship’s structure. If piping must be installed in
must be designed to meet the particular condi- the way of machinery or equipment which re-
tions of service that will be encountered in quires periodic dismantling for overhaul, or if
actual use. The nature of the contained fluid, it must be installed in the way of other piping
the operating pressures and temperatures of systems or electrical systems, the piping is
the system, the amount of fluid that must be designed for easy removal. Piping that is vital
delivered, and the required rate of delivery to the propulsion of the ship is not installed
are some of the factors that determine the ma- where it would have to be dismantled in order
terials used, the types of valves and fittings to permit routine maintenance on machinery
used, the thickness of the pipe or tubing, and or other systems. Piping is not normally in-
many other details. Piping systems that must stalled in such a way as to pass through voids,
be subjected to temperature changes are de- fuel oil tanks, ballast tanks, feed tanks, and
signed to allow for expansion and contraction. Similar spaces.
Special problems that might arise—water ham-
Valves, unions, and flanges are carefully
mer, turbulence, vibration, erosion, corrosion,
located to permit isolation of sections of piping
- and creep, for example—are also considered in
with the least possible interference to the con-
the design of piping systems. _
tinued operation of the rest of the system. The
The requirements governing the design and
type of valve used in any particular location
_ arrangement of components for shipboard piping
is specified on the basis of the service con-
ditions to be encountered. For example, gate
1The term creep is used to describe a special kind of valves are widely used in locations where
plastic deformation that occurs very slowly, at high
the turbulent flow characteristics of other
temperatures, in metals under constant stress. Be-
Cause creep occurs very slowly—so slowly, in fact, types of valves might be detrimental to the
that years may be required to complete a single components of the system.
creep test—the importance of this type of plastic
Unnecessary high points and low points are
deformation was not recognized in many fields of
engineering -until fairly recently. Creep-resisting
avoided in piping systems. Where high points
steel is now used in most modern naval boilers and low points are unavoidable, vents, drains,
and for most high temperature piping. or other devices are installed to ensure proper
’
363
PRINCIPLES
Sa a OF NAVAL
a ENGINEERING
ee ee err
functioning of the system and equipment served Supports used in shipboard piping systems
by the system. must be strong enough to support the weight of
Various joints are used in shipboard piping the piping, its contained fluid, and its insulation
systems. The joints used in any system depend and lagging. Supports must carry the loads im-
upon the piping service, the pipe size, and the posed by expansion and contraction of the piping
construction period of the ship. Older naval and by the working of the ship, and they must
ships have threaded flanges in low pressure be able to support the piping with complete
piping; rolled-in joints for steel piping that is safety. Supports are designed to permit the
too large for the threaded flanges; and spelter- movement of the piping necessary for flexibility
brazed flanges for copper and brass piping. On of the system. A sufficient number of supports
new construction, welded joints are used to the are used to prevent excessive vibration of the
maximum practicable extent in systems that system under all conditions of operation, but
are fabricated of carbon steel, alloy steel, the supports must not cause excessive con-
or other weldable material. On both older and straint of the piping. Supports are used for
newer Ships, flanged joints made up with special heavy valves and fittings so that the weight of
gaskets are in uSe. the valves and fittings will not be entirely sup-
Components welded in a piping system must ported by the pipe.
be accessible for repair, reseating, and over-
haul while in place; they are so located that PIPE AND TUBING
they can be removed, preheated, rewelded, and
stress relieved when major repairs or replace- Piping is defined as an assembly of pipe or
ments are necessary. Complex assemblies— tubing, valves, fittings, and related components
for example, assemblies of valves, strainers, forming a whole or a part of asystem for trans-
and traps in high pressure drain systems—are ferring fluids.
designed to be removable as a group if they It is somewhat more difficult to define pipe
cannot be repaired while in place and if they and tubing. In commercial usage, there is no
require frequent overhaul. clear distinction between pipe and tubing, since
Flanged and union joints are placed where the correct designation for each tubular product
they will be least affected by piping system is established by the manufacturer. If the manu-
stresses. In general, this means that joints are facturer calls a product pipe, it is pipe; if he
not located at bends or offsets in the piping. calls it tubing, it istubing. Inthe Navy, however,
Valves are designed so that they can be a distinction is made between pipe and tubing.
operated with the minimum practicable amount This distinction is based on the way the tubular
of force and with the maximum practicable con- product is identified as to size.
venience, If a man must stand on slippery deck There are three important dimensions of any
plates to turn a valve handwheel, or if he must tubular product: outside diameter (OD), inside
reach over his head or around acorner, he can- diameter (ID), and wall thickness. A tubular
not apply the same amount of torque that he could product is called tubing if its size is identified
apply to a more conveniently located handwheel. by actual measured outside diameter (OD) and
Thus the location of the handwheels is an impor- by actual measured wall thickness. A tubular
tant design consideration. Toggle mechanisms or product is called pipe if its size is identified
other mechanical advantage devices are used by a nominal dimension called iron pipe size
where the amount of torque required to turna (IPS) and by reference to a wall thickness
handwheel is more than could normally be ap- schedule of piping.
plied by one man. If mechanical advantage de- The size identification of tubing is simple
vices are not sufficient to produce easy operation enough, since it consists of actual measured
of the valve, power operation is used. dimensions; but the terms used for identifying
If accidental opening or closing of a valve pipe sizes may require some explanation. A
could endanger personnel or jeopardize the nominal dimension such as iron pipe size is
safety of the ship, locking devices are used. close to—but not necessarily identical with—an
Any locking device installed on a valve must be actual measured dimension. For example, a
designed so that it can be easily operated by pipe with a nominal pipe size of 3 inches has
authorized personnel; but it must be complex an actual measured outside diameter of 3.50
enough to discourage casual or indiscriminate inches, and a pipe with a nominal pipe size of
Operation by other persons. 2 inches has an actual measured outside diameter
364
Chapter 14.—PIPING, FITTINGS, AND VALVES
of 2.375 inches. In the larger sizes (above 12 particular interest are noted in the following
inches) the nominal pipe size and the actual paragraphs.
measured outside diameter are the same. For Seamless chromium-molybdenum alloy steel
example, a pipe with a nominal pipe size of pipe is used for some high pressure, high tem-
14 inches has an actual measured outside dia- perature systems. The upper limit for the piping
meter of 14 inches. Nominal dimensions are is 1500 psig and 1050° F.
used in order to simplify the standardization Seamless carbon steel tubing is used in
of pipe fittings and pipe taps and threading dies. oil, steam, and feed water lines operating at
The wall thickness of pipe is identified by 775° F and below. Different types of this tubing
reference to wall thickness schedules estab- are available; the type used in any particular
lished by the American Standards Association. system depends upon the working pressure of
For example, a reference to schedule 40 for the system.
a steel pipe with a nominal pipe size of 3 inches Seamless carbon-molybdenum alloy steel
indicates that the wall thickness of the pipe is tubing is used for feed water discharge piping,
0.216 inch. A reference to schedule 80 for a boiler pressure superheated steam lines, and
steel pipe of the same nominal pipe size in- boiler pressure saturated steam lines. Several
dicates that the wall thickness of this pipe is types of this tubing are available; the type
0.300 inch. A reference to schedule 40 for used in any particular case depends upon the
steel pipe of nominal pipe size 4 inches in- boiler operating pressure and the superheater
dicates that the wall thickness of this pipe is outlet temperature. The upper pressure and
0.237 inch. As may be noted from these ex- temperature limits for any class of this tubing
amples, a wall thickness schedule identification are 1500 psig and 875° F.
does not identify any one particular wall thick- Seamless chromium-molybdenum alloy steel
ness unless the nominal pipe size is alsospeci- tubing is used for high pressure, high tempera-
fied. ture steam service on newer ships. This type
The examples used here are given merely of alloy steel tubing is available with different
to illustrate the meaning of wall thickness percentages of chromium and molybdenum, with
schedule designations. Many other values can upper limits of 1500 psig and 1050° F,
be found in pipe tables given in engineering Welded carbon steel tubing is used in some
handbooks and piping handbooks. water, steam, and oil lines where the tempera-
Pipe was formerly identified as standard ture does not exceed 450° F. There are several
(Std), extra strong (XS), and double extra strong types of this tubing; each type is specified for
(XXS). These designations, which are still used certain services and certain service conditions.
to some extent, also refer to wall thickness. Nonferrous pipe and nonferrous tubing are
However, pipe is manufactured in a number of used for many shipboard systems. Nonferrous
different wall thicknesses, and some pipe does metals are used chiefly where their special
not fit into the standard, extra strong, and properties of corrosion resistance and high
double extra strong classifications. The wall heat conductivity are required. Various types
thickness schedules are being used increasingly of seamless copper tubing are used for re-
to identify the wall thickness of pipe because frigeration lines, plumbing and heating systems,
they provide for the identification of a larger lubrication systems, and other shipboard sys-
number of wall thicknesses than can be identi- tems. Copper-nickel alloy tubing is widely used
fied under the standard, extra strong, and double aboard ship. Seamless brass tubing is used in
extra strong classifications. systems which must resist the corrosive action
of salt water and other fluids; it is available in
It should be noted that pipe and tubing is types and sizes suitable for operating pressures
occaSionally identified in ways other than the up to 4000 psig. Seamless aluminum tubing is
Standard ways described here. For example, used for dry lines in sprinkling systems and
some tubing is identified by inside diameter for some bilge and sanitary drain systems.
(ID) rather than by outside diameter (OD), and Many other kinds of pipe and tubing besides
some pipe is identified by nominal pipe size, the kinds mentioned here are used in shipboard
OD, ID, and actual measured wall thickness. piping systems. It is important to remember
A great many different kinds of pipe and that design considerations govern the selection
tubing are used in shipboard piping systems. of any particular pipe or tubing for a particular
A few shipboard applications that may be of system. Although many kinds of pipe and tubing
365
look almost exactly alike from the outside, they of sliding expansion joint depends upon the
may respond very differently to pressures, specific design of the joint.
temperatures, and other service conditions. Flexing-type expansion joints are those in
Therefore, each kind of pipe and tubing can be which motion is absorbed by the flexing action
used only for the specified applications. of a bellows or some Similar device. There
are various kinds of flexing-type expansion
PIPE FITTINGS joints, each kind being designed to suit the
requirements of the particular system in which
Pipe or tubing alone does not constitute a it is installed. Figure 14-2 illustrates the gen-
piping system. To make the pipe or tubing into eral principle of a bellows-type expansion joint.
a system, it is necessary to have a variety of Expansion joints are not always used in
fittings, connections, and accessories by which piping systems, even when allowance must be
the seetions of pipe or tubing can be properly made for expansion and contraction of the piping.
joined and the flow of the transferred fluid may The same effect can be achieved by using direc-
be controlled. The following sections of this tional changes and expansion bends or loops.
chapter deal with some of the pipe fittings most
commonly used in shipboard piping systems; FLARELESS FLUID CONNECTIONS
these fittings include unions, flanges, expansion
joints, flareless fluid connections, steam traps, A special flareless fluid connection has re-
strainers, and valves. cently been developed for connecting sections
of tubing in some high pressure shipboard sys-
UNIONS tems. This fitting, which is generally known as
the bite-type fitting, is very useful for certain
Union fittings are provided inpiping systems applications because it is smaller and lighter
to allow the piping to be taken down for repairs in weight than the conventional fittings previously
and alterations. Unions are available in many used to join tubing. The bite-type fitting is used
different materials and designs to withstand on certain selected systems where the tubing
a wide range of pressures and temperatures. is between 1/8 and 2 inches in outside diameter.
Figure 14-1 shows some commonly used types The bite-type fitting, shown in figure 14-3,
of unions. consists of a body, a ferrule or sleeve that
grips the tubing, and a nut. The fitting is not
FLANGES used in places where there is insufficient space
for proper tightening of the nut, in places where
Flanges are uSed in piping systems to allow piping or equipment would have to be removed
easy removal of piping and other equipment. in order to gain access to the fitting, or in
The materials used and the design of the flanges places where the tubing cannot be easily de-
are governed by the requirements of service. flected for ready assembly or breakdown of the
Flanges in steel piping systems are usually joint. The fitting is Sometimes used on gage
welded to the pipe or tubing. Flanges in nonfer- board or instrument panel tubing, provided the
rous systems are usually brazed to the pipe gage board or panel is designed to be removed
or tubing. as a unit when repairs are required.
EXPANSION JOINTS STEAM TRAPS
Expansion joints are used in some piping Steam traps are installed in steam lines to
systems to allow the piping to expand and con- drain condensate from the lines without allow-
tract with temperature changes, without damage ing the escape of steam. There are many dif-
to the piping. Two basic types of expansion ferent designs of steam traps, some being suit-
joints are used in shipboard piping systems: able for high pressure use and others being
Sliding-type joints and flexing-type joints. suitable for low pressure uSe. In general, a
Sliding-type expansion joints include sleeve steam trap consists of a valve and some device
joints, rotary joints, ball and socket joints, or arrangement that will cause the valve to
and joints made up of some combination of these open and close as necessary to drain the con-
types. The amount of axial and rotary motion densate from the lines without allowing the
that can be abosrbed by any particular type escape of steam. Steam traps are installed at
366
z=
—
=
tii —
—
—
—
—
—
—
un—
[
—
| —S
—
—
—
11.313
Figure 14-1.—Unions.
low points in the system or machinery to be bucket rises. As condensate continues to flow into
drained. Some types of steam traps that are the trap body, the valve remains closed until the
used in the Navy are described here. bucket is full. When the bucket is full, it sinks
and thus opens the valve. The valve remains
MECHANICAL STEAM TRAPS.—Mechanical open until enough condensate has passed out to
steam traps in common use include ball float allow the bucket to float, thus closing the valve.
traps and bucket-type traps.
A ball float steam trap is shown in figure THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAPS.— There
14-4, The valve of this trap is connected to the are several kinds of thermostatic steam traps
float in such a way that the valve opens when in use. In general, these traps are more com-
the float rises. When the trap is in operation, pact and have fewer moving parts than most
the steam and any water that may be mixed mechanical steam traps.
with it flows into the float chamber. As the A bellows-type thermostatic steam trap is
water level rises, it lifts the float and this shown in figure 14-6. The operation of this
in turn lifts the valve plug and opens the valve. trap is controlled by the expansion of the vapor
The condensate drains out and the float moves of a volatile liquid which is enclosed in a bel-
down to a lower position, closing the valve. lows-type element. Steam enters the trap body
The condensate that passes out of the trap is and heats the volatile liquid in the sealed bel-
returned to the feed system. lows, thus causing expansion of the bellows. The
A bucket-type steam trap is shown in figure valve is attached to the bellows in such a way
14-5. As condensate enters the trap body, the that the valve closes when the bellows expands.
bucket floats. The valve is connected to the The valve remains closed, trapping steam in
bucket in such a way that the valve closes as the the valve body. As the steam cools and condenses,
367
STAINLESS STEEL
BELLOWS COMPRESSION LIMIT AIR VENT CONDENSATE INLET
LIMIT STOP
INTERNAL SLEEVE EXTENSION
LIMIT
CONDENSATE
DISCHARGE
SALINITY CELL CONN.
11.325D
Figure 14-4.—Ball float steam trap.
EXTERNAL DIRT GUARD
38.127X
Figure 14-2.—Bellows-type expansion
joint.
11.312
Figure 14-3.—Flareless fluid connection
(bite-type fitting).
11.325X
the bellows cools and contracts, thereby opening Figure 14-5.—Bucket-type steam trap.
the valve and allowing the condensate to drain.
baffle keeps the entering steam and condensate
IMPULSE STEAM TRAPS.—Impulse steam from impinging on the cylinder or on the disk.
traps of the type shown in figure 14-7 are used The impulse type of steam trap depends for
in some steam drain collecting systems aboard its operation on the fact that hot water under
ship. Steam and condensate pass through a pressure tends to flash into steam when the
strainer before entering the trap. A circular pressure is reduced. In order tounderstand how
368
CAP
(aah
N
S
SHIELD 1p
TLL
VALVE
LALLILLLLLLLLL
Lie
LILLE)
ffl
REPLACEABLE
HERMETICALLY
¥ SEALED BELLOWS
(a) TRAP COLD; VALVE OPEN (b) TRAP HOT; VALVE CLOSED
11.326X
Figure 14-6.—Thermostatic steam trap.
CYLINDER STEM
LOCK NUT
CONTROL
ORIFICE
CYLINDER
CIRCULAR
4 TO HIGH PRESSURE
DRAIN SYSTEM
CONTROL
ORIFICE
STRAINER
CIRCULAR
BAFFLE
) FLANGE
s VALVE
DISK
38.126
Figure 14-7,.—Impulse steam trap.
this principle is utilized, we will consider the than the working surface below the flange; the
arrangement of parts shown in figure 14-7 and importance of having this larger effective area
see what happens to the flow of condensate under above the flange will presently become apparent.
various conditions. A control orifice runs through the disk from
The only moving part in the steam trap is top to bottom, being considerably smaller atthe
the disk. This disk is rather unusual in design. top than at the bottom. The bottom part of the
Near the top of the disk there is a flange that disk extends through and beyond the orifice in
acts as a piston. As may be seenin figure 14-7, the seat. The upper part of the disk (including
the working surface above the flange is larger the flange) is inside a cylinder. The cylinder
369
tapers inward, so the amount of clearance be- opening. With a heavy condensate load, the valve
tween the flange and the cylinder varies accord- remains wide open and allows a continuous
ing to the position of the valve. When the valve discharge of condensate.
is open, the clearance is greater than when the
valve is closed.
ORIFICE-TYPE STEAM TRAPS.—Aboard
When the trap is first cut in, pressure from
ship, continuous-flow steam traps of the orifice
the inlet (chamber A) acts against the underside
type are used in some constant service steam
of the flange and lifts the disk offthe valve seat.
systems, oil heating steam systems, ventilation
Condensate is thus allowed to pass out through
preheaters, and other systems or services in
the orifice in the seat; and, at the same time, a
which condensate forms at a fairly constant
small amount of condensate (called control flow)
rate. Orifice-type steam traps are not suitable
flows up past the flange and into chamber B. The
for services in which the condensate formation
control flow discharges through the control ori-
is not continuous.
fice, into the outlet side of the trap, and the pres-
There are several variations of the orifice-
sure in chamber B remains lower thanthe pres-
type steam trap, but all types have one thing
sure in chamber A.
in common—they contain no moving parts. One
As the line warms up, the temperature of the
or more restricted passageways or orifices
condensate flowing through the trap increases.
allow condensate to trickle through but do not
The reverse taper of the cylinder varies the
allow steam to flow through. Some orifice-type
amount of flow around the flange until a balanced
steam traps have baffles as well as orifices.
position is reached in which the total force
exerted above the flange is equal to the total
force exerted below the flange. It is important BIMETALLIC STEAM TRAPS.—Bimetallic
to note that there is still a pressure difference steam traps of the type shown in figure 14-8
between chamber A and chamber B. The force are used on many ships to drain condensate
is equalized because the effective area above from main steam lines, auxiliary steam lines,
the flange is larger than the effective area below and other steam lines. The main working parts
the flange. The difference in working area is of this steam trap are a segmented bimetallic
such that the valve maintains an open, balanced element and a ball-type check valve.
position when the pressure in chamber B is 86
The bimetallic element consists of several
percent of the pressure in chamber A.
bimetallic strips2 fastened together in a seg-
As the temperature of the condensate ap-
mented fashion, as shown in figure 14-8. One
proaches its boiling point, some of the control
end of the bimetallic element is fastened rigidly
flow going to chamber B flashes into steam as
to a part of the trap body; the other end, which
it enters the low pressure area. Since the steam
is free to move, is fastened to the top of the
has a much greater volume than the water from
stem of the ball-type check valve.
which it is generated, pressure builds up in the
space above the flange (chamber B). When the Line pressure acting on the check valve
pressure in this space is 86 percent of the inlet tends to keep the valve open, When steam enters
pressure (chamber A), the force exerted on the the trap body, the bimetallic element expands
top of the flange pushes the entire disk down- unequally because of the differential response
ward and so closes the valve. to temperature of the two metals; the bimetallic
With the valve closed, the only flow through element deflects upward at its free end, thus
the trap is past the flange and through the con- moving the valve stem upward and closing the
trol orifice. When the temperature of the con- valve. As the steam cools and condenses, the
densate entering the trap drops slightly, con- bimetallic element moves downward, toward
densate enters chamber B without flashing into the horizontal position, thus opening the valve
steam. Pressure in chamber B is thus reduced and allowing some condensate to flow out through
to the point where the valve opens and allows the valve. As the flow of condensate begins, a
condensate to flow through the orifice in the greater area of the ball is exposed tothe higher
valve seat. Thus the entire cycle is repeated pressure above the seat. The valve now opens
continuously. wide and allows a full capacity flow of condensate.
With a normal condensate load, the valve
opens and closes at frequent intervals, dis- 2The principle of bimetallic expansion is discussed
charging a small amount of condensate at each in chapter 7 of this text.
370
Chapter 14. —PIPING, FITTINGS, AND VALVES
disks across each other in such a way as to re-

move any particles that have collected on the
metal surfaces. Some metal-edge type filters
have magnets to aid in removing fine particles
of magnetic materials.
VALVES
Every piping system must have some means

of controlling the amount and direction of the
flow of the contained fluid through the lines.
The control of fluid flow is accomplished by the
installation of valves.
Valves are usually made of bronze, brass,
iron, or steel. Steel valves are either cast or
forged, and are made of either plain steel or
alloy steel. Alloy steel valves are used in high
pressure, high temperature systems; the disks
and seats of these valves are usually surfaced
with Stellite, an extremely hard chromium-co-
balt alloy.
147.104X Bronze and brass valves are not used in
Figure 14-8.—Bimetallic steam trap. high temperature systems. Also, they are not
used in systems in which they would be exposed
STRAINERS AND FILTERS to severe conditions of pressure, vibration, or
shock. Bronze valves are widely used in salt
Strainers are fitted in practically all piping water systems. The seats and disks of bronze
lines to prevent the passage of grit, scale, dirt, valves used for sea water service are often
and other foreign matter which could obstruct made of Monel, a metal that is highly resistant
pump suction valves, throttle valves, or other to corrosion and erosion.
machinery parts. Many different types of valves are used to
Figure 14-9 illustrates three common types control the flow of liquids and gases. The basic
of strainers. Part A shows a bilge suction valve types can be divided into two groups,
strainer located in the bilge pump suction line stop valves and check valves. Stop valves are
between the suction manifold and the pump. those which are used to shut off—or partially
Any debris which enters the piping is collected shut off—the flow of fluid. Stop valves are con-
in the strainer basket. The basket can be re- trolled by the movement of the valve stem.
moved for cleaning by loosening the strongback Check valves are those which are used to per-
screws, removing the cover, and lifting the mit the flow of fluid in only one direction. Check
basket out by its handle. Part B of figure 14-9 valves are designed to be controlled by the
- shows a duplex oil strainer of the type com- movement of the fluid itself.
monly uSed in fuel oil and lubricating oil lines, Stop valves include globe valves, gate valves,
where it is essential to maintain an uninterrupted plug valves, piston valves, needle valves, and
flow of oil. The flow may be diverted from one butterfly valves. Check valves include ball-check
basket to the other, while one is being cleaned. valves, swing-check valves, and lift-check
Part C of figure 14-9 shows a manifold steam valves.
strainer. This type of strainer is desirable Combination stop-check valves are valves
where space is limited, since it eliminates which function either as stop valves or as check
the use of separate strainers and their fittings. valves, depending upon the position of the valve
The cover is located so that the strainer basket stem.
can be removed for cleaning. In addition to the basic types of valves, a
Metal-edge filters are used in the lubrica- good many special valves which cannot really
tion systems of many auxiliary units. A metal- be classified either as stop valves or as check
edge filter consists of a series of metal plates valves are found in the engineering spaces.
or disks. Turning a handle moves the plates or Many of these special valves serve to control
371
nnn
Wil,
MUM,
ye
SSK. Qy % =
= @
COVER
BASKET
HANDLE Uy
SOOO
BASKET B OUTLET FLANGE

STRAINER
TO PUMP
SUCTION
11.329X
Figure 14-9.—A. Bilge suction strainer. B. Duplex oil strainer.
C. Manifold steam strainer.
the pressure of fluids and are therefore general- flow of fluid. When the disk is moved off the
ly called pressure-control valves. Others are seating surface, fluid can pass through the valve.
identified by names which indicate their general Globe valves may be used partially open as
function—as, for example, thermostatic recir- well as fully open or fully closed.
culating valves. The following sections deal first Globe valve inlet and outlet openings are
with the basic types of stop valves and check arranged in several ways, to suit varying re-
valves and then with some of the more complex quirements of flow. Figure 14-10 shows three
special kinds of valves. common types of globe valve bodies. In the
straight type, the fluid inlet and outlet openings
Globe Valves are in line with each other. In the angle type,
Globe valves are one of the commonest types the inlet and outlet openings are at an angle
of stop valves. Globe valves get their name to each other. An angle-type globe valve is
from the globular shape of their bodies, It is used where a stop valve is needed at a 90° turn
important to note, however, that other types of in a line. The cross type of globe valve has
valves may also have globe-shaped bodies; three openings rather than two; it is often used
hence it is not always possible to identify a globe in connection with bypass piping.
valve merely by external appearance. The inter- A globe-type stop valve is shown in cross-
nal structure of the valve, rather thanthe exter- sectional view in figure 14-11. Figure 14-12
nal shape, is what distinguishes one type of shows a cutaway view of a Similar (but not
valve from another. identical) globe valve.
The disk of a globe valve is attached to the Globe valves are commonly used in steam,
valve stem. The disk seats against a seating air, oil, and water lines. On many ships, the
ring or a seating surface and thus shuts off the surface blow valves, the bottom blow valves,
372
The part of a gate valve that servesthe same

purpose as the disk of a globe valve is called
Ss
a gate. The gate is usually wedge-shaped, but
some gates are of uniform thickness. When the
gate is wide open, the opening through the valve
is the same size as the pipe in which the valve
is installed. Therefore, there is very little re-
sistance to flow and very little pressure drop
through this type of valve. Gate valves are not
suitable for use as throttling valves, since the
SST _ Pe \ regulation of flow would be difficult and since
Zz ES the flow of fluid against a partially opened gate
would cause extensive damage to the valve.
WHEEL NUT
11.316X
Figure 14-10.—Types of globe valve bodies.
LIST OF PARTS
PART NO] NAME OF PART
l VALVE BODY
2 BONNET
3 STEM i PACKING
4 DISK NUT NUT
5 DISK
6 BONNET STUD
ie BONNET STUD NUT
8 BONNET BUSHING
9 | GLAND
10__| GLAND FLANGE
U1 | PACKING STOP RING GLAND
12___| GLAND STUD
13___ [GLAND STUD NUT
14__| SET SCREW
15___| HANDWHEEL
16 |HANOWHEEL NUT PACKING
[7___| PACKING
18 | BONNET GASKET
19 | DISK WASHER
BONNET
38.117
DISK
Figure 14-11.—Cross-sectional view of STEM
globe stop valve. UNION RING
the boiler stops, the feed stop valve, and many WASHER
guarding valves and line cutout valves are of
this type. Globe valves are also used as stop DISK WASHER
valves on the suction side of many pumps, as
recirculating valves, and as throttle valves.
Gate Valves
Gate valves are used when a straight-line

flow of fluid with a minimum amount of restric-
tion is required. Gate valves are frequently
used in water lines; for example, firemain cut-
out valves are usually gate valves. They are
also used in steam lines, particularly on the
newer ships. In fact, there appears to be an in-
eS Hizb
creasing trend toward the use of gate valves
Figure 14-12.—Cutaway view of globe
in many systems on new construction.
stop valve.
373
As shown in figures 14-13 and 14-14, the Plug Valves

gate is connected to the valve stem. Turning
the handwheel positions the valve gate. Some The body of a plug valve is shaped in such
gate valves have nonrising stems—that is, the a way that it will hold a cylindrical or tapered
stem is threaded on the lower end and the gate plug. Holes or ports in the body line up with
is threaded on the inside so that the gate travels the pipe in which the valve is installed. A solid
up the stem when the valve is being opened. Gate cylindrical plug (or in some cases a plug shaped
valves with nonrising stems are shown infigure like a truncated cone) fits snugly into the hollow
14-13. This type of valve usually has a pointer of the body. The plug is attached to a handle, by
or a gage to indicate whether the valve is in means of which the plug can be turned within
the open position or in the closed position. the body. A passageway is bored through the
Some gate valves have rising stems—that is, plug. When the valve is in the open position, the
both the gate and the stem move upward when passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and
the valve is opened. In some rising stem valves, outlet ports of the body, thus allowing fluid to
the stem projects above the handwheel when flow through the valve. When the plug is turned
the valve is opened; in other rising stem valves,
the stem does not project above the handwheel.
A pointer or a gage is required to indicate the YOKE SLEEVE
NUT
position of the valve if the stem does not pro-
ject above the handweel when the valve is in
the open position.
YOKE SLEEVE
, NOT USED
ON 2"SIZE
a
= STEM
2
NOT USED
ON 2°SIZEK-18. c=
JJUUUUUULUJUU
9
8 19
GLAND
BONNET
BUSHING
|
PACKING
BONNET
SW
SS nw-aonrs
ia
SSS
ow BODY BONNET
BOLTS
ANN
AANARANY
SSS
GATE
BODY
NAME OF PART RINGS

1 HANDWHEEL WASHER
2 SEAT RING HANDWHEEL NUT
3 GATE BONNET STUD
4 STEM BONNET STUD NUT
5 BONNET GASKET STUFFING BOX GASKET
6 BONNET INDICATOR PLATE
7 STUFFING BOX LOCK WASHER
8 20 INDICATOR PLATE SCREW
9 2 INDICATOR NUT
10 GLAND STUD 22 STUFFING BOX STUD
GLAND STUD NUT STUFFING BOX STUD NUT
HANOWHEEL
38.118 11.317,.2x
Figure 14-13.—Cross-sectional views of Figure 14-14.—Cutaway view of gate stop
gate stop valves (nonrising stem type). valve (rising stem type).
374
in the body, the solid part of the plug blocks the are also used in some components of automatic
ports and thus prevents the flow of fluid. boiler control systems,
Plug valves are quite commonly used in
connection with auxiliary machinery. The pet- Butterfly Valves
cocks that are used as vents on lubricating oil
coolers for auxiliary machinery are usually The butterfly valve, shown in figure 14-15,
plug valves. The three-way and four-way cocks is being used increasingly in naval ships. The
that allow selective routing of various fluids butterfly valve has some definite advantages
are usually variations of the plug valve. The for certain services. It is light in weight, it
shutoff device that allows fuel oil or lubricating takes up less space than a gate valve or a globe
oil to be diverted from one basket to another valve of the same capacity, and it is relatively
of a duplex strainer is often a modified plug quick acting. The butterfly valve provides a
valve. positive shutoff and may be used as a throttling
valve set in any position from full open to full
Piston Valves closed.
Butterfly valves vary somewhat in design
A piston valve is a stop valve that may be and construction. However, a butterfly-type disk
thought of as a combination of a gate valve and and a positive means of sealing are common to
a plug valve. The piston valve consists basically all butterfly valves.
of a cylindrical piston operating in a hollow The butterfly valve described and illustrated
cylinder. The piston is attached to the valve here consists of a body, a resilient seat, a
stem, and the valve stem is attached to a hand- butterfly-type disk, a stem, packing, a notched
wheel. When the handwheel is turned, the piston positioning plate, and a handle. The resilient
is raised or lowered within the hollow cylinder. seat is under compression when it is mounted
The cylinder has ports in its walls. When the in the valve body, thus making a seal around
piston is raised, the ports are uncovered and the periphery of the disk and both upper and
fluid is allowed to pass through the valve. lower points where the stem passes through
the seat. Packing is provided to form a positive
Needle Valves seal around the stem if the seal formed by the
seat should become damaged.
Needle valves are stop valves that are used To close a butterfly valve, it is only neces-
for making relatively fine adjustments in the sary to turn the handle a quarter of a turn in
amount of fluid that is allowed to pass through order to rotate the disk 90 degrees. The resi-
an opening. The distinguishing characteristic lient seat exerts positive pressure against the
of a needle valve is the long, tapering, needle- disk, ensuring a tight shutoff.
like point on the end of the valve stem. This Butterfly valves may be designed to meet
“needle’’ acts as the valve disk. The longer a variety of requirements. The shipboard sys-
part of the needle is smaller than the orifice tems in which these valves are now being used
in the valve seat, and therefore passes through include fresh water, salt water, JP-5, Navy
it before the needle seats. This arrangement special fuel, diesel oil, and lubricating oil.
permits a very gradual increase or decrease
in the size of the opening and thus allows a Check Valves
more precise control of flow than could be ob-
tained with an ordinary globe valve. Check valves are designed to permit flow
Needle valves are uSed as overload nozzles through a line in one direction only. There are
On some auxiliary turbines. Needle valves are almost innumerable examples of check valves
often used aS component parts of other more throughout the engineering plant. Check valves
complicated valves. For example, they are are used in open funnel drains, in fuel oil heater
used in some types of reducing valves. Most drains, and in various other drains. They are
constant-pressure pump governors3 have needle used in connection with many pumps, and in
valves to minimize the effects of fluctuations any line in which it is important to prevent the
in pump discharge pressure. Needle valves back flow of fluid.
The port in a check valve may be closed by
3Constant-pressure pump governors are discussed in a disk, a ball, or a plunger. The valve opens
chapter 16 of this text. when the pressure on the inlet side is greater,
375
11.319X
Figure 14-16.—Swing-check valve.
valves or as check valves, depending upon the

position of the valve stem. These valves are
known as stop-check valves.
Stop-check valves are shown incross section
in figure 14-19. As may be seen, this type of
valve looks very much like a lift-check valve.
11.318
However, the valve stem is long enough so that
Figure 14-15.—Butterfly valve.
when it is screwed all the way down it holds
the disk firmly against the seat, thus preventing
and closes when the pressure on the outlet side
any flow of fluid. In this position, the valve acts
is greater. All check valves open and close
as a stop valve. When the stem is raised, the
automatically.
side can be opened by pressure on the inlet
A swing-check valve is illustrated in figure
side. In this position, the valve acts as a check
14-16. Figures 14-17 and 14-18 show alift-check
valve, allowing the flow of fluid in only one
valve. AS may be seen, the disk of the swing-
direction. The maximum lift of the disk is con-
check valve moves through an arc, while the
trolled by the position of the valve stem. There-
disk of a lift-check valve moves up and down in
fore, the position of the valve stem limits the
response to changes in the pressure of the incom-
amount of fluid passing through the valve even
ing fluid. A good example of a ball-check valve
when the valve is operating as a check valve.
is the discharge valve in the bimetallic steam
trap, described and illustrated earlier in this Stop -check valves are widely used through-
chapter. out the engineering plant. One of the best ex-
amples is the so-called boiler feed check valve,
Stop-Check Valves which is actually a stop-check valve rather
than a true check valve. Stop-check valves are
As we have seen, most valves can be classi- used in many drain lines; on the discharge side
fied as being either stop valves or checkvalves. of many pumps; and as exhaust valves on aux-
Some valves, however, function either as stop iliary machinery.
376
CAP
aN
LIST OF PARTS
PART NO.| NAME OF PART
\ BODY
11.320 6 CAP STUD NUT

Figure 14-17.—Cutaway view of lift- check 1 SEAT RING
valve.
38.119
Pressure-Control Valves Figure 14-18.—Cross-sectional view of
lift- check valve.
Pressure-control valves are used to re-
lieve or prevent excessive pressure, to reduce valve, the spring again exerts enough force to
pressure, and to control or regulate pressure. close the valve.
Several common types of pressure-control Relief valves are installed in steam, water,
valves are described in the following para- oil, and air lines, and on various units of aux-
graphs.4 iliary machinery. One or more adjusting nuts
at the top of the valve provide ameans by which
RELIEF VALVES.—Relief valves are de- the relief valve setting may be changed when
signed to open automatically when the pressure necessary. However, unauthorized changes to
in the line or in the machinery unit becomes relief valve settings must never be permitted.
too high. There are several different types of
relief valves, but most of them have a disk or SENTINEL VALVES.—Small spring-loaded
a ball which acts against a coil spring. The spring sentinel valves are sometimes attached to the
pushes downward against the disk or ball and inlet chamber of a relief valve, to give warning
so tends to keep the valve closed. When the of dangerous pressures, Sentinel valves operate
pressure in the line or in the unit is great on the same general principles as relief valves.
enough to overcome the resistance of the spring,
the disk or ball is forced upward and the valve REDUCING VALVES.—Reducing valves are
is thereby opened. After the pressure has been automatic valves used to reduce the supply pres-
relieved by the escape of fluid through the relief sure to a specified lower discharge pressure.
A reducing valve can be set for any desired
discharge pressure, within the design limits
4Roiler safety valves, discussed in chapter 11 of this of the valve. After the valve has been set, the
text, might also be considered as a special kind of reduced pressure will be maintained regardless
pressure-control valves. of changes in the supply pressure (as long as
377
the supply pressure is atleast as highas the de- a relatively small amount of high pressure steam
sired delivery pressure) and regardless of the acting on the top of the main valve piston will
amount of reduced pressure fluid that is used. tend to open the main valve, and so allow steam
There are several kinds of spring-loaded at reduced pressure to flow out the discharge
reducing valves. The one shown in figure 14-20 side.
is used for steam service, but is very similar But what makes the auxiliary valve open to
to spring-loaded reducing valves used for other allow high pressure steam to get to the top of
services. the main valve piston? The controlling diaphragm
The principal parts of the valve are (1) the transmits a pressure downward upon the auxil-
main valve, anupward-seating valve which has iary valve stem, andthus tends to open the valve.
a piston on top of its valve stem; (2) an upward- However, reduced pressure steam is led back
seating auxiliary (or controlling) valve; (3) a to the chamber beneath the diaphragm; this steam
controlling diaphragm; and (4) an adjusting exertS a pressure upward on the diaphragm,
spring. which tends to close the auxiliary valve. The
High pressure steam (or other fluid) enters position of the auxiliary valve, therefore, is de-
the valve on the inlet side and acts against the termined by the position of the controlling dia-
main valve disk, tending to close the main valve. phragm.
However, high pressure steam is alsoled through The position of the diaphragm at any given mo-
ports to the auxiliary valve, which controls the ment is determined by the relative strength of two
admission of high pressure steam to the top of opposing forces: (1) the downward force exerted
the main valve piston. The piston has a larger by the adjusting spring, and (2) the upward
surface area than the main valve disk; therefore, force exerted on the underside of the diaphragm
LIST OF PARTS
BODY
DISK
GASKET
STEM BUSHING
BONNET
GLAND
YOKE BUSHING im
STEM (a
HANDWHEEL
HANDWHEEL NUT
MANANATANAN
a
JUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU
GLAND BOLT
GLAND BOLT NUT
PACKING
BONNET STUD
BONNET STUD NUT
RELI EF PLUG
SEAT RING
VALVES, SIZES |" MEANY,
SPACER
AND SMALLER MAY BE
FURNISHED WITH GONVEX GLAND FLANGE
WELDING ENDS YOKE BUSHING SET SCREW
LLL
Figure 14-19.—Stop-check valves.
378
Chapter 14. — PIPING, FITTINGS, AND VALVES
ADJUSTING SCREW
ADJUSTING SPRING
CONTROLLING DIAPHRAGM
PISTON STEAM PORT

AUXILIARY VALVE
PISTON
AUXILIARY VALVE
A RI
es SPRING
LOW PRESSURE
PORT PORT
MAIN VALVE SPRING

pea
Lira
ZY
DRAIN CONNECTION
47,59X
Figure 14-20.—Spring-loaded reducing valve.
by the reduced pressure steam. These two forces relatively small change inthe large volume with-
are continually seeking to reach a state of bal- in the dome loading chamber produces only a
ance; and, because of this, the discharge pres- slight pressure variation, while the slightest
sure of the steam is kept constant as long as the variation in the small volume within the actuat-
amount of steam used is kept within the capacity ing chamber creates an enormous change in
of the valve. pressure. The restricting orifice connecting
There are two types of gas-loaded (or pneu- these two chambers governs the rate of pressure
matic pressure controlled) reducing valves. One equalization by retarding the flow of gas from one
type, shown in figure 14-21, is designedto regu- chamber to another.
late pressure in low temperature air, water, oil, The dome loading chamber is charged with air
or other fluids. The other type, shown in figure or some other compressible gas at a pressure
14-22, is designed to regulate pressure in high equal to the desired reduced pressure. When the
temperature steam, hot water, or other fluids. chamber is loaded, and the loading valve is
Both types of valves operate on the principle that closed, the dome will retain its charge almost
the pressure of an enclosed gas varies inversely indefinitely. When the regulator is in operation,
as its volume. the trapped pressure within the dome passes into
We will consider first the valve for lowtem- the actuating chamber through the small separa-
perature service (fig. 14-21). In this valve, a tion plate orifice and moves the large flexible
379
DOME LOADI
CHAM D>
M9R
SEPARATION
PLATE
ORIFICE
DOME
SEPARATING
PLATE
PLUG
(FOR EXTERNAL
CHARGING)
DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM
| PRESSURE
EQUALIZING
ORIFICE
CHARGING
CONNECTION—>
RELIEF, DIAPHRAGM
VALVE PLATE
SPRING
ACTUATING
CHAMBER OUTLET
VALVE
VALVE SPRING CAGE
47.60
Figure 14-21.—Pneumatic pressure controlled reducing valve for low temperature service
diaphragm. This action forces the reverse-act- dome instantly forces the valve open, thus allow-
ing valve off its seat. The pressure entering ing air to passthrough the valve and maintain the
the regulator is then permitted to flow through outlet pressure relatively constant. |
the open valve into the reduced pressure line.
A large pressure equalizing orifice transmits The pneumatic pressure controlled reducing
this pressure directly to the underside of the valve for high temperature service (fig. 14-22)
diaphragm. When the delivered pressure ap- operates in much the same way as the valve for
proximates the loading pressure in the dome, low temperature service, except that the valve
and the unbalanced forces are equalized, the for high temperature service ,is designed in such
valve is closed. With the slightest drop in a way as to keep heat from the hot fluid from af-
delivered pressure, the pressure charge in the fecting the gas inthe loading chamber. The
380
VALVE GUIDE
through the water and tends to move the dia-
phragm downward. When the pressure of the
LG VALVE DISK steam from the actuating line exceeds the loading
air pressure in the lower half of the dome, the
va,
iN REDUCED diaphragm moves downward sufficiently to close
PRESSURE
STEAM the valve. The closing of the valve reduces the
pressure of the steam on the discharge side of
the valve. When the pressure on the outlet side
of the valve is equal to the air pressure in the
lower half of the dome, the valve takesa balanced
WATER SEAL ACTUATING position which allows the passage of sufficient
FILLING PLUG —-Qyclf LINE
steam to maintain that pressure.
CONDENSATION If the load increases, tending to take more
CHAMBER
(STEAM ) steam away from the valve, the outlet pressure
will be momentarily reduced. Thus, the pressure
DIAPHRAGM of steam on top of the diaphragm becomes less
than the pressure of air below the diaphragm, and
LOADING
the valve then opens wider to restore the pres-
sure tonormal. If the loadis reduced, this causes
a momentary increase in outlet pressure; and
this in turn increases the pressure on top of the
diaphragm, making it greater than the air pres-
sure below the diaphragm. The diaphragm is
therefore displaced downward, and the outlet
BLEEDER VALVE CHECK VALVE pressure is again restored to normal.
GLYCERINE SEAL AIR GAUGE AND PUMP CONNECTION
FILLING PLUG HERE
DIAPHRAGM CONTROL VALVES WITH AIR-
11.323 OPERATED CONTROL PILOTS.—Diaphragm
Figure 14-22.—Pneumatic pressure controlled control valves with air-operated control pilots
reducing valve for high temperature service. are being used increasingly on newer ships for
various pressure-control applications. These
loading chamber is surrounded by a finned hood valves and pilots are available in several basic
which conducts heat away to atmosphere. designs to meet different requirements. They
A rubber diaphragm is installed in the middle may be used to reduce pressure, to augment
of the dome. The bottom of the diaphragm is pressure, or to provide continuous regulation of
separated from the bottom half of the domeby a pressure, depending upon the requirements of the
fixed steel plate. Thearea immediately above the system in which they are installed. Valves and
diaphragm communicates with the upper part of pilots of very similar design can also be used for
the dome through holes in the shrouding. The up- other services such as liquid level control and
per half of the dome carries alevelof water for temperature control. However, the discussion
sealing; the lower half of the dome carries a here is limited to the valves and pilots that are
level of glycerine for sealing. The area above used for pressure-control applications.
the glycerine is charged with air, which exerts The air-operated control pilot may be either
a downward pressure onthe glycerine and forces direct acting or reverse acting. A direct-acting
‘some of it to goup the tube toward the diaphragm. air-operated control pilot is shown in figure
This pressure causes the diaphragmto move up- 14-23. In this type of pilot, the controlled pres-
ward; and, since the stem of the valve is in con- sure—that is, the pressure from the discharge
tact with the diaphragm, the upward movement side of the diaphragm control valve—acts ontop
of the diaphragm causes the valve to open. When of a diaphragm in the control pilot. This pres-
the valve is open, steam can pass throughit. sure is balanced by the pressure exerted by the
From the outlet connection, an actuating line pilot adjusting spring. If the controlled pressure
leads back to the upper part of the dome, as increases and overcomes the pressure exerted
Shown in the illustration. Steam at the reduced by the pilot adjusting spring, the pilot valve stem
pressure is thus allowed to exert a force on the is forced down. This action causes the pilot valve
top of the water seal; this force is transmitted to openand so to increase the amount of operating
381
CONTROLLED PRESSURED
LESLIf PRESSURE CONTROL

©” PILOT __1or
RAGE OF Al) PERI E
PATENT NC. 22 1
TO DIAPHRAGM
AIR SUPPLY mama CONTROL VALVE
38.121X
Figure 14-23.—Air-operated control pilot.
air pressure going from the pilot to the diaphram Figure 14-24 shows a very simple type of
control valve. A reverse-acting pilothasa lever direct-acting diaphragm control valve, with
which reverses the pilot action. In a reverse- operating air pressure from the control pilot ap-
acting pilot, therefore, an increase in controlling plied to the topof the valve diaphragm. Since this
pressure produces a decrease in operating air is a downward seating valve, any increase in
pressure. operating air pressure pushes the valve stem
In the diaphragm control valve, operating air down and tends to close the valve.
from the pilot acts on the valve diaphragm. The
superstructure which contains the diaphragm is Now let us look at figure 14-25. This is also
direct acting in some valves and reverse acting a direct-acting valve, with operating air pres-
in others. If the superstructure is direct acting, sure from the control pilot applied to the top of
the operating air pressure from the control pilot the valve diaphragm. But the valve shown in
is applied to the top of the valve diaphragm. If figure 14-25 is more complicated than the one
the superstructure is reverse acting, the operat- shown in figure 14-24. The valve shown in figure
ing air pressure from the pilot is applied to the 14-25 is an upward seating valve, rather than a
underside of the valve diaphragm. downward seating valve. Therefore, any increase
382
Suppose that we try it first witha direct-act-

ing control pilot. As the controlled pressure (dis-
charge pressure from the diaphragm control
| AIR PRESSURE valve) increases, increased pressure would be
FROM CONTROL applied to the diaphragm of the direct-acting con-
PILOT trol pilot. The valve stem would be pushed down
and the valve in the control pilot would be opened,
thus sending an increased amount of operating
air pressure from the control pilot to the top of
the diaphragm control valve. The increased
operating air pressure acting on the diaphragm
of the valve would push the stem down and—since
this is anupward seating valve—this action would
open the diaphragm control valve still wider. Ob-
viously, this will not work. For this application,
an increase in controlled pressure must result
in a decrease in operating air pressure. There-
fore, we should have chosen a reverse-acting
control pilot rather than a direct-acting one for
this particular pressure-reducing application.
It is left as an exercise to the student to trace
HIGH REDUCED the sequence of eventsas they would occur with a
PRESSURE > PRESSURE reverse-acting control pilot installed in the ar-
STEAM
rangement shown in figure 14-26.
OPERATING
AIR PRESSURE
38.123X FROM CONTROL
Figure 14-24.—Direct-acting downward seating PILOT
diaphragm control valve.
in operating air pressure from the control pilot

tends to open this valve rather than close it.
As we have seen, the air-operated control
pilot may be either direct acting or reverse act-
ing, the superstructure of the diaphragm control
valve may be either direct acting or reverse act-
ing, and the diaphragm control valve may be
either upward seating or downward seating.
These three factors, as wellas the purpose of the
installation, determine how the diaphragm con-
trol valve and its air-operated control pilot are
installed in relation to each other.
To see how these factors are related, let us
HIGH REDUCED
consider an installation in which a diaphragm PRESSURE ——>
STEAM
control valve and its air-operated control pilot
are to be used to supply reduced pressure steam.
Figure 14-26 shows one arrangement that might
be used. We will assume that the service require-
ments indicate the need for a direct-acting up-
ward seating diaphragm control valve. What kind 38.124X
of a control pilot—direct acting or reverse act- Figure 14-25.—Direct-acting upward seating
ing would have to be used in this installation? diaphragm control valve.
383
to the condenser. The unloading pressure canbe

adjusted by turning an adjusting screw, thereby
CONTROL
PILOT changing the force exerted onthe actuating valve
diaphragm.
Thermostatic Recirculating Valves

OPERATING
AIR SUPPLY AIR PRESSURE Thermostatic recirculating valves are used
in systems where it is necessary to recirculate
a fluid inorder to maintain the temperature with-
in certain limits. Thermostatic recirculating
valves are designed to operate automatically.
The thermostatic recirculating valve shown
in figure 14-28 is usedto recirculate condensate
HIGH PRESSURE STEAM H REDUCED PRESSURE STEAM
from the discharge side of the main air ejector
condenser to the main condenser.® The valve is
DIAPHRAGM
CONTROL actuated by the temperature of the condensate.
VALVE When the condensate temperature becomes
higher than the temperature for which the valve
is set, the thermostatic bellows expands and au-
38.125 tomatically opens the valve, allowing condensate
Figure 14-26.—Arrangement of control pilot and to be sent back to the condenser.
diaphragm control valve for supplying reduced
pressure steam. Valve Manifolds
UNLOADING VALVES.— An automatic un- A valve manifold is used when itis necessary
loading valve (also called a dumping valve)
is in- to take suction from one of several sources and
stalled at each main and auxiliary condenser. to discharge to another unit or several units of
The function of the unloading valves is to dis- the same or a separate group. One exampleof a
charge steam from the auxiliary exhaust line to manifold is shown in figure 14-29. This mani-
the condensers whenever the auxiliary exhaust fold is used in the fuel oil filling and transfer
line pressure exceeds the design operating pres- system, where provision must be made for the
sure. transfer of oil from any tank to any other tank, to
An automatic unloading valve is shown in the fuel oil service system, or to another ship.
figure 14-27. Auxiliary exhaust steam is led The manifold valves are frequently of the stop-
through valve A to the top of the actuating valve check type.
diaphragm. The actuating valveis double seated,
and one side is open when the other is closed. Remote Operating Gear
When the auxiliary exhaust line pressureisless
than the pressure for which the unloading valve Remote operating gear is installed to provide
is set, the upper seatis closedandthe lower seat a means of operating certain valves from distant
is open. The valve is thus heldbythe diaphragm stations. Remote operating gear may be mechan-
spring. Steam passes into the line through valve ical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric.
B and goes under the unloading valve diaphragm. Some remote operating gear for valves is
The pressure acting on this diaphragm holds the used in the normal operation of the valves. For
unloading valve up and closed. [Ifthe auxiliary ex- example, the propulsion turbine throttle valves
haust pressure exceeds the pressure of the ac- are opened and closed by a series of reach rods
tuating valve diaphragm spring, the diaphragm and gears. In the fireroom, remote operating
is forced downward and the lower seat closes gear is used to operate the forced draft blowers,
while the upper seat opens. This makes adirect to adjust the constant-pressure pump governor
connection between the top and the bottom ofthe on the fuel oil service pump, and to lift safety
unloading valve diaphragm through the actuating valves by hand.
valve. The equalized pressure on the diaphragm
allows the auxiliary exhaust pressure to force the Sair ejector assemblies are discussed in chapter 13
unloading valve down and steam is thus unloaded of this text.
384
GATE VALVE
STRAINER
UNLOADING
VALVE
AVRE a =
MANUAL
BYPASS
DIAPHRAGM VALVE DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM
SPRING
ADJUSTING
SCREW
MANUAL CONTROL
VALVE WHEEL
47.61X
Figure 14-27.—Automatic unloading valve.
Other remote operating gear is installed as Another example of emergency remote oper-
emergency equipment. For example, the boiler ating gear is the gear that allows the quick-
steam stops have remote operating gear which closing fuel oil valve to be closedfroma remote
can usually be operated from the main deck or station in the fireroom escape trunk or from the
from the second deck, near the general quarters deck above and near the access to the space.
station for damage control personnel of Repair Still other examples of emergency remote oper-
5 (propulsion repair). This remote operating ating gear include gear for operating some
gear is frequently mechanical or pneumatic, cross-connection valves, main drainage valves,
although hydraulic remote operating gear is and main condenser injection and overboard dis-
used for these valves on some ships. The pneu- charge valves.
matic and hydraulic types of remote operating Remote operating gear for valves includes a
gear for these valves allow the valves to be valve position indicator to show whether the
closed but not opened from the remote station. valve is open or closed.
385
STEM HEAD
OVERRUN SPRING
PACKING NUT
Ff
BELLOWS
EFLON PACKING RINGS NE: is

PRING PLATE ISLC BIS:
PACKING BO PACKING
a
SPRING
LOAD SPRING =* UM.

NO
cc AS FRAME
OWER STEM IQ SH
SCALE PLATE 1 == —
ADJUSTING NUT = , le
STEM ADJUSTING it y) / |
ASSEMBLY (Ae, MK e OVERRUN SPRING
CRANKPIN BUSHING ap
=
(Th) <
4.
oY
ah 2 ~
~S
SENEL STEM |
|
oa
|
PINION GEAR THRUST BEARING
= J
de aed y Aa SX SENSING BULS
CRANK NaI ~SADJUSTING SLEEVE
b>SU ot
(SHOWN 180° QUT STEM SEATINNGG ASSEMB
OF POSITION) SS ASSEMBLY
L
CONNECTOR
INDICATOR PACKING BOX
PLATE (SEE DETAIL)
STEM
LOCKNUT
OUTLET
|
POPPET
CAP
Figure 14-28.—Thermostatic 47.175

recirculating valve.
386
DISCHARGE STOP VALVE
PACKING
H GLAND NUT—> “suction STOP
Net
CHECK VALVE
oe
ayy
¢
STEM
DISCHARGE
VALVES
T: VALVE
bi Ee Disk
Fy ave
\ SEAT
SUCTION
PUMP VALVES
DISCHARGE
CONNECTION
PUMP SUCTION CONNECTION

47. 63X
Figure 14-29.—Valve manifold.
IDENTIFICATION OF VALVES, service for which the product is intended, and

FITTINGS, FLANGES, AND UNIONS the size (in inches). When appropriate, material
identification, limiting temperatures, and other
Most valves, fittings, flanges, and unions used identifying data are included.
on naval ships are marked with identification The MSS standard identification markings
symbols of various kinds. The few valves and are generally cast, forged, stamped, or etched
fittings that are made‘on board repair ships or on the exterior surface of the product. In some
tenders or atnaval shipyards are usually marked cases, however, the markings are applied to an
with symbols indicating the manufacturing activ- identification plate rather than to the actual
ity, the size, the melt or casting number, and surface of the product.
the material. They may also be marked with an The service designationin the MSS system
arrow to indicate the direction of flow. of marking usually includes a letter to indicate
Commercially manufactured valves, fittings, the type of service and numerals to indicate
flanges, and unions may be identified according the pressure rating in psi. The letters used in
to the requirements of the applicable specifica- service designations are:
tions. However, many valves, fittings, flanges,
and unions are now identified according to a INR OOS Od GD OISTe OoOe air
standard marking system developed by the Manu- Gis defo ieg ngobs oda sh reps emeds gas
facturers Standardization Society (MSS) of the lo svcpeh akettinck Meus chou s tokte oats liquid
valves and fittings industry. Identification mark- ONE pIONe So ae Goo eo Glee Sue oil
ings in this system usually include the manu- Nie Grcka Beaks saneo cholae Orn water
facturer’s name or trademark, the pressure and 1B)=\','£5)/ Leas dae paaG drainage, waste, and vent
387
When the primary service rating is for The symbol numbers used to identify each
steam, and when no other Service is indicated, type of packing and gasket consists of a four-
the service designation may consist ofnumerals digit number. The first digit indicates the class
only. For example, the number 600 marked on of service with respect to fixed and moving
the body of a valve would indicate that the valve joints; the digit 1 indicates a moving joint (mov-
is suitable for steam service at 600 psi. If the ing rods, shafts, valve stems, etc.) and the digit
valve is designed for water at 600psi, the serv- 2 indicates a fixed joint (flanges, bonnets, etc.).
ice designation would be 600 W. Service desig- The second digit indicates the material of which
nations are also used in combination; for exam- the packing or gasket is primarily composed—
ple, 3000 WOG indicates a product suitable for asbestos, vegetable fiber, rubber, metal, etc.
water, oil, or gas service at 3000 psi. The third and fourth digits indicate the different
Some abbreviations that are commonly used styles or forms of the packing or gaskets made
for material identification in the MSS system from the material.
include the following:
Pressure, temperature, and other service
conditions impose definite restrictions upon the
A Tiiite isteee sshe Be Aluminum
application of the various kinds of packing and
Bits elreee ecaer, one Bronze
gasket materials, Great care must be taken to
(CiSiale c Saar owe Carbon Steel
see that the proper materials are selected for
Cla. eepopemevtets:255 sae Cast Iron
each application, particularly when high pres-
HIF steers ete: ovations Cobalt-chromium-
sures or high temperatures are involved.
tungsten alloy (hard
facing) Insulation is used on most shipboard piping
(GW IN oe Gi Gian BlCso Copper-nickel alloy systems. Insulation is actually a composite
INTACW ia enids
(oe anes Nickel-copper alloy covering which includes (1) the insulating mate-
Siete eticites teienewe Soft metal (lead, Bab- rial itself, (2) the lagging or covering, and (3)
bitt, copper, etc.) the fastenings which are used to hold the insu-
GRAS sees casa ss 13-percent chrom- lation and lagging in place. In some instances,
ium steel the insulation is covered by material which
18) 8 be Fats See . 18-8 stainless steel serves both as lagging and as a fastening de-
IG} CEIMIO) S Bag
5 506 18-8 stainless steel vice.
with molybdenum
Insulating materials commonly used in the
SHS sj Jo: sles tone Nagenes Surface-hardened
Navy include magnesia, calcium silicate, dia-
steel (Nitralloy, etc.)
tomaceous silica, asbestos felt, mineral wool,
fibrous glass, and high temperature insulating
Some examples of MSS standard identifica-
cement. Cork, although light in weight and easy
tion marking symbols are given in figure 14-30.
to handle, is not fire-retardant and in burning
it gives off a dense, suffocating smoke; hence
PACKING, GASKETS, AND INSULATION
cork is used only in certain applications and
only after it has been treated with a fire-
Packing and gasket materials are required
resistant compound.
to seal joints in steam, water, gas, air, oil, and
other lines and to seal connections which slide Lagging may consist of cloth, tape, or sheet
or rotate under operating conditions. There are metal, Lagging serves to protect the relatively
many types and forms of packing and gasket soft insulating material from damage, to give
material available commercially. To simplify added support to insulation that may be sub-
the selection of packing and gasket materials jected to heavy or continuous vibration, and
commonly used in the naval service, engineer- to provide a smooth surface that may be
ing personnel use a packing and gasket chart painted.
showing the symbol numbers and the recom- Lagging is secured in place by sewing or
mended applications of all types and kinds of by using fire-resistant adhesives, insulating
packing and gasket material. cement, or sealing compounds. The method
used to fasten the lagging in place depends upon
the type of insulation used, the type of lagging
6 The chart is identified as NavShips Mechanical used, and the service requirements of the
Standard Drawing B-153. piping or surfaces to be insulated.
388
3-INCH CASTSTEELSCREWEDFITTINGSUIT- 2-INCH CAST IRON FLANGED FITTING FOR

ABLE FOR WATER, OIL, OR GAS SERVICE AT USE IN REFRIGERATION SYSTEM:
1000 PSI:
Manufacturer’s identification . . A BCO
Manufacturer’s identification . . A BCO Service designation. . . . . . 300GL
Service designation. . . . . . 1000 WOG Temperature designation. . . . 300F
Material designation... . . . . STEEL Size. 2
Size. 3
CAST BRASS FITTING FOR DRAINAGE, WASTE, 2-INCH BRONZE VALVE RECOMMENDED BY
AND VENT SERVICE: THE MANUFACTURER FOR 200 PSI STEAM
SERVICE:
Manufacturer’s identification . .
poner A BCO
cme NES Tey Martukaetuses s identification A ACO
Service designation. . . ... 200
Size.o7 AG. TRADI ae 2
4-INCH STEEL VALVE WITH 13 PERCENT

CHROMIUM STEEL VALVE STEM, DISK, AND
SEAT, SUITABLE FOR 1500 PSI STEAMSERV-
ICE AT TEMPERATURE OF NO MORE THAN
850° F:
VALVE BODY MARKING:

Manufacturer’s identification . A B CO
Service designation. . . . . . 1500
Material designation. . . . . . STEEL
Size. 4
IDENTIFICATION PLATE MARKING:

Manufacturer’s identification . - AB GO
Service designation. . . . . . 1500
Limiting temperature ... . . MAX 850 F
Body material designation . . . STEEL
Valve stem material designation . STEM CR 13
Valve disk material designation . DISC CR 13
Valve seat material designation . SEAT CR 13
Sizehe cg ine me he: ns ae 4
38.128
Figure 14-30.—Examples of MSS standard identification markings for valves,
fittings, flanges, and unions.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 1. Be sure there is no pressure on the line.

This is important in practically all systems, but
Most piping system repairs involve breaking it is of vital importance in steam lines, hot
joints in the piping system. Before breaking water lines, and any salt water lines that may
joints in any shipboard piping system, be sure have a direct connection with the sea. It is not
the following precautions are observed: enough to merely close the valves; the valves
389
must be locked or wired shut and must be tagged or breaking joints in systems that have contained
so that they will not be opened accidentally. flammable fluids.
2. Be sure that the line is completely 5. Observe all safety precautions required
drained. in connection with welding, brazing, or other
processes uSed in repairing the piping.
6. Before repaired piping is put back into
3. In breaking a flanged joint, leave two
service, various tests and inspections may be
diametrically opposite securing nuts in place
required. Specific requirements for tests and
while loosening the others. Then slack off on
inspections may be given along with instructions
the last two nuts. When you are sure beyond
the slightest doubt that the line is clear, remove for the repair job; or you may find test and
the nuts and break the joint. inspection requirements indicated on the plans
or blueprints. If specific instructions are not
4. Take all appropriate precautions to pre- given, consult chapter 9480 of the Naval Ships
vent fire and explosion when cutting into lines Technical Manual.
390
CHAPTER 15
PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
This chapter deals with shipboard pumps and A pump is essentially a device whichutilizes
with the forced draft blowers used aboard many an external source of power toapplyaforce toa
surface ships to supply combustion air to the fluid in order to move the fluid from one place
propulsion boilers. In general, we are concerned to another. A pump develops no energy of its own;
here with the driven end of the units rather than it merely transforms energy from the external
with the driving end; the auxiliary steam turbines source (steam turbine, electric motor, etc.) into
used to drive many pumps and blowers are dis- mechanical kinetic energy, which is manifested
cussed in chapter 16 of this text, andthe electric by the motion of the fluid. This kinetic energy is
motors used to drive others are discussed then utilized to do work—for example, to raise
in chapter 20. a liquid from one level to another, as when water
is raised from a well; to transport a liquid
PUMPS through a pipe, as when oilis carried through an
oil pipeline; to move a liquid against some
As we saw in chapter 8, the pump is one of resistance, aS when water is pumped to aboiler
the five basic elements in any thermodynamic under pressure; or to force a liquid through a
cycle. The function of the pump is to move the hydraulic system, against various resistances,
working substance from the low pressure side for the purpose of doing work at some point.
of the system to the high pressure side. In the
conventional steam turbine propulsion plant, Principles and Definitions
“the pump’’ of the thermodynamic cycle is ac-
tually three pumps—the condensate pump, the Before considering specific designs of ship-
feed booster pump, and the main feed pump. board pumps, it may be helpful to examine
In addition to these three pumps which are a briefly certain basic concepts and to define some
part of the basic thermodynamic cycle, thereare, of the terms commonly used in connection with
of course, a large number of pumps used for pumps.
other purposes aboard ship. Pumps supply sea
water to the firemains, circulate cooling water FORCE - PRESSURE - AREA RELATION-
for condensers and coolers, empty the bilges, SHIPS.—When we strike the end of abar, the main
transfer fuel oil, discharge fuel oil to the force of the blow is carried straight through to
burners, supply lubricating oil to main and auxil- the other end. This happens because the bar is
iary machinery, supply sea water to the distilling rigid. The direction of the blow almost entirely
plant, pump the distillate into storage tanks, sup- determines the direction of the transmitted
ply liquid under pressure for use in hydraulically force. The more rigid the bar, the less force is
operated equipment, and provide a variety of lost inside the bar or transmitted outward
other vital services. at right angles to the direction of the blow.
Pumps are used to move any substance which When we apply pressure to the end ofa column
flows or which can be made to flow. Most com- of confined liquid, however, the pressure is
monly, pumps are used to move water, oil, and transmitted not only straight through to the other
other liquids. However, air, steam, and other end but also equally and undiminished in every
gases are also fluid and can be moved with direction. Figure 15-1 illustrates the difference
pumps, as can such substances as molten metal, between pressure applied to a rigid bar and pres-
sludge, and mud. sure applied to a column of contained liquid.
391
Pressure is defined as force per unit area,

Alternatively, we may say that force is equal to
pressure times area. Figure 15-3 shows how a
force of 20 pounds acting ona piston with an area
of 2 square inches can produce a force of 200
pounds on a piston with an area of 20 square
inches. The system would, of course, work the
same in reverse. If we consider piston 2 as the
the input piston and piston 1 asthe output piston,
then the output force would be 1/10 the input
force.
We are now in a position to state a general
rule: If two pistons are used in ahydraulic sys-
tem, the force acting on each will be directly
proportional to its area, and the magnitude of
each force will be the product of the pressure
and the area.
The second basic rule for two pistons ina
hydraulic system such as the one shown in fig-
ure 15-3 may be stated as follows: The distance
moved by each piston is inversely proportional
to the area of the piston. Thus if piston 1 in fig-
ure 15-3 is pushed down 1 inch, piston 2 will be
raised 1/10 inch.
Consideration of the two basic rules just
stated leads us to another basic rule: The input
force multiplied by the distance through which it
moves is exactly equal to the output force
multiplied by the distance through which it moves
(disregarding energy losses due to friction). In
5.180 essence, this rule is merely another statement of
Figure 15-1.—Results of pressure applied to a the general energy equation—that is, energy in=
rigid bar (left) and to a column of liquid (right). energy out.
The principle that pressure is transmitted PUMP CAPACITY.—The capacity of a pump

equally and undiminished in all directions is the amount of liquid the pump can handle in a
through a contained liquid is known as Pascal’s given period of time. For marine applications,
principle. This principle may be regardedas the the capacity of a pump is usually stated in gal-
basic law or foundation of the science of hydrau- lons per minute (gpm).
lics.
An important corollary of Pascal’s principle PRESSURE HEAD.—The power required to
is that the transmission of pressure through a drive a pump is a function of pump capacity and
liquid is not altered by the shape of the container. of the total head against which the pump oper-
This idea is illustrated in figure 15-2. If the ates. Previously we defined head quite simply
pressure due to the weight of the liquid is 8 psi as the vertical distance between two horizontal
at any one point on the horizontal line H, it is 8 levels in a liquid. Since a pump may be installed
psi at every point along lineH. The pressure due above, at, or below the surface of the source of
to the weight of the liquid at any level thus supply, it is obviousthat other factors must enter
depends upon the vertical distance from the into the discussion of pressure head as applied
chosen level to the surface of the liquid. The ver- to pumps.
tical distance between two horizontal levels ina When the pump is installed at the same level
liquid is known as the head of the liquid. (Since as the free surface of the source of supply, no
various kinds of head enter into pump calcula- new considerations need apply since the pump
tions, the term head is more fully discussed merely acts on the liquid like any other applied
later.) force.
392
Chapter 15. —PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
SURFACE
147.105
Figure 15-2.—Pressure in liquid is not affected by the shape of the vessel.
When the pump is installed below this level, The action of the pump produces the total head
as shown in figure 15-4, a certain amount differential, B, which can be broken down into
of energy in the form of gravity head will already friction loss, C, and net static discharge
be available when the liquid enters the pump. In head, D. Since D is the vertical distance from
other words, there is a static pressure head, A, the surface of the supply liquid to the surface of
on the suction side of the pump. This head is part the liquid in the discharge reservoir, it isclear
of the total input head necessary to produce the that our previous definition of head would apply
output head, F, that is required to raise the only to D. E, the total static discharge head, is
liquid to the top, T, of the discharge reservoir. the vertical distance from the center of the pump
to the surface of the liquid inthe discharge res-
ervoir; thus, E is equal to D plusA.
As may be seen in figure 15-4, atmospheric
FORCE 1= FORCE 2=
pressure is acting upon the free surface of the
20 LBS. 200 LBS
supply liquid and upon the free surface of the
| liquid in the discharge reservoir. Since atmos-
PISTON 1
2 SQ. IN Ps
20 SQ.IN ee |||1|| pheric pressure is exerted equally on both sides
of the pump, inthis system, the two heads created
by atmospheric pressure cancel out.
Now consider the case of a pump that is in-
stalled a vertical distanceA above the free sur-
——$—$—— PRESSURE ———»
face Sof the supply liquid (fig. 15-5). In this case,
10 LBS. PER SQ. INCH energy must be supplied merely to get the liquid
into the pump (static suction lift, A). Inaddition,
energy must be supplied to produce the static
discharge head, E, if the liquid is to be raised
to the top of the discharge reservoir, T. B, the
. 4.7 total head differential produced by pump action,
Figure 15-3.—Relationship of force, pressure, is here the total energy input. It is divided into
and area in a simple hydraulic system. A on the suction side—the head required to raise
393
in a closed system such as the one shown in fig-

ATMOSPHERIC
ure 15-6,
PRESSU
In this system, a pump is being used to drive
ela)!@ a work piston back and forth inside a cylinder. We
will assume that the pump must develop a pres-
sure equivalent to head
H in order to drive the
o TOTAL piston back and forth against the resistance of-
STATIC
DISCHARGE fered. Under this assumption, the total head dif-
TOTAL HEAD HEAD
DIFFERENTIAL NET STATIC V) ferential, B, must be produced by the pump after
PRODUCED BY PUMP DISCHARGE HEAD
the system has begun to operate.
Bis the sum of
the friction head (or friction losses), C, and the
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE static discharge head, D. SinceD is equal to H,
MEPiaa: STATIC D therefore produces the pressure required to
4 SUCTION PRESSURE |
do the work.
Since the liquid returns to its original level
and the system is closed throughout, there will
PUMP be a siphon effect in the return pipe which will
exactly balance the static suction lift, A.
147.106 Therefore, atmospheric pressure plays a part
Figure 15-4.—Pressure head (pump installed in the operation of this system only when the sys-
below surface of supply liquid). tem is being started up, before the entire system
has been filled with liquid.
the liquid to the pump— andC (friction loss) plus At this point, we may pause and consider the
E
(static discharge head) on the discharge side. various ways in which the term head has been
Atmospheric pressure cancels out here, as used, and attempt to formulate a definition. From
before, except that in this case the atmospheric previous discussion, we may infer that head is
pressure at S is required to lift the liquid to the (1) measured in feet; (2) somehow related to
pump. pressure; and (3) taken as some kind ofa meas-
In both of the cases just described, we have ure of energy. But what is it?
dealt with systems which were open to the atmos-
phere. Now let us examine the head relationships
~[--------------------- [- ¢ FRICTION LOSS

c
FRICTION LOSS ATMOSPHERIC

PRESSURE
eea
STATIC
STATIC DISCHARGE
HEAD
E
STATIC
TOTAL HEAD HEAD
DIFFERENTIAL HEAD EQUIVALENT
STATIC
SUCTION
TO WORK
LIFT PRESSURE
PRODUCED BY a —
PUMP
A ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
SIPHON
STATIC 7 EFFECT
SUCTION A EQUAL
LIFT TO A
147.107
Figure 15-5.—Pressure head (pump installed 147.108
above surface of supply liquid). Figure 15-6.—Pressure head (closed system).
394
Chapter 15. —-PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
Basically, head is a measure ofthe pressure ity. However, velocity head does not representa
exerted by a column or body ofliquid because of total loss, since at least a portion of the velocity
the weight of the liquid. In the caseof water, we head can always be reconverted to static pres-
find that a column of fresh water 2.309 feet high sure head.
exerts a pressure of 1 pound per square inch.
When we refer to a head of water of 2.309 feet, FRICTION HEAD.—The force or pressure
we know that the water is exerting a pressure of required to overcome friction is also obtained at
1 psi because of its own weight. Thus, a reference the expense of the static pressure head. Unlike
to a head of so many feet of water does imply a velocity head, however, friction head cannot be
reference to the pressure exerted by that water. “‘recovered’’ or reconverted to static pressure
The situation is somewhat different when we head, since fluid friction results in the conver-
have a horizontal pipe through which water is sion of mechanical kinetic energy to thermal
being pumped. In this case, the head is calculated energy. Since this thermal energy is usually
as the vertical distance that would correspond to wasted, friction head must be considered as a
the pressure. If the pressure in the horizontal total loss from the system.
pipe is 1 psi, then the head on the liquid in the
pipe is 2.309 feet. Further calculations show that BERNOULLI’S THEOREM.—At any point in
a head of 1 foot corresponds to a pressure of a system, the static pressure head will always
0.433 psi. be the original static pressure head minus the
The relationship between head and energy can velocity head and minus the friction head. Since
be clarified by considering that (1) workisa form both velocity head and friction head represent
of energy—mechanical energy in transition; (2) energy which comes from the original static
work is the product of aforcetimes the distance pressure head, the sum of the static pressure
through which it acts; and (3) for liquids, the work head, the velocity head, and the friction head at
performed is equal to the volume of liquid moved any point in a system mustadd upto the original
times the head against which it is moved. Thus static pressure head. This general principle,
the head relationships actually indicate some of which is known as Bernoulli’s theorem, may also
the energy relationships for a given quantity of be expressed as
liquid.
2
VELOCITY HEAD. — The head required to Pi vi P Vo
impart velocity to a liquid is known as velocity Z +—+—=Z, +2+=+[J (U, - U)) - Wk- JQ]
head. It is equivalent to the distance through D 2g D) 2
which the liquid would have to fall inorder to ac-
quire the same velocity. If we know the velocity
of the liquid, we can compute the velocity head where
by the formula
Z = elevation, in feet
Ree
Wh. pA
P =absolute
foot
pressure, in pounds per square
D =density of liquid, in pounds per cubic foot

where V =velocity, in feet per second
g =acceleration due to gravity (32.2 feet per
Hy = velocity head, in feet second per second)
J =the mechanical equivalent of heat, 778 foot-
V = velocity of liquid, in feet per second pounds per Btu
U =internal energy, in Btu
acceleration due to gravity (32.2 feet per Wk =work, in foot-pounds
second per second) Q =heat transferred, in Btu
When written in this form, Bernoulli’s theo-

In a sense, velocity head is obtained at the rem may be readily recognized as a special
expense of pressure head. Whenever a liquid is statement of the general energy equation. The
given a velocity, some part of the original static bracketed term represents energy in transition
pressure head must be used to impart this veloc- as work, energy in transition as heat, and the
395
increase in internal energy of the fluid arising cylinder. Reciprocating pumps are _ positive-
from friction and turbulence. In some cases of displacement pumps; each stroke displaces a
fluid flow, all elementsin the bracketed term are certain definite quantity of liquid, regardless of
of such small magnitude that they may be safely the resistance against which the pump is operat-
disregarded. ing.
Consideration of Bernoulli’s theorem indi- The two main parts of a reciprocating pump
cates that the term pressure head, as used in are the water end, which consists ofa piston and
connection withpumps and other hydraulic equip- cylinder arrangement and appropriate suction
ment, is actually a measure of mechanical poten- and discharge valves, and the steam end!, which
tial energy; that velocity head is a measure of consists of another piston and cylinder and ap-
mechanical kinetic energy; and that friction head propriate valves for the admission and release
is a measure of the energy which departs from of steam.
the system as thermal energy inthe form of heat Reciprocating pumps in naval service are
or of the energy which remains in the liquid, gen- usually classified as:
erally unusable, in the form of internal energy.
Direct-acting or indirect-acting.
Types of Pumps Simplex (single) or duplex (double).
Single-acting or double-acting.
Pumps are so widely used for such varied High pressure or low pressure.
services that the number of different designs is Vertical
opwnr or horizontal.
almost overwhelming. As a general rule, how-
ever, it maybe stated that all pumps are designed The reciprocating pump shown infigure 15-7
to move fluid substances from one point to an- is a direct-acting, simplex, double-acting, high
other by pushing, pulling, or throwing, or by some pressure, vertical pump. Now let us see whatall
combination of these three methods. these terms mean, with reference to the pump
Every pump has a power end and afluid end. shown in the illustration.
The power end may be a steam turbine, a recip- The pump is direct-acting because the pump
rocating steam engine, a steam jet, or an elec- rod is a direct extension of the piston rod; thus
tric motor. In steam-driven pumps, the power the piston in the power end is directly connected
end is often called the steam end. The fluid end to the plunger in the liquid end. Most reciprocat-
is usually called the pump-end. However, it may ing pumps used in the Navy are direct-acting. An
be called the liquid end, the water end, the oil indirect-acting pump may be driven by means of
end, or some other term to indicate the nature a beam or linkage which is connected to and mo-
of the fluid substance being pumped. tivated by the steam piston rod ofa separate re-
Pumps are classified inanumber of different ciprocating engine; or it may be drivenbya crank
ways according to various design and opera- and connecting rod mechanism which is operated
tional features. Perhaps the basic distinction is by a steam turbine or an electric motor. An in-
between positive-displacement pumps and con- direct-acting pump might appear to have only
tinuous-flow pumps. Pumps may also be classi- one end—that is, the pump end. However, this
fied according to the type of movement that pump, as all others, must have a power end as
causes the pumping action; by this classification, well; the separate engine, turbine, or motor
we have reciprocating, rotary, centrifugal, pro- which drives the pump is the actual power end of
peller, and jet pumps. Another classification may the pump.
be made according to speed; some pumps run at The pump shown in figure 15-7 is called a
variable speed, others at constant speed. Some single or simplex pump because it has only one
pumps haveavariable capacity, others discharge liquid cylinder. Simplex pumps may be either
at a constant rate. Some pumps are Self-priming, direct-acting or indirect-acting. A double or
others require a positive pressure on the suction
side before they can begin to operate. These and
other distinctions are notedas appropriate in the 1 practically all reciprocating pumps in navaluse are
steam driven. However, a few low pressure, motor-
following discussion of specific types of pumps.
driven reciprocating pumps are used for fresh water,
sanitary, bilge, ballast, and fuel oiltransfer services.
RECIPROCATING PUMPS.—A reciprocating These pumps are generally horizontal. When driven by
pump moves water or other liquid by means of an electric motor, reciprocating pump is usually re-
a plunger or piston that reciprocates inside a ferred to as a power pump.
396
Chapter 15. -PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
AUXILIARY
SLIDE VALVE
are PISTON VALVE
STEAM CYLINDER
STAY ROD
au
+1
PILOT VALVE wie ee

OPERATING 2
DISCHARGE VALVE
Figure 15-7.—Reciprocating pump.
397
duplex pump is an assembly of two single pumps moving back and forth rather than up and
placed side by side on the same foundation; the down.
two steam cylinders are cast in a single block The remainder of the discussion of recipro-
and the two liquid cylinders are cast in another cating pumps is concerned primarily with direct-
block. Duplex reciprocating pumps are seldom acting, simplex, double-acting, vertical pumps,
found in modern combatant ships but were once since most reciprocating pumps used inthe Navy
commonly used in the Navy. are of this type.
In a single-acting pump, the liquid is drawn The power end of a reciprocating pump con-
into the liquid cylinder on the first or suction sists of a bored cylinder in which the steam pis-
stroke and is forced out of the cylinder on the ton reciprocates. The steam cylinder is fitted
return or discharge stroke. In a double-acting with heads at each end; one head has an opening
pump, each stroke serves both to draw in liquid to accommodate the piston rod. Steam inlet and
and to discharge liquid. As one end of the cyl- exhaust ports connect each end of the steam cyl-
inder is filled, the other end is emptied; on the inder with the steam chest. Drain valves are in-
return stroke, the end which was just emptiedis stalled inthe steam cylinder so that water result-
filled and the end which was just filledis emptied. ing from condensation may be drained off.
The pump shown in figure 15-7is double-acting, Some reciprocating pumps have cushioning
as are most of the reciprocating pumps used in valves at each end of the steam cylinder. These
the Navy. valves can be adjusted to trap a certain amount
The pump shown in figure 15-7is designed to of steam at the end of the cylinder; thus, when
operate with a discharge pressure which is the piston reaches the end of its stroke, it is
higher than the pressure of the steam operating cushioned by the steam and prevented from hit-
the piston in the steam cylinder. In other words, ting the end of the cylinder. When the pump is
this is a high pressure pump. Inahigh pressure operating at high speed, the cushioning valves
pump, the steam pistonis larger in diameter than are kept almost closed so that a considerable
the plunger in the liquid cylinder. Since the area amount of steam will be trapped at each end of
of the steam piston is greater than the area of the the cylinder; at low speed, the cushioning valves
plunger in the liquid cylinder, the total force ex- are kept almost open. Some reciprocating pumps
erted by the steam against the steam piston is do not have cushioning valves.
concentrated on the smaller working area ofthe Automatic timing of the admission and re-
plunger in the liquid cylinder; hence the pressure lease of steam to andfrom each end of the steam
per square inch is greater in the liquid cylinder cylinder is accomplished by various types of
than in the steam cylinder. A high pressure pump valve arrangements. Figure 15-8 shows the pis-
discharges a comparatively small volume of ton-type valve gear commonly used for this pur-
liquid against a high pressure. A low pressure pose; it consists of a main piston-type slide valve
pump, on the other hand, hasa comparatively low and a pilot slide valve. Since the rod from the
discharge pressure but a larger volume of dis- pilot valve is connected to the pump rod by a
charge. In a low pressure pump the steam piston valve-operating assembly, the position of the
is smaller than the plunger in the liquid cylinder. pilot valveis controlled by the position of the pis-
The standard way of designating the size of ton in the steam cylinder. The pilot valve fur-
a reciprocating pump is by giving three dimen- nishes actuating steam to the main piston-type
sions, in the following order: (1) the diameter of valve, which, in turn, admits steam tothe top or
the steam piston, (2) the diameter of the pump to the bottom of the steam cylinder atthe proper
plunger, and (3) the length of the stroke. For ex- time.
ample, a 12x11" x18'' reciprocating pump has The valve-operating assembly which con-
a steam piston which is 12 inchesindiameter, a nects the pilot valve operating rod and the pump
pump plunger which is 11 inches indiameter, and rod is shown in figure 15-9. As the crosshead
a stroke of 18 inches. Thus the size designation arm (sometimes called the rocker arm) is moved
indicates immediately whether the pumpisa high up and down by the movement of the pump rod, the
pressure pump or a low pressure pump. moving tappet slides up and down on the pilot
Finally, the pump shown in figure 15-7 valve operating rod. The tappet collars are ad-
is classified as vertical because the steam piston justed so that the pump will make the full de-
and the pump plunger move up and down. Most signed stroke.
reciprocating pumps in naval use are vertical; The liquid end of a reciprocating pump hasa
a few, however, are horizontal, with the piston piston and cylinder assembly similar to thatof
398
|EXHAUST
PORT
LIVE STEAM
SPACE
“STEAM PORT
FOR PILOT
VALVE
STEAM PILOT
VALVE
/MAIN STEAME®
|PISTON TYPEMS |
| VALVE
PILOT VALVE
OPERATING ROD
38.99
Figure 15-8.—Piston-type valve gear for steam end of reciprocating pump.
the power or steam end. The piston inthe liquid the lower part contains liquid. On each stroke, the
end is often called a plunger. A valve chest, air inthe chamber is compressed by the pressure
sometimes called a water chest, is attached to exerted by the plunger. When the plunger stops
the liquid cylinder. The valve chest contains two at the end of astroke, the air in the chamber ex-
sets of suction and discharge valves, one set to pands and allows a gradual, rather than a sudden,
serve the upper end of the liquid cylinder and one drop inthe discharge pressure, The air chamber,
to serve the lower end. The valves are so ar- therefore, smooths out the discharge flow, ab-
ranged that the pump takes suction from the suc- sorbs shock, and prevents pounding. The snifter
tion chamber and discharges through the dis- valve, if installed, allows a small quantity of air
charge chamber on both the up and down strokes. to be drawn in and compressed with each stroke.
An adjustable relief valve is fittedtothe dis- If no snifter valve is installed, some provision
charge chamber to protect the pump and the pip- may be made for charging the air chamber with
ing against excessive pressure. compressed air.
Some reciprocating pumps have an air cham- Although reciprocating pumps were once
ber and a snifter valve installed inthe liquid end. widely used aboard ship for a variety of services,
The upper part of the air chamber contains air; their use on combatant ships is now generally
399
indrical openings in the cylinder barrel or cy-

linder block.
PILOT VALVE
OPERATING ROD There are two general types of variable
stroke pumps in common use. Inthe axial-piston
type, the pistons are arranged parallel to each
ADJUSTABLE
TAPPET COLLAR other and to the pump shaft. In the radial-piston
type, the pistons are arranged radially from the
shaft.
Figure 15-10 shows an exploded view of both
the pump end (A end) and the hydraulic motor
(B end) of an axial-piston type of variable stroke
unit. The pump usually has either seven or
nine2 single-acting pistons which are evenly
Spaced around the cylinder barrel? inthe manner
shown in figure 15-10.
ADJUSTABLE
TAPPET COLLAR
The piston rods (sometimes called connecting
rods) make a ball-and-socket connection with a
piece called the socket ring. The socket ring
rides on a thrust bearing carried by a casting
called the tilting box or tilting block; thus the
PUMP ROD
socket ring, which revolves, is actually fitted
into the tilting box, which does not revolve. Fig-
ure 15-11 shows diagrammatically the arrange-
ment of the cylinder barrel, the socket ring, and
38.100 the tilting box. Although only one piston is shown
Figure 15-9.—Valve-operating gear of recipro- in this illustration, the others fit similarly into
cating pump. the cylinder barrel and into the socket ring.
Figure 15-12 illustrates diagrammatically
restricted to emergency feed pumps, fire and the manner in whichthe position of the tilting box
bilge pumps, and fuel oil tank stripping and bilge affects the position of the pistons. (Note that this
pumps. On auxiliary ships, reciprocating pumps is not a continuous cross-sectional view, since
are still used for a number of services, includ- for illustrative purposes two pistons are shown.)
ing auxiliary feed, standby fuel oil service, fuel In order to understand how the pumping action
oil transfer, auxiliary circulating and conden- takes place, let us follow one piston as the cyl-
sate, fire and bilge, ballast, and lube oil transfer. inder barrel and socket ring make one complete
revolution. When the tilting box is set perpendic-
VARIABLE STROKE PUMPS.— Variable ular to the shaft, as inpart Aof figure 15-12, the
stroke (also called variable displacement) pumps piston does not move back and forth within its
are most commonly used on naval ships as part cylindrical opening as the cylinder barrel and
of an electrohydraulic transmission for anchor socket ring revolve. Thus the piston is in the
windlasses, cranes, winches, steering gear, and Same position with respect to its own cylindrical
other equipment. In these applications, the var- opening when it is atthe top position as it is when
iable stroke pump is sometimes referred to as the cylinder barrel has completed halfarevolu-
the A end and the hydraulic motor which is tion and carried the piston tothe bottom position.
driven by the Aend is then calledthe B end. Var- Since the piston does not reciprocate, there is no
iable stroke pumps are also used on some ships pumping action when the tilting box is in this
as in-port or cruising fuel oil service pumps. position even though the cylinder barrel and
socket ring are revolving.
Although variable stroke pumps are often
classifed as rotary pumps, they are actually
reciprocating pumps of a special design. Arotary 2 An uneven number of pistons is always used in order
motion is imparted to a cylinder barrel or cyl- to avoid pulsations in the discharge flow.
inder block in the pump by means ofa constant- 3 Note that the term cylinder barrel actually refers to
speed electric motor; but the actual pumping is a cylinder block which has cylindrical openings for all
done by a set of pistons reciprocating inside cyl- of the pistons.
400
VALVE PLATE TILTING BOX CONTROL

TILTING BOX
CYLINDER BARREL
TRUNNION
PISTON
SOCKET RING PISTON
B END CYLINDER BARREL

(HYDRAULIC MOTOR)
SOCKET RING
A END
147.109
Figure 15-10.—Exploded view of axial-piston variable stroke pump.
In part B of figure 15-12, the tilting box is the piston makes one suction stroke (from the
set at an angle sothat itisfarther away from the bottom position to the top position) and one dis-
top of the cylinder barrel and closer tothe bottom charge stroke (from the top position to the bot-
of the cylinder barrel. As the cylinder barrel and tom position) for each complete revolution of the
socket ring revolve, the piston is pulled outward cylinder barrel.
as it is carried from the bottom position to the In part C of figure 15-12, we see the tilting
top position, and is pushed inward as itis carried box set at a somewhat larger angle. Because
from the top position to the bottom position. Thus there iS more distance between the cylinder
barrel and the socket ring at the top, and less
distance between them at the bottom, the piston
now moves further on each stroke and thus
displaces more liquid on the discharge stroke.
CYLINDER BARREL: ANGLE (THRUST AND
OF Although we have considered the position of
RADIAL BEARINGS
NOT SHOWN) only one piston, it is obvious that the others are
being similarly positioned as the cylinder barrel
UNIVERSAL
JOINT and socket ring revolve. At any given moment,
therefore, some pistons are making suction
strokes and others are making discharge
strokes. In anine-piston pump, for example, four
ORIVE pistons will be making suction strokes, four will
KEY SHAFT FROM be making discharge strokes, and one will be at
REDUCTION GEARS the end of its stroke and will therefore be mo-
SOCKET RING
mentarily motionless.
147,110 Each cylindrical opening in the cylinder bar-
Figure 15-11.—Diagram showing cylinder barrel has a port in the face ofthe cylinder barrel.
rel, socket ring, and tilting box in axial-piston As we have seen, each port except one will be
variable stroke pump. either a suction port ora discharge port, depend-
401
ROTATING
CYLINDER CONNECTING ROTATING
BARREL RODS SOCKET
gy< Y
PY
N
SS
22>
SK ies
l SK L227
SS
iYy
yy YSS
asb. 22
NONROTATING
TILTING BOX
TILTING BOX SET TILTING BOX SET AT

A NEUTRAL POSITION B AT AN ANGLE C A GREATER ANGLE
147.111
Figure 15-12.—Diagram showing how tilting box position affects position of pistons.
ing upon the position of the piston in the cylin-

drical opening. The face of the cylinder barrel
bears against the valve plate, anonrotating piece
which has two semicircular ports, one for suc-
tion and one for discharge. When a piston is at
the top position, at the end of its suction stroke,
the port for that piston is over the top land? on
the valve plate; when a piston is at the bottom
position, at the end of the discharge stroke, the
port is over the bottom land on the valve plate.
Figure 15-13 shows the ports in the face of the
cylinder barrel and the ports in the valve plate.
When theA end is used alone as a constant- EE
EE
E
e
speed, variable-capacity pump, the tilting box

is often so designed that it can be tilted in one
direction only. In this case, the flow of the FACE OF VALVE PLATE
pumped liquid is always in the same direction.

When the A end is used as part of an electro-
hydraulic system, however, the tilting box is
most commonly designed to be tilted in either di-
rection; and in this case the flow of the pumped
liquid may be in either direction. Therefore, it
should be clear that the position of the tilting box
controls both the direction of flow and the amount
of flow.
Figure 15-14 shows a cutaway view of an
axial-piston variable stroke pump. Note that this
particular pump is designed for reversible flow,
since the tilting box canbe tilted in either direc-
tion.
The radial-piston variable stroke pump is
similar in general principle to the axial-piston FACE OF CYLINDER SARREL
pump just described, but the arrangement of

component parts is somewhat different. In the 147,112
radial-piston pump, the cylinders are arranged ports in
Figure 15-13.—Suction and discharge
radially in a cylinder body that rotates around
face of cylinder barrel and in valve plate.
a nonrotating central cylindrical valve. Eachcyl-
inder communicates with horizontal ports inthe
central cylindrical valve. Plungers or pistons which extend outward from each cylinder are
pinned at their outer ends to slippers which slide
around the inside of a rotating floating ring or
: The term land refers to the space between ports. housing.
402
equal to the displacement times the speed (rpm),

minus whatever losses may be caused by slip-
CONNECTING
VALVE PLATE ROD CONTROL SHAFT page, suction lift, viscosity of the pumped liquid,
amount of entrained or dissolved gases in the
PISTON
liquid, and so forth.
SUCTION OR All rotary pumps work by means of rotating
DISCHARGE parts which trap the liquid at the suction side and
force it through the discharge outlet. Gears,
screws, lobes, vanes, and cam-and-plunger ar-
rangements are commonly used as the rotating
elements in rotary pumps.
Rotary pumps are particularly useful for
pumping oil and other heavy, viscous liquids.
This type of pump is used for fuel oil service,
fuel oil transfer, lubricating oil service, and
other similar services. Rotary pumps are also
used for pumping nonviscous liquids such as
water or gasoline, particularly where the pump-
SHAFT TRUNNION atl ing problem involves a high suction lift.
BLOCK SOCKET RING
The power end of a rotary pump is usually an
electric motor or an auxiliary steam turbine;
DIAGRAM-TILTING BLOCK POSITIONS however, some lubricating oil pumps that supply
oil to the propulsion turbine bearings and to the
reduction gears are attached to and driven by
either the propulsion shaft or the quill shaft of
the reduction gear.
FORWARD REVERSE
Rotary pumps are designed with very small
38.103 clearances between rotating parts and between
Figure 15-14.—Cutaway view of axial-piston rotating parts and stationary parts. The small
variable stroke pump. clearances are necesarry in order to minimize
slippage from the discharge side backto the suc-
The floating ring is so constructed that it can tion side. Rotary pumps are designed to operate
be shifted offcenter from the pump shaft. When at relatively slow speeds in order to maintain
it is centered, or inthe neutral position, the pis- these clearances; operation at higher speeds
tons do not reciprocate and the pump does not would cause erosion and excessive wear, which
function, even though the electric motor is still in turn would result in increased clearances.
causing the pump to rotate. If the floating ring Classification of rotary pumps is generally
is forced offcenter to one side, the pistons re- made on the basis of the type of rotating element.
ciprocate and the pump: operates. If the floating In the following paragraphs the main features of
ring is forced offcenter to the other side of the some common types of rotary pumps are discus-
pump shaft, the pump also operates but the di- sed.
rection of flow is reversed. Thus both the di- The simple gear pump (fig. 15-15) has two
rection of flow and the amount of flow are spur gears which mesh together and revolve in
determined by the position of the cylinder body opposite directions. One gear is the driving gear,
relative to the position of the floating ring. the other is the driven gear. Clearances between
the gear teeth and the casing and between the
ROTARY PUMPS.—Rotary pumps, like re- gear faces and the casing are only a few thou-
ciprocating pumps, are positive-displacement sandths of an inch. The action of the unmeshing
pumps. The theoretical displacement ofa rotary gears draws the liquid into the suction side of
pump is the volume of liquid displaced by the the pump. The liquid is them trapped in the
rotating elements on each revolution of the shaft. pockets formed by the gear teeth and the casing,
The capacity of a rotary pump is defined as the so that it must followalong withthe teeth. On the
quantity of liquid (in gpm) actually delivered discharge side, the liquid is forced out by the
under specified conditions. Thus the capacity is meshing of the gears. Simple gear pumps ofthis
403
type are frequently used as lubricating pumps

on pumps and other auxiliary machinery.
DISCHARGE The herringbone gear pump (fig. 15-16) isa
Jt
modification of the simple gear pump. Inthe her-
ringbone gear pump, one discharge phase begins
before the previous discharge phase is entirely
)
complete; this overlapping tends to give a stead-
ier discharge than that obtained with a simple
gear pump. Herringbone gear pumps are some-
times used for low pressure fuel oil service, lu-
bricating oil service, and diesel oil service.
The helical gear pump (fig. 15-17) is still an-
SUCTION other modification of the simple gear pump.
Because of the helical gear design, the overlap-
38.108 ping of successive discharges from spaces be-
Figure 15-15.—Simple gear pump. tween the teeth is even greater than it is in the
SUCTION
HERRINGBONE
DRIVE
SHAFT
147.113
Figure 15-16.—Herringbone gear pump.
404
HELICAL GEAR
INTAKE
147.114
Figure 15-17.—Helical gear pump.
herringbone gear pump; and the discharge flow Roller bearings at both ends of the gear shafts
is, accordingly, even smoother. Since the dis- maintain proper alignment and thus minimize
charge flow is smooth in the helical gear pump, friction losses in the transmission of power.
the gears can be designed with a small number Stuffing boxes are used to prevent leakage at the
of teeth, thus allowing increased capacity without shafts.
sacrificing smoothness of flow.
The helical gear pump is used to pump non-
The pumping gears in this type of pump are
viscous liquids and light oils at high speeds and
driven by set of timing and driving gears, which
to pump viscous liquids at lower speeds.
also function to maintain the required close
clearances while preventing actual metal-to- Figures 15-18 and 15-19 illustrate twotypes
metal contact between the pumping gears. Asa of lobe pumps. Although these pumps look some-
matter of fact, metallic contact between the teeth what like gear pumps, they are not true gear
of the pumping gears would provide a tighter seal pumps because the rotary elements are not capa-
against’ slippage; but it would cause rapid wear ble of driving each other. One rotor is powered
of the teeth because foreign matter in the pumped by the drive shaft; the otherisdriven by a set of
liquid would be present on the contact surfaces. timing gears. The lobes are considerably larger
405
side; a cylindrically shaped rotor of smaller

diameter than the cylinder is driven about an axis
placed above the centerline of the cylinder in such
a way that the clearance between the rotor and the
cylinder is small at the top and ata maximum
value at the bottom.
The rotor carries vanes which move in and out
as the rotor rotates, thus maintaining sealed
spaces between the rotor and the cylinder wall.
The vanes trap liquid on the suction side and
carry it to the discharge side; contraction of the
space expels the liquid into the discharge line.
The vanes may Swing on pivots, as shown in the
illustration, or they may slide in slots in the
rotor.
The moving vane type of pump is used for lu-
bricating oil service and transfer and, in general,
for handling light liquids of medium viscosity.
An internal gear pump is shown in figure 15-
24. In the gear pumps previously described, the
teeth project radially outward from the center of
147.115 the gears. In an internal gear system, the teeth
Figure 15-18.—Lobe pump (heliquad type). of one gear project outward but the teeth of the
other project inward toward the center. Inan in-
than gear teeth; as a rule, there are only two or ternal gear pump, one gear stands inside the
three lobes on each rotor. other.
There are several different types of screw A gear directly attached to the drive shaft of
pumps. The mainpoints of difference between the the pump is set offcenter in a circular chamber
various types are the number of intermeshing fitted around its circumference with the spurs
screws and the pitch of the screws. A double- of an internal gear. The two gears mesh on one
screw low pitch pump is shown in figure 15-20, side of the pump chamber, between the suction
and a triple-screw high-pitch pump in figure and the discharge. On the opposite side of the
15-21. Both of these pumps are widely used chamber a crescent-shaped form stands in the
aboard ship to pump fuel oil and lubricating oil. space between the two gears in such a way that
In the double-screw pump, one rotor is driven by a close clearance exists between each gear and
the drive shaft and the other by a set of timing the crescent.
gears. In the triple-screwpump, a central power The rotation of the central gear by the shaft
rotor meshes with two idler rotors. causes the outside gear to rotate, since the two
The rotating element in a rotating plunger
pump (fig. 15-22) is a plunger which is set off-
center on a drive shaft that is rotated by the
source of power. The plunger is driven up and
down and around the chamber by the rotation of
the shaft, in such a way astomake a Sliding seal
with the walls of the chamber. In moving,
the plunger alternately opens and closes a pas-
sage to the discharge.
Because of its valveless construction, the ro-
tating plunger pump is suitable for pumping oil
that may contain sand or other sediment and for
pumping high viscosity liquids. The pump can
produce a very high suction lift.
A moving vane pump (fig. 15-23) consists of
a cylindrically bored housing witha suction inlet 147.116
on one side and a discharge outlet on the other Figure 15-19.—Two-lobe pump.
406
£ DISCHARGE
Sl WlML EH LVI
eA'op'an's ae
Oot 1s
FLEXIBLE
COUPLING
UPPER THRUST
PLATE
IDLER
*
ROTOR HOUSING
Ser
=f ret DISCHARGE
SPACER
as
»
RING
a
ROTOR HOUSING
aE.
=
38.105X \
Nes
IDLER
Figure 15-20.—Double-screw low-pitch pump. LOCATING SS o
are in mesh. Everything in the chamber rotates 6— r \
except the crescent, causing liquid tobe trapped

in the gear spacesas they pass the crescent. The
trapped liquid is carried from the suction tothe
discharge, where it is forced out of the pump by
47.80
the meshing of the gears. As liquid is carried
Figure 15-21.—Triple-screw high-pitch pump.
away from the intake side ofthe pump, the pres-
sure there is diminished, thus forcing other
Centrifugal pumps are not positive-displace-
liquid into the suction side of the pump. The di-
ment pumps. When a centrifugal pump is operat-
rection of flow in the internal gear pump can be
ing at a constant speed, the amount of liquid
reversed by shifting the position of the crescent
discharged (capacity) varies with the discharge
180 degrees.
pressure according to the relationships inherent
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.—Centrifugal pumps in the particular pump design. The relationships
are widely used aboard ship for pumping water among capacity, total head (pressure), and power
and other nonviscous -liquids. The centrifugal are usually expressed by means of acharacter-
pump utilizes the throwing force of a rapidly istics curve.
revolving impeller. The liquid is pulled inatthe Capacity and discharge pressure can be
center or eye of the impeller and is discharged varied by changing the pump speed. However,
at the outer rim of this impeller. By the time centrifugal pumps should be operated at or near
the liquid reaches the outer rim ofthe impeller, their rated capacity and discharge pressure
it has acquired a considerable velocity. The li- whenever possible. Impeller vane angles andthe
quid is then slowed down by being led through a sizes of the pump waterways can be designed
volute or through a series of diffusing passages. for maximum efficiency at only one combination
As the velocity of the liquid decreases, its pres- of speed and discharge pressure; under other
sure increases—or, in other words, some of the conditions of operation, the impeller vane angles
mechanical kinetic energy of the liquid is trans-
formed into mechanical potential energy. In the
terminology commonly used in discussion of e Characteristics curves are generally given in the
pumps, the velocity head ofthe liquid is partially manufacturers' technical manuals or inthe outline as-
converted to pressure head. sembly drawings of pumps.
407
HOLLOW ARM SLIDE PIN
SUCTION DISCHARGE
DRIVE SHAFT DISCHARGE PORT
ROTATING PLUNGER ECCENTRIC
47.46
Figure 15-22.—Rotating plunger pump.
and the sizes of the waterways will be too large Where two or more centrifugal pumps are in-
or too small for efficient operation, Therefore, a stalled to operate in parallel, it is particularly
centrifugal pump cannot operate satisfactorily important to avoid operating the pumps at very
over long periods of time at excess capacity and low capacity, since it is possible that a unit hav-
low discharge pressure or at reduced capacity ing a slightly lower discharge pressure might be
and high discharge pressure. pushed off the line and thus forced intoa shutoff
It should be noted that centrifugal pumps are position.
not self-priming. The casing must be flooded Because of the danger of overheating, cen-
before a pump of this type will function. For this trifugal pumps can operate at zero capacity for
reason, most centrifugal pumps are located only short periods of time. The length of time
below the level from which suction is tobe taken. varies. For example, a fire pump might be able
Priming can also be effected by using another to operate for as long as15to 30 minutes before
pump to supply liquid tothe pump suction—as, for losing suction, but a main feed pump would over-
example, the feed booster pump supplies suction heat in a matter of a few seconds if operated at
pressure for the main feed pump. Some centrif- zero capacity.
ugal pumps have special priming pumps, air Most centrifugal pumps—and particularly
ejectors, or other devices for priming. boiler feed pumps, fire pumps, and others which
408
Chapter 15.—PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
pump or to prevent the entrance of air into the

pump; the purpose served depends, of course,
SWINGING TYPE upon whether the pump is operating with a posi-
MOVING VANES tive suction head or is taking suctionfroma va-
SUCTION DISCHARGE cuum.
If a centrifugal pump is operating witha pos-
itive suction head, the pressure inside the pump
is sufficient to force a small amount of liquid
through the packing when the packing gland is
properly set up on. On multistage pumps, it is
sometimes necessary to reduce the pressure on
one or both of the stuffing boxes. This is accom-
plished by using a bleedoff line which is tapped
in to the stuffing box between the throat bushing
and the packing.
If a pump is taking suction at or below atmos-
pheric pressure, a supply of sealing water must
be furnished to the packing glands to ensure the
exclusion of air. Some of this water must
be allowed to leak off through the packing. Most
47.47 centrifugal pumps use the pumped liquid as the
Figure 15-23.—Moving vane pump. lubricating, cooling, and sealing medium. How-
ever, an independent external sealing liquid is
may be required to operate at lowcapacity or in used on some pumps.
shutoff condition for any length of time—are fitted There are several different designs of cen-
with recirculation lines from the discharge side trifugal pumps. The two types most commonly
of the pump back to the source of suction supply. used aboard ship are the volute pump and the
The main feed pump, for example, hasa recircu- volute turbine pump.
lating line going back tothe deaerating feed tank. The volute pump is shown in figure 15-25.In
An orifice allows the recirculation of the min- this pump, the impeller discharges into a volute—
imum amount of water required toprevent over- that is, a gradually widening channel inthe pump
heating of the pump. On boiler feed pumps, the casing. As the liquid passes through the volute
recirculating lines must be kept open whenever and into the discharge nozzle, a greatpartof its
the pumps are in operation. kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.
On centrifugal pumps, there must always be In the volute turbine pump (fig. 15-26) the
a slight leakoff through the packing in the stuf- liquid leaving the impeller is first slowed down
fing boxes, in order to keep the packing lubri- by the stationary diffuser vanes which surround
cated and cooled. Stuffing boxes are used either the impeller. The liquid is forced through grad-
to prevent the gross leakage of liquid from the ually widening passages in the diffuser ring (not
shown) and into the volute. Since both the diffuser
DISCHARGE
INTERNAL
AR
VOLUTE
147.117
Figure 15-24.—Internal gear pump. Figure 15-25.—Simple volute pump.
409
REVOLVING IMPELLER
DISCHARGE
DISCHARGE
IMPELLER
IMPELLER
EYE
23.19
Figure 15-26.—Volute turbine pump. SINGLE
INTAKE
SUCTION
vanes and the volute reduce the velocity of the

liquid, there is in this type of pump an almost
complete conversion of kinetic energy to poten-
tial energy.
Centrifugal pumps may be classified in sev- DOUBLE
SUCTION
eral ways. For example, they may be either
single-stage or multistage, a single-stage pump
has only one impeller; a multistage pump hastwo 23.25
or more impellers housed together in one casing. Figure 15-27. —Single-suction and double-
In a multistage pump, as a rule, each impeller suction arrangements in centrifugal pumps.
acts separately, discharging to the suction of the
sure of the boiler. On ships having 1200-psig
next-stage impeller. Centrifugal pumps are also
boilers, the discharge pressure of the main feed
classified as horizontal or vertical, depending
upon the position of the pump shaft. pumps is approximately 200 to 300 psig above the
The impellers used in centrifugal pumps may steam drum pressure. A main feed pump must
be classified as singlesuction or double-suc- operate at varying speeds to maintaina constant
tion. The single-suction impeller allows liquid to discharge pressure under all conditions of load.
enter the eye of the impeller from one direction A constant-pressure pump governor® is used to
only; the double-suction type allows liquid to regulate the admission of steam to the turbine
enter the eye from two directions. Single- suction and thus control the discharge pressure of the
and double-suction arrangements are shown in pump.
figure 15-27. The double-suction arrangement PROPELLER PUMPS.—Propeller pumps are
has the advantage of balancing end thrust in one used on some ships for pumping water. Although
direction by end thrust in the other. they are often classified as centrifugal pumps,
Some of the more important centrifugal this classification is incorrect because propeller
pumps used on naval ships are the main feed pumps donot actually utilize centrifugal force for
pump, the feed booster pump, the main and auxil- their operation.
iary condensate pumps, fire pumps, fresh water A propeller pump consists essentially of a
pumps, and gasoline pumps. propeller fitted into a narrow, tube-like casing.
A typical main feed pump is shown in figure The propeller pumps the liquid by pushing it in
15-28. This is a horizontal, high speed, turbine- a direction parallel to the pump shaft.
driven pump. Main feed pumps on most surface
ships operate at a discharge pressure that is 100 6 Constant-pressure pump governors are discussed
in
to 150 psig above the maximum steam drum pres- chapter 16 of this text.
410
Chapter 15. PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
STEAM INLET
2ND STAGE IMPELLER
| ST. STAGE IMPELLER

feng
OIL TANK
38.109
Figure 15-28.—Main feed pump.
Propeller pumps must be located below or pump as a device which utilizes an external
only slightly above the surface ofthe liquid to be source of power to apply force toafluid in order
pumped, since they cannot operate with ahigh to move the fluid from one place to another, it
suction lift. will be apparent that
a jet pumpis indeed a pump.
Jet pumps are generally considered in two
MIXED-FLOW PUMPS.—A mixed-flow pump classes: ejectors, which use a jet of steam to
is one in which the pumping action occurs partly entrain air, water, or other fluid; and eductors,
by centrifugal force and partly by propeller ac- which use a flow of water to entrain and thereby
tion. Pumps of this type can be used to handle pump water. The basic principles of operation of
very viscous liquids or liquids that contain dirt; these two devices are identical.
they are better than either centrifugal pumpsor A simple jet pump ofthe ejector typeis shown
propeller pumps for these services. in figure 15-29. In this pump, steam under pres-
sure enters chamber C through pipe A, whichis
JET PUMPS.—Devices which utilize the rapid fitted with a nozzle, B. As the steam flows
flow of afluid to entrain another fluid and thereby through the nozzle, the velocity of the steam is
move it from one place to another are called jet increased. The fluid in the chamber at point F,
pumps. Jet pumps are sometimes not considered in front of the nozzle, is driven out of the pump
to be pumps because they have no moving parts. through the discharge line, E, by the force of the
However, in view of our previous definition of a steam jet. The size of the discharge line
411
supply a positive pressure head for pumps used

in firefighting.
Pump Maintenance
Pumps require a certain amount of routine
maintenance and, upon occasion, some repair
work. Pumps are so widely used for various
services in the Navy that it isnecessaryto con-
sult the manufacturer’s technical manual for
details concerning the repair of a specific unit.
Routine maintenance, however, is performed in
accordance with the Planned Maintenance Sub-
system (3-M System) requirements. Figure 15-
31 illustrates the planned maintenance require-
ATMOSPHERIC ments for one type of turbine-driven main lube
PRESSURE oil pump. Similar requirements are established
ttt tt
for all pumps.
Safety Precautions
The following safety precautions must be ob-
served in connection withthe operation of pumps:
1. See that all relief valves are tested atthe

appropriate intervals as required by the Plan-
ned Maintenance Subsystem. Be sure that relief
75.283 valves function at the designated pressure.
Figure 15-29.—Jet pump (ejector type). 2. Never attempt to jackover a pump by hand
while the throttle valve to the turbine is open or
increases gradually beyond the chamber, in the power is on. Never jackover areciprocating
order to decrease the velocity of the discharge pump when the throttle valve or the exhaust
and thereby transform some of the velocity head valve is open.
to pressure head. As the steam jet forces some
of the fluid from the chamber into the discharge
line, pressure in the chamber is lowered and the
pressure on the surface of the supply fluid forces
fluid up through theinlet,D, into the chamber and
out through the discharge line. Thus the pumping
action is established.
Jet pumps of the ejector type are occasionally
used aboard ship to pump small quantities of
drains overboard. Their primary use on naval
ships, however, is not in the pumping of water
but in the removal of air and other noncon-
densable_ gases from main and auxiliary con-
densers.?
An eductor is shown in figure 15-30. As may
be seen, the principle of operation is the same
as that just described for the ejector type of jet
pump; however, water is used instead of steam.
On naval ships, eductors are used to pump water
from bilges, to dewater compartments, and to
Air ejector assemblies used on condensers are dis-

cussed in chapter 13 of this text. Figure 15-30.—Eductor. 47.48
412
Chapter 15. PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
Turbine Driven Main Lube Oil Pump
Bureau Cord Maintenance Requirement Related

Centre! No. Maintenance
. Sample and inspect lube oil. None

. Lubricate speed limiting governor.
- Turn idle pump by hand; if free,
operate by power.
- Test the speed limiting governor.
. Clean sump.
- Clean lube oil filter.
. Renew oil.
- Sound and tighten foundation bolts.

. Lubricate flexible coupling.
. Measure turbine thrust clearance.
. Test combination exhaust and relief

valve.
. Test lube oil relief valve.
- Clean and inspect pump pressure

regulator.
- Inspect shaft journals, thrust

collar, and bearings for condition;
measure bearing clearance.
. Inspect and clean steam strainer.
. Renew stuffing box packing.

. Inspect flexible coupling.
. By operational test, inspect inter-

nal parts for wear.
. Inspect carbon packing for wear.

. Inspect turbine exterior.
MAINTENANCE INDEX PAGE BUREAU PAGE CONTROL NUMBER E-9/10-95

@PHAV FORM 4700-3 (4-64)
98.171
Figure 15-31.—PMS, Maintenance Index Page.
413
3. Do not attempt to operate a pump while are fitted with flaps in the suction ducts. In the
either the speed limiting governor or the constant event of a casualty to one centrifugal blower, air
pressure governor is inoperable. Be sure that the from another blower blows back toward the
speed limiting governor and the constant pres- damaged blower and closes the flaps.
sure governor are properly set. Both horizontal and vertical propeller
4. Do not use any boiler feed system pump blowers are used in naval combatant ships. In
for any service other than boiler or feed water general, single-stage horizontal blowers are
service, except in an emergency. used on older ships and two-stage or three-stage
vertical blowers on ships built since World War
FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS Il.
Balanced automatic shutters are installed in
On most steam-driven surface ships, forced
the discharge ducts between each propeller
draft blowers are used to furnish the large
blower and the boiler casings. These shutters are
amount of combustion air required for the burn-
locked in the closed position whenever the blower
ing of the fuel oil. A forced draft blower is es-
is taken out of service so that the blower will not
sentially a very large fan, fastened toa shaft and
be rotated in reverse.
housed in a metal casing. Asarule, two blowers
Figure 15-32 and 15-33 show two views of a
are furnished for each boiler; they are synchro-
single-stage horizontal propeller-type blower.
nized for equal distribution of load.
As may be seen, the blower is a complete unit
Most forced draft blowers are driven by
consisting of a driving turbine and a propeller-
steam turbines. However, some blowers for in-
type fan. The entire unit is mounted on a single
port use and some main blowers on auxiliary
bed plate.
ships are driven by electric motors. Most tur-
The air intake is screened to prevent the en-
bine-driven blowers are direct drive, rather than
trance of foreign objects. The blower casing
geared; but some geared turbine drives are used.
On most ships, the forced draft blowers take
suction from the space between the inner and
outer stack casings and discharge slightly pre-
heated air into a duct that leads to the space be-
tween the inner and outer casings of the boiler.
Types of Forced
Draft Blowers
Two main types of forced draft blowers are

used in naval ships: centrifugal blowers and pro-
peller blowers. The main difference between the
two types is inthedirectionof airflow. The cen-
trifugal blower takes air in axially at the center
of the fan and discharges it tangentially off the
outer edge of the blades. The propeller blower
moves air axially—that is, it propels the air
straight ahead in a direction parallel to the axis
of the shaft. Most forced draft blowers now in
naval use are of the propeller type. However,
some older ships and some recent auxiliaries
have centrifugal blowers.
Centrifugal blowers may be either vertical
or horizontal. In either case, the unit consists of
the driving turbine (or other driving unit) atone
end of the shaft and the centrifugal fanwheel at
the other end of the shaft. Inlet trunks and dif-
fusers are fitted around the blower fanwheel to 38.111X
direct air into the fanwheel and to receive and Figure 15-32.—Horizontal propeller-type blower
discharge air from the fan. Centrifugal blowers (view 1).
414
a ao
38.112X
Figure 15-33.—Horizontal propeller-type blower
(view II).
merges into the discharge duct, and the discharge

duct is joined to the boiler casing. Diffuser vanes
are installed justin front of the blower to prevent
rotation of the air stream as it leaves the blower.
Additional divisions in the curving sections of the
discharge duct also help to control the flow of air.
The shaft that carried both the propeller and
the turbine is a single forging. The propeller is
keyed to the shaft and held to the tapered end of
the shaft by a nut and cotter pin. The entire as- 38.113X
sembly is supported by two main bearings, one Figure 15-34.—External view of three-stage
on each side of the turbine wheel, outside the tur- vertical propeller-type blower.
bine casing. The main bearing at the governor
end is located in the governor housing, which also The driving turbine isa velocity- compounded
contains the thrust bearing. The speed-limiting impulse turbine (Curtis stage) with two rows of
governor spindle and the lubricating oil pump moving blades. The turbine wheel is keyed to the
shaft are driven by the main shaft of the blower, shaft. The lower face of the turbine wheel bears
through a reduction gear. against a shoulder on the shaft; a nut screwed
High powered two-stage or three-stage ver- onto the shaft presses against the upper face of
tical propeller-type blowers are installed in re- the turbine wheel.
cent combatant ships. One kind of three-stage The entire rotating assembly is supported by
vertical propeller-type blower is shown in fig- two main bearings. One bearing is just below the
ures 15-34 and 15-35. Figure 15-36 shows the propellers and one is just above the thrust bear-
rotating assembly of the same blower. As may ing in the oil reservoir.
be seen, there are three propellers at the fan The blower casing is built up of welded plates,
end. Each propeller consists of a solid forged From the upper flange down to a little below the
disk to which are attached a number of forged lowest propeller, the casing is cylindrical in
blades. The blades have bulb-shaped roots that shape. The shape of the casing changes from cyl-
are entered in grooves machined across the hub; indrical to cone-shaped and then to square; the
the blades are kept firmly in place by locking discharge opening of the blower casing is rectan-
devices. Each propeller diskis keyed to the shaft gular in shape. Guide vanes in the casing control
and secured by locking devices. the flow of air and also serve to stiffen the
415
PROPELLER, Xa Re (am as a,
Ist STAGE eo TF STATIONARY
PROPELLER, [= @ ae = GUIDE VANES
2nd STAGE NR. WW 7 W“:S_ ae.
PROPELLER, PYaes = % a BEARING
3rd STAGE x 0 DD?
Vie ane Eau EXTERNAL OIL LINE

TO UPPER BEARING
OIL GUARD
12 OIL RETURN
Z) LINE
J
VA
tae!
[eee
& Y Ldiyprug inN
UY VE OAN _nozz.e
Th KG A VALVE
Ys UNSS | VY
TURBINE— yyyarae
(ZA —\ Aa VS
S77 Ya
Ny
Ky
S
SS $S
ESS © STATIONARY
BLADING
=
LOWER
GLAND SEALS BEARING
VISCOSITY
PUMP LY
MLEEE
Mg
CENTRIFUGAL ee = =“4
YP PRESSURE
PUMP fate ZL, y GAGE
TACHOMETER
OIL RESERVOIR Soy | At
TLESLLS
111A
THRUST + xy
BEARING ee tNNS eee
|
38.114
Figure 15-35.—Sectional view of three-stage vertical propeller-type blower.
416
Simple gear pumps were used in the lube

oil systems of older horizontal blowers such as
those found on DD 445 and DD 692 classes of
destroyers. These pumps were not completely
satisfactory for this use, Since a simple gear
pump does not supply oil to the bearings when
the blower is turning in the wrong direction.
This is a Serious disadvantage in forced draft
blower installations because of the possibility
that idle blowers may be rotated in reverse
when automatic shutters fail to close. To pre-
vent damage to the bearings from this cause,
38.115X the simple gear pumps in some horizontal
Figure 15-36.—Rotating assembly for three- blowers were replaced by a special type of gear
stage vertical propeller-type blower. pump that continues to pump oil, without change
in the direction of oil flow, when the direction
casing. The part of the casing near the propellers of blower rotation is reversed. This alteration
is made in Sections and is also split vertically has been accomplished on many ships that have
to allow removal of the three propellers when horizontal forced draft blowers.
necessary. The lower part of the casing, below Some vertical blowers are fitted with a gear
the air duct, houses the turbine. The lower part pump and alubrication system which is generally
of the turbine casing is welded to the oil reser- similar to that just described for horizontal
voir structure. blowers. However, most vertical blowers have
Although all vertical propeller blowers op- quite different lubrication systems.
erate on the same principle, and although they One type of lubrication system used onsome
may look very much the same from the outside, vertical forced draft blowers is shown in figure
they are not identical in all details. Perhaps 15-37. In this system, the gear pump is re-
the major differences to be found among verti- placed by a centrifugal pump and a helical-
cal forced draft blowers are in connection with groove viscosity pump. The centrifugal pump
the lubrication systems. Some of these differ- impeller is on the lower end of the main shaft,
ences are noted in the following section. just below the lower main bearing. The vis-
cosity pump (also called a friction pump) is on
Blower Lubrication the shaft, just above the centrifugal pump im-
peller, inside the lower part of the main bear-
Because forced draft blowers must operate ing. As the main shaft turns, lubricating oil
at very high speeds, correct lubrication of the goes to the lower bearingand from there, by way
bearings is absolutely essential. A complete of the hollow shaft, to the upper bearing. In
pressure lubrication system for supplying oil addition, part of the oil is pumped directly to
to the bearings is an_ integral part of every the upper bearing through an external supply
forced draft blower. Most forced draft blowers line. The oil is returned from the upper bear-
have two radial bearings and one thrust bearing; ing to the oil reservoir through an external
however, some blowers have two turbine bear- return line.
ings, two fan bearings, and a thrust bearing. In this system, the lubricating oil does not
The lubrication system for a horizontal go through the oil strainer or the oil filter on
forced draft blower includes a pump, an oil filter, its way to the bearings. Instead, oil from the
an oil cooler, a filling connection, relief valves, reservoir is constantly being circulated through
oil level indicators, thermometers, pressure an external filter and an external cooler and
gages, oil sight flow indicators, and the neces- then back to the reservoir.
sary piping. The pump is usually turned by the The viscosity pump is needed in this system
forced draft blower shaft but is geared down to because the pumping action of the centrifugal
about one-fourth the speed of the turbine. The pump impeller is dependent upon the rpm of the
lube oil is pumped from the oil reservoir, through Shaft. At low speeds, the centrifugal pump can-
the oil filter and the oil cooler, to the bear- not develop enough oil pressure to adequately
ings. Oil then drains back to the reservoir by lubricate the bearings. At high speeds, the
gravity. centrifugal pump alone would develop more oil
417
UPPER BEARING
pump of the type shown in figure 15-36; but these
blowers, like the other newer ones, havea com-
pletely external oil supply to the bearings in-
OIL GUARD stead of a hollow-shaft arrangement.
One feature of some of the newer vertical
blowers is an anti-rotation device on the shaft
of the lubricating pump. This device prevents
OIL TO windmilling of the blower in a reverse direction
UPPER BEARING
OIL DRAIN FROM | in the event of leakage through the automatic
UPPER BEARING shutters. The anti-rotation device is continuous-
ly lubricated through a series of passageways
Yi
SIGHT FLOW which trap some of the leakage from the thrust
INDICATOR bearing.
oo
t Control of Blower Speed
|
(eee LOWER Forced draft blowers are manually controlled
BEARING PRESSURE -
ORIFICE GAGE Bee on all naval ships except those that have auto-
Ca | VISCOSITY TAC ONEE matic combustion control systems for the boil-
) STRAINER: \— ers. Speed-limiting governors (discussed in
chapter 16 of this text) are fitted to all forced
draft blowers, but they function merely as safety
devices to prevent the turbine from exceeding
the maximum safe operating speed; the speed-
limiting governors do not have any control over
THRUST CENTRIFUGAL
BEARING PUNPHINEERIER) | RESERVOIR
UHERMOMETER the turbine at ordinary operating speeds.
SURFACES Manual control of blower speed is achieved
by a valve arrangement that controls the amount
38.116 of steam admitted to the turbines. In some
Figure 15-37.—Lubrication system with hollow- blowers a full head of steam is admitted to the
shaft oil supply and external oil supply for steam chest; steam is then admitted to the tur-
vertical forced draft blower. bine by means of a manually operated lever or
handwheel that controls four nozzle valves. The
pressure than is needed for lubrication, and the lever or handwheel may be connected by link-
excessive pressure would tend to cause flood- age for remote operation. The four valves are
ing of the bearings and loss of oil from the so arranged that they open in sequence, rather
lubrication system. The viScosity pump, which than all at the same time. The position of the
is nothing more than a shallow helical thread manually operated lever or handwheel deter-
or groove on the lower part of the shaft, helps mines the number of valves that will open, and
to assure sufficient lubrication at low speeds thus controls the amount of steam that will be
and to prevent the development of excessive oil admitted to the driving turbine. The steam chest
pressures at high speeds. nozzle valve shafts of all blowers serving one
The hollow-shaft type of lubrication system boiler are mechanically coupled so as to pro-
just described is still found on some vertical vide for synchronized operation of the blowers.
forced draft blowers. The newest vertical If only one blower is to be operated, the root
blowers, however, do not use a hollow shaft to valve of the nonoperating blower must remain
Supply oil to the upper bearings. Instead, oil is closed so that steam will not be admitted to the
pumped to the bearings through an external line.
supply line, passing through an oil filter and an In other installations, a throttle valve is used
oil cooler on the way to the bearings. Most of to control the admission of steam to the steam
these newer vertical blowers have a gear pump chest. From the steam chest, the steam enters
and an additional hand pump that is used to the turbine casing through fixed nozzles rather
establish initial lubrication when the blower is than through nozzle valves. Varying the opening
being started. Some of the newer vertical of the throttle valve varies the steam pressure
blowers have a centrifugal pump and aviscosity to the steam chest and thus varies the speed of
the turbine. The same throttle valve is usually provided outside the sump for attaching the wire
used to control the admission of steam to all from the generator to the transformer box.
blowers serving any one boiler. [If only one
blower is to be operated, the root valve of the
Forced Draft Blower Operation
nonoperating blower must be kept closed.
When admission of steam is controlled by
the four nozzle valve arrangement, no additional Forced draft blowers supply the air required
nozzle area is required to bring the blower up for combustion of the fuel oil. The amount of
to maximum speed. In the other type of instal- air that enters the furnace is determined by the
lation, a special hand-operated nozzle valve is air pressure in the double casings. Although
provided for high speed operation. This nozzle the air pressure is affected by the number of
valve, which is sometimes called an overload burners in use and by the amount that the air
nozzle valve, is used whenever it is necessary registers are open, it is primarily determined
to increase the blower speed beyond that ob- by the speed at which the forced draft blowers
tainable with the fixed nozzles. Asa rule, the are operated. The speed of the forced draft
use of the overload nozzle valve is required blowers is controlled by manual adjustment of
only when steam pressure is below normal. the blower throttle in all installations except
those having automatic combustion control
Checking Blower Speed systems.
The forced draft blowers should be operated
Many forced draft blowers are fitted with in such a way as to furnish the required amount
constant-reading, permanently mounted tachom- of air for the complete combustion of the fuel
eters for checking on blower speed. Sometimes being burned. In actual practice, it is neces-
the tachometer is mounted on top of the governor sary to supply just over 100 percent of the
and is driven by the governor spindle. The gov- amount of air theoretically required, in order
ernor spindle is driven by the main shaft through to ensure the complete combustion of the fuel.
a reduction gear, and therefore does not rotate Higher percentages of excess air are wasteful
at the same speed as the main shaft. However, of fuel, since all air that does not actually enter
the rpm of the governor spindle is proportional into a combustion reaction merely absorbs and
to the rpm of the main shaft. The tachometer carries off heat.
is calibrated to give readings that indicate the On the other hand, an insufficient quantity of
speed of the main shaft rather than the speed air for combustion is also detrimental to boiler
of the governor spindle. efficiency. If there is not enough air for com-
Some blowers are equipped with a special plete combustion, there may be a greater loss
kind of tachometer called a pressure-gage tach- in efficiency. Or, if even less air is supplied,
ometer. This instrument, which may be seen some of the carbon will not be burned at all
in figures 15-35 and 15-37, is actually a pres- but will pass out the smokestack as black smoke.
sure gage which is calibrated in both psi and Insufficient air is also detrimental because it
rpm. The pressure-gage tachometer depends causes the boiler to pant and vibrate; this is one
for its operation on the fact that the oil pres- of the major causes of brick work failure in
sure built up by the centrifugal lube oil pump the boilers.
has a definite relation to the speed of the pump The air pressure in the double casing must
impeller; and the speed of the impeller, of be increased BEFORE the rate of combustion
course, is determined by the speed of the main is increased, and must be decreased AFTER
shaft. Thus the instrument can be calibrated the rate of combustion is decreased. There is
in both psi and rpm. usually little difficulty in teaching fireroom
Some forced draft blowers of recent design personnel to increase the air pressure before
are equipped with electric tachometers which the rate of combustion is increased, Since fail-
have indicating gages at the blower and at the ure to do so results in panting and vibration
boiler operating station. The electric tachom- of the boiler and in heavy smoke. It is more
eter (Sometimes called a tachometer generator) difficult, however, to teach the men to decrease
consists of a stator and a permanent magnet the air pressure after the rate of combustion
rotor mounted at the bottom of the turbine shaft. has been decreased. However, operating the
The wire from the generator plugs into a con- blower at a faster speed than is required for
nector inside the sump. Another connector is the rate of combustion is definitely a poor
419
practice, since it introduces more excess air damage to the shutters and to the toggle gear.
than is required for the combustion of the fuel. Broken or sprung parts must be replaced in
order to ensure smooth operation of the shut-
Forced Draft Blower Maintenance ters. Shutters should be inspected frequently
to determine whether the leaves operate freely
Forced draft blowers require relatively little and to be sure that they seal tightly when closed.
maintenance and repair, provided they are Forced draft blowers should not be operated
Operated and maintained in strict accordance if they are vibrating excessively or making any
with instructions given in the manufacturer’s unusual noise. Vibration may be caused by worn
technical manual. A good deal of the mainte- or loose bearings, a bent shaft, loose or broken
nance work required in connection with blowers foundation bolts or rivets, an unbalanced fan, or
is related to keeping the lubrication system in other defects. All defects should be corrected
proper condition. All maintenance of blowers as soon as possible in order to prevent a com-
must be performed in accordance with the re- plete breakdown of the blower.
quirements of the 3-M System. Minor repairs to blower fan blades may be
The lubricating oil in the reservoir must be made aboard ship in case of emergency, in ac-
kept clean. The reservoir must always be cordance with procedures specified in chapter
filled to the correct level with oil of the speci- 9530 of the Naval Ships Technical Manual. Major
fied weight and grade. Oil samples must be repairs to fan blades must NOT be made with-
taken routinely at the specified intervals, or out specific instructions from the Naval Ship
more often if you have reason to suspect that Systems Command. As a matter of routine care,
the oil is contaminated. When a sample shows blower fan blades should be wiped down from
an unusual amount of sediment or water, this time to time to remove dirt and dust. (One
fact should be reported to the engineering of- rapid method of cleaning the blades of a multi-
ficer or to the PO in charge, who may issue stage blower without any disassembly is dis-
instructions to change the oil. After the oil cussed in chapter 9530 of the Naval Ships Tech-
has been drained, the inside of the reservoir nical Manual.) Paint must NEVER be applied to
should be wiped clean. a blower fan or to any other rotating part of the
The metal-edge type of filter should be unit.
cleaned at least once each watch. This is done When inspecting and repairing blowers
by giving the handle one or two complete turns. equipped with anti-reverse rotation devices, be
From time to time the filter should be dis- careful not to apply reverse torque to the shaft,
mantled and cleaned; this should be done when- since this could cause damage to the shaft of
ever the oil is changed in the reservoir, and the anti-reverse rotation device.
more often if necessary.
A common occurrence with vertical blowers
Safety Precautions
is contamination of the oil with fresh water.
This happens in an idle blower when leaking
steam enters the turbine casing, passes through Some of the most important safety precau-
the upper labyrinth seal, and impinges on the tions to be observed in connection with forced
oil slinger, where it condenses and mixes with draft blowers are:
the oil. This problem can be avoided by keeping
the steam valves (especially the exhaust-relief 1. Before starting a blower, always make
valve) in good repair. If the valves leak, the sure that the fan is free of dirt, tools, rags, and
turbine casing drain of an idle blower must be other foreign objects or materials. Check the
kept open. blower room for loose objects that might be
Automatic shutters are not subject to any drawn into the fan when the blower is started.
great amount of wear under normal operating 2. Do not try to move automatic shutters by
conditions. However, they must be kept well hand if another blower serving the same boiler
lubricated at all times. Some types of shutters is already in operation.
have Zerk-type grease fittings; others have oil 3. When only one blower on a boiler is to
holes. Be sure to use the correct lubricant. be operated, make sure that the automatic shut-
If the automatic shutters are not properly lu- ters on the idle blower are closed and locked.
bricated, they may stick in the open position 4. Never try to turn a blower by hand when
and then slam shut with sufficient force to cause steam is being admitted to the unit.
420
Chapter 15.—PUMPS AND FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS
5. Never tie down the speed-limiting gov- The rupture of a forced draft blower lube oil
ernor. Be sure it is in good operating con- line is a casualty in itself, as well as one which
dition at all times. Be sure it is properly can lead to blower failure. The rupture of a
set. lube oil line is discussed here separately be-
6. Observe all safety precautions required cause of the special hazard of fire that is in-
in connection with the operation of the driving volved. If a forced draft blower lube oil line is
turbine. ruptured, take the following action immediately.
1. If two blowers are in uSe, secure the af-

Casualty Control
fected blower and speed up the other. If only
one blower is in use, secure the burners im-
If a forced draft blower fails, take the fol- mediately to prevent a flareback. Secure the
lowing action: affected blower and light off the standby blower.
2. Notify the engineroom because of a pos-
1. If one blower fails when two blowers are sible need for a reduction in speed.
in use, speed up the other blower. 3. Get firefighting equipment to the scene.
2. If only one blower is in use, secure the 4. Wipe up all oil that has spilled out. Flush
burners immediately to prevent a flareback. out and wipe out the bilges as necessary.
3. Start the standby blower and notify the 5. Repair or renew the ruptured section as
engineroom of the casualty because of a possi- soon as possible.
ble need for a reduction in speed. 6. Refill the reservoir with clean oil. Test
4. Determine the cause of the failure and the new section; if it is satisfactory, the blower
remedy the trouble as soon as possible. can be returned to service.
421
CHAPTER 16
AUXILIARY STEAM TURBINES
Auxiliary steam turbines are used to drive ely small units, auxiliary turbines are usually
many auxiliary machinery units aboard steam- designed with comparatively few stages—often
driven ships. Turbine-driven auxiliaries located only one. This means a large pressure dropand
in the engineering spaces include ship’s service a high steam velocity in each stage. To obtain
generators, forced draft blowers, air compres- maximum efficiency, the blade speed must also
sors, and a number of pumps such as main con- be high. With auxiliary turbines, as with propul-
densate pumps, main condenser circulating sion turbines, reduction gears serve to reconcile
pumps, main feed pumps, feed booster pumps, the conflicting speed requirements of the driving
fuel oil service pumps, and lubricating oil serv- and the driven units.
ice pumps. Until about 1950, many generator turbines
In many cases, the turbine-driven auxiliaries were designed and installed in such a way that
are duplicated by electrically driven units for in- they could be operated on steam from either su-
port or cruising use. Although the motor-driven perheated or saturated steam lines at full boiler
units have a comparatively high efficiency, their pressure. Most of the other auxiliary turbines at
capacity is not sufficient (on some ships, at least) this time operated on saturated steam at full
to meet the demands of the engineering plant at boiler pressure. During the early 1950’s, a few
high speeds. A further advantage of auxiliary tur- ships were built in which all auxiliary turbines
bines is their greater reliability; in general, were designed to operate on steam at full super-
there is greater possibility of interruption or heat and full boiler pressure. On most oil-fired
loss of electric power supply than of steam sup- ships built since 1953, steam at full superheat
ply. In addition, the use of auxiliary turbines im- and full boiler pressure is supplied to the auxil-
proves the overall plant efficiency because ex- iary turbines for generators, main feed pumps,
haust steam from the auxiliary turbines can be and forced draft blowers; the other auxiliary tur-
utilized in various ways throughout the plant. bines on these ships usually operate on steam at
The basic principles of steam turbine design, reduced temperature and pressure (about 50° F
classification, and construction discussed in of superheat and 600 psig). On nuclear ships, all
chapter 12 of this text apply in general to auxil- turbines (propulsion and auxiliary) are designed
iary turbines as well as to propulsion turbines, to operate on wet steam—usually, steam which
except for specific differences noted in the re- contains about 1 percent moisture. The auxiliary
mainder of this chapter. turbines on nuclear ships operate over a wide
pressure range which varies according to the
TYPES OF AUXILIARY TURBINES type of nuclear propulsion plant. For more recent
nuclear submarines, the pressure rangeisfrom
Many auxiliary turbines are of the impulse 285 to 750 psig; on the nuclear carrier USS En-
type. Reduction gears are used with most auxil- terprise, the pressure range is from approxi-
iary turbines! to increase efficiency. Since mately 585 to 1025 psig under normal operating
space requirements frequently demand relativ- conditions. The generator turbines usually ex-
haust to their own separate auxiliary condensers;
on recent submarines, however, they exhaust to
1 Direct drive, rather than geared drive, units include the main condenser. Most other auxiliary tur-
forced draft blowers, high speed centrifugal pumps, bines exhaust to the auxiliary exhaust system.
and some recent ship's service turbogenerators. The auxiliary exhaust system imposes a back
422
Chapter 16. —AUXILIARY STEAM TURBINES
pressure which is approximately 15 psig onoil- and impinges upon the moving blades. These
fired ships and somewhat higher on nuclear blades, which .consist of semicircular slots
ships. milled obliquely in the wheel periphery, are
Most auxiliary turbines are axial flow units called buckets. The buckets are shapedin sucha
which are quite similar (except for size and num- way that the direction of steam flow is reversed
ber of stages) to the axial-flow propulsion tur- in each bucket, and the steam is directed into a
bines described in chapter 12. However, some redirecting bucket or reversing chamber
auxiliary turbines are designed for helical flow mounted on the inner cylindrical surface of the
and some for radial flow—types of flow which are casing. The direction of the steam is again re-
seldom if ever used for propulsion turbines. versed in the reversing chamber, and the con-
A helical-flow auxiliary turbine is shown in tinuous reversal of the direction of flow keeps
figure 16-1. In a turbine of this type, steam the steam moving helically.
enters at a tangent to the periphery of the rotor Several nozzles are usually installed in this
type of turbine, and for each nozzle there is an
accompanying set of redirecting buckets or re-
versing chambers. Thus the reversal of steam
flow is repeated several times for each nozzle
and set of reversing chambers.
Now let us consider the classification of a
helical-flow turbine with respect to staging and
compounding, as discussed in chapter 12. It is
a single-stage turbine because it has only one
set of nozzles and therefore only one pressure
drop. It is a velocity-compound turbine because
the steam passes through the moving blades
(buckets) more than once, and the velocity of the
steam is therefore utilized more than once. The
helical-flow turbine shown in figure 16-1 might
be said to correspond roughly to a turbine in
which velocity-compounding is achieved by the
use of four rows of moving blades.
Helical-flow auxiliary turbines are used for
driving some pumps and forced draft blowers.
The arrangement of nozzles and blading that
provides radial flow in a turbine is shown in fig-
ure 16-2. Turbines of this type are sometimes
used for driving auxiliary units such as pumps.
As discussed in chapter 12, turbines may be
classified as single-entry or re-entry turbines,
depending upon the number of times the steam
enters the blading. All multistage (and henceall
see AC ges
: 33.45X 38.81X
Figure 16-1.—Helical-flow turbine. Figure 16-2.—Radial flow.
423
propulsion) turbines are of the single-entry- ment and absorbs any downward thrust. A throttle
type. However, some auxiliary turbines are of valve and a double-seated balanced inlet valve
the re-entry type. (normally held wide open by the governor mech-
Re-entry turbines are those in which the anism) admit steam to the turbine.
steam passes more than once through the blading. Figure 16-6 shows an auxiliary turbine used
Hence the helical-flow turbine just discussed is to drive a 400-kilowatt a-c, 50-kilowatt d-c
a re-entry turbine. A different kind of re-entry ship’s service turbogenerator. The turbineisan
turbine is shown in figure 16-3. This turbine is axial-flow, pressure-compounded unit. It ex-
similar in principle to the helical-flow turbine, hausts to a separate auxiliary condenser which
has its own circulating pump, condensate pump,
and air ejectors. Cooling water for the condenser
is provided by the auxiliary circulating pump,
through separate injection and overboard valves.
In case of casualty to the auxiliary condenser,
the turbine can exhaust to the main condenser
when the main plant is in operation.
The turbogenerator turbine shown in figure
16-6 is so designed that it can operateon either
saturated steam or superheated steam. Provi-
sion is made for supplying steam to the turbine
either from the main steam line (superheated)
while under way or from the auxiliary steam line
(saturated) during in-port operation when the
propulsion turbines and the main steam system
are secured. The steam is admitted to the turbine
through a throttle trip valve to the steam chest,
the speed being regulated by a number of nozzle
control valves under the control of a governor.
38.82X Because the ship’s service generator must
Figure 16-3.—Re-entry turbine with one revers- supply electricity at a constant voltage and fre-
ing chamber. quency, the turbine must run at a constant speed
even though the load varies greatly. Constant
but it has one large reversing chamber instead speed is maintained through the use of a constant-
of a number of redirecting chambers. Re-entry speed governor (discussed later inthis chapter).
turbines are sometimes made with two revers- As may be seen in figure 16-6, the shaft
ing chambers instead of one. glands of the ship’s service generator turbine are
The auxiliary turbine shown in figure 16-4 supplied with gland sealing steam. The system
is used to drive main condensate pumps, feed is much the same as that provided for propulsion
booster pumps, and lubricating oil service pumps turbines. Other auxiliary turbines in naval use
on many older destroyers. Note that this isa do not require an external source of gland seal-
radial-flow turbine. This same design of turbine ing steam since they exhaust to pressures above
is used on some newer ships, but with improved atmospheric pressure.
metals designed to withstand higher pressures, Generator turbines vary greatly, and arenot
higher temperatures, and high-impact (HI) all like the one shown in figure 16-6. For
shock. example, one recent type of turbogenerator con-
Another kind of auxiliary turbine is shownin sists of seven stages—one Curtis stage and six
figure 16-5. This turbine, which is used todrive Rateau stages. This turbine is direct drive,
main condenser circulating pumps, is a verti- rather than geared; the turbine operates at 12,000
cally mounted, axial-flow, velocity-compounded rpm and so does the generator.
impulse turbine. Although this type of turbineis
becoming obsolete, it is still in operation on AUXILIARY TURBINE LUBRICATION
some older types of ships. The turbine shaft is
secured to the vertical shaft of the pump. A thrust Auxiliary turbines designed to Navy specifi-
bearing, mounted integrally with the upper radial cations have pressure lubrication systems to
bearing, carries the weight of the rotating ele- lubricate the radial bearings, reduction gears,
424
Chapter 16. -AUXILIARY STEAM TURBINES
SS
K SS
ELE: SSS
Ejpst=
ASG
SSSSSSS
SSS
aoa
NN
_N-Or
SECTION THRU Baa|
‘NI
SS
BLADING AGE
TWAS
aay
wh
NLL
COLL.
SECTION “A-A” INZ
(iLlRSS
Wt
47,.9X
Figure 16-4.—Auxiliary turbine for main condensate pump, feed booster pump,
: and lubricating oil service pump.
and governors. Pressure lubrication systems A pressure lubrication system requires a

for auxiliary turbines do not provide lubrication lube oil pump. As arule, the lube oil pumps used
for governor linkages or—except on some turbo- for auxiliary units are positive-displacement
generator sets—for flexible couplings; these pumps of the simple gear type, as discussed in
parts of the unit must be lubricated separately. chapter 15 of this text. The lube oil pump is gen-
erally installed on the turbine end of a forced
draft blower unit, but may be on either the driv-
ing or the driven end of pump units. The lube oil
2 Some very small commercially designed auxiliary pumps for turbogenerators are usually driven by
turbines have self-oiling bearings instead of pressure auxiliary gearing connected to the low speed gear
lubrication systems. A self-oiling bearing has one or shaft. Some forced draft blowers use a centrif-
two rings which hang on the turbine shaft and revolve ugal pump, supplemented by a viscosity pump, for
with it, although at a slower rate, On each revolution,
lubrication of the unit; this type of lubrication
the rings dip into anoil reservoir andcarry oil around
to the upper part of the bearing shell. system is peculiar to forced draft blowers andis
425
SS
SasiRSSEZZASN
acs CENTRIFUGAL SPEED

LIMITING GOVERNOR
AAAS
)
VANS
WK
ERE
pSURRRARARRRAL
AAAAAAAY
\SSASAASASY ,N~ S
Sy
PQ
ZUSY
| Noon
IZ S
Oll DAM
Nox
THRUST
COLLAR OIL COOLER
DOUBLE POPPET
AQ
MAGA
STEAM VALVE
WN
>” UPPER MAIN
BEARING
\
SESS
SSSA Ol PUMP
\ WSs
Ww
GaeN
1)
V/AAST WE ri
CLLLA
faseam)
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SLI
ION
ES
Zz
Zi
SLLLLLLLLLLLDD
5 FQ SM
7,
Y AZ YZZy's
woerrrl,
ttt
IY
47,10X
Figure 16-5.—Auxiliary turbine for main condenser circulating pump.
therefore discussed in connection with the In the system illustrated, the bottom section
blowers, in chapter 15 of this text. of the gear casing forms the oil reservoir. The
reservoir is filled through an oil filler hole in
The pressure lubrication system shown in the top of the casing and emptied througha drain
figures 16-7 and 16-8 is designed for fuel oil outlet at the base of the casing. The shaft, which
service pumps, fuel oil booster pumps, and lu- carries the gear-type oil pump on one end and
bricating oil service pumps; however, it is the governor on the other end, is geared to the
similar in principle to the lubricating systems pump shaft. The pump shaft is in turn geared to
of many other units. the turbine shaft.
426
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fe 39 e2>
IZ FeES ET) |) ZA
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Chapter
LEVER
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16. -AUXILIARY
ww
427
=f SWF
EXHAUST
WN NS”
STEAM
NV
ZIISSN
Wooss> N
Nsssstsy i
Ss
——
NY
SS
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TURBINES
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SS NS
SS
S he
Zl Sy SEs ‘ES
S
S
Wy
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16-6.—Auxiliary turbine for ship ? Ss service turbogenerator.

TO AUXILIARY CONDENSER
RELIEF VALVE
47.11X
BEARING
OIL LEVEL GAGE
TUBE WORM WHEEL
GEAR CASING
COOLER
THERMOMETER
FOUR-WAY COCK
FILTER
THERMOMETER
DRILLED PASSAGE
OIL FILLER HOLE
*BEARING GOVERNOR
RELIEF VALVE
BEARINGS*
OIL PUMP AND GOVERNOR

DRIVE GEARS *
FLOW
OIL DISTRIBUTOR
INDICATOR
zs aaa PUMP
1: BEARINGS
ie
RESERVOIR DRAIN
OIL FILTER-COOLER UNIT
WORM WHEEL SHAFT
GEAR SPRAY NOZZLE
*LUBRICATED BY OIL DRAINED FROM GOVERNOR
38.96X
Figure 16-7.—Pressure lubrication system for turbine-driven unit.
The lubricating oil passes through an oil sight discussion here is limited to the constant-speed
flow indicator, a metal-edge type of filter, and governor and the constant-pressure pump gov-
an oil cooler. Oil is then piped to the bearings ernor, both of which are in common naval use.
on the turbine shaft, to the governor, and to the
Constant-Speed Governors
worm gear on the pump shaft. The bearings and
gear on the oil pump and governor shaft are lu- The constant-speed governor, sometimes
bricated by oil which drains from the governor called the speed-regulating governor, isusedon
and passes back into the oil reservoir. A relief
valve is built into the gear casing. This valve
serves to protect the system against the dev- 3 Additional governing devices that maybe encountered
elopment of excessive pressures. on recent ships include hydraulic orelectric load-
sensing governors, for turbogenerators, and pneu-
SPEED CONTROL DEVICES matic, hydraulic, or electric controls for main feed
pumps. On ships having automatic combustion and feed
Different types of governors are used for water control systems, the main feed pump controls
controlling the speed of auxiliary turbines. The may be related in some way to the boiler controls.
428
Finer)
7-GOVERNOR
RELIEF VALVE
4 Ay
pay, | OIL PRESSURE
HIGH SPEED SHAFT
jo) \ie GAGE
(DRIVEN BY TURBINE)
W, = LEAVING |]|
SS
oO
Nee oo _ )
FOUR WAY
OiL COOLER PLUG COCK
7 i
LOW SPEED SHAFT

(COUPLED TO PUMP) GeO
< OIL FLOW INDICATOR
OIL FILTER
38.97X
Figure 16-8.—Isometric diagram of pressure lubrication system.
constant-speed machines to maintain a constant a pilot valve which controls the flow of oil to an
speed regardless of the load on the turbine. operating cylinder. The operating cylinder, in
Constant-speed governors areused primarily on turn, controls the extent of the opening or clos-
generator turbines and on air compressor tur- ing of the turbine nozzle valves.
bines.
A constant-speed governing system for a With an increased load on the generator, the
ship’s service generator turbine is shown infig- turbine tends to slow down. Since the governor
ure 16-9. The constant-speed governor operates is driven by the turbine shaft, through reduction
429
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430
gears, the governor also slows. Centrifugal Fluid from the pump discharge, at discharge
weights on the governor move inward as the pressure, is led through an actuating line to the
speed decreases, and this causes the pilot valve space below the upper diaphragm. The pump dis-
to move upward, permitting oil to enter the oper- charge pressure thus exerts an upward forceon
ating cylinder. The operating piston rises and, the upper diaphragm. Opposing this, an adjusting
through the controlling valve lever, the lifting spring exerts a downward force on the upper dia-
beam is raised. The nozzle valves open and phragm.
admit additional steam to the turbines. When the downward force of the adjusting
The upward motion of the controlling valve spring is greater than the upward force of the
lever causes the governor lever to rise, thus pump discharge pressure, the spring forces the
raising the bushing. Upward motion of the bush- upper diaphragm and the upper crosshead down.
ing tends to close the upper port, shutting off the A pair of connecting rods connects the upper
flow of oil to the operating cylinder; this action crosshead rigidly to the lower crosshead, so the
stops the upward motion of the operating piston. entire assembly of upper and lower crossheads
The purpose of this follow-up motion of the moves together. When the crosshead assembly
bushing is to regulate the governing action of the moves down, it pushes the lower mushroom and
pilot valve. Without this feature, the pilot valve the lower diaphragm downward. The lower dia-
would operate with each slight variation in tur- phragm is in contact with the controlling valve.
bine speed and the nozzle valves would be alter- When the lower diaphragm is moved down, the
nately opened wide and closed completely. controlling valve is forced down and thus opened.
A reverse process occurs when the load on The controlling valve is supplied witha small
the generator decreases. In this case, the turbine amount of steam through a port from the inlet
speeds up, the governor speeds up, the cen- side of the governor. When the controlling valve
trifugal weights move outward, and the pilot valve is Open, steam passes to the topofthe operating
moves downward, opening the lower ports and piston. The steam pressure acts onthe topof the
allowing oil to flow out of the operating cylinder. operating piston, forcing the piston down and
The controlling valve lever lowers the lifting Opening the main valve. The extent to which the
beam and thereby reduces the amount of steam main valve is open controls the amount of steam
delivered to the turbine. admitted to the driving turbine. Increasing the
opening of the main valve therefore increases the
supply of steam to the turbine and so increases
Constant-Pressure Pump Governors
the speed of the turbine.
The increased speed of the turbine is reflec-
Many turbine-driven pumps are fitted with
ted in an increased discharge pressure from the
constant-pressure pump governors. The function
pump. This pressure is exerted against the under
of a constant pressure pump governor is to
side of the upper diaphragm. When the pump dis-
maintain a constant pump discharge pressure
charge pressure has increased to the point where
under conditions of varying flow. The governor,
the upward force acting on the under side of the
which is installed in the steam line tothe pump,
upper diaphragm is greater than the downward
controls the pump discharge pressure by con-
force exerted by the adjusting spring, the upper
trolling the amount of steam admitted to the
diaphragm is moved upward. This action allows
driving turbine.
a spring to start closing the controlling valve,
A constant-pressure pump governor for a
which in turn allows the main valve spring to
main feed pump is shown in figure 16-10. The start closing the main valve against the now re-
governors used on fuel oil service pumps, lube oil duced pressure on the operating piston. When the
service pumps, fire and flushing pumps, and main valve starts to close, the steam supply to
various other pumps are almost identical. The the turbine is reduced, the speed of the turbine
chief difference between governors used for dif- is reduced, and the pump discharge pressure is
ferent services is in the size of the upper dia- reduced.
phragm. A governor used for a pump which oper-
At first glance, it might seem that the con-
ates with ahigh discharge pressure hasa smaller trolling valve and the main valve would be con-
upper diaphragm than one for a pump which oper- stantly opening and closing and that the pump
ates with a low discharge pressure. discharge pressure would be continually varying
Two ‘opposing forces are involved in the over a wide range. This does not happen, how-
operation of a constant-pressure pump governor. ever, because the governor is designed with an
431
HANDWHEEL
ADJUSTING SCREW A)
LOCK NUT
AY
ADJUSTING SPRING A XS STEAM CHAMBER
N Stet N ll
Sie SS UBS e,
DIAPHRAGM DISK CROSSHEAD Jf N 4|

(UPPER MUSHROOM) oN N N 0
N 4
UPPER DIAPHRAGM mm A JESSNS
PRS %a
ACTUATING LINE FROM z EM GlUp
Q VAN NZ,
Z
DISCHARGE SIDE JaassS Si_Igs
TEES tS
N N NS
OF PUMP Y//ZL
SSeS eos y
LLL
SY ZZAZZZN NZ
ZN NEEDLE VALVE
INTERMEDIATE TE DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHR S aN
=N SS
“:
if
_s- DIAPHRAGM STEM
:4 !
iL i —Z
\‘
CROSSHEAD CONNECTING ROD“ ZN CON
Hh Re (LOWER MUSHROOM)
WH, aN h) S
DIAPHRAGM STEM CAP YY REN LZZZZS Ba DIAPHRAGM S TEM GUIDE
(INTERMEDIATE MUSHROOM) ZL NSEC
U per CONTROLLING VALVE BUSHING
LOWER DIAPHRAGM ~~ gE Bor
thy Zenit CONTROLLING VALVE
CYLINDER LINER “My WC CONTROLLING VALVE SPRING
OPERATING PIS TON SIREN NN NS
\S
fe
S \S WN
Ws
a
N
ANYY,
ANY
27 4LLLLL
LLL.
Jehkes
U
STEAM INLET Emp S STEAM OUTLET
(TO TURBINE)
MAIN VALVE —SSSSSSS53
il
MAIN VALVE SPRING SN iN
N NY
<s
a N
te3 A
IIV7
(
(—J
he Uj 4
TN vw,
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STEM (FOR BYPASS )
DSS AA
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INDICATOR PLATE [aaa aaa
Ass :
HANDWHEEL (FOR BYPASS "77777Vk —
Ny
SaBS
Figure 16-10.—Constant-pressure pump governor for main feed pump.
432
arrangement which prevents excessive opening causes the main valve to remain openby the re-
or closing of the controlling valve. An interme- quired amount. A change in load conditions re-
diate diaphragm bears against an intermediate sults in momentary hunting by the governor until
mushroom which, in turn, bears against the top it finds the new position required to maintain
of the lower crosshead. Steam is led from the pump discharge pressure at the new condition of
governor outlet to the bottom of the lower dia- load.
phragm and also, through a needle valve, to the An automatic shutdown device has recently
top of the intermediate diaphragm. A steam been developed for use on main feed pumps. The
chamber is provided to assurea continuous sup- purpose of the device is to shut down the main
ply of steam at the required pressure to the top feed pump and so protect it from damage in the
of the intermediate diaphragm. event of loss of feed booster pump pressure. The
Any movement of the crosshead assembly, shutdown device consists of an auxiliary pilot
either up or down, is thus opposed by the force valve and a constant-pressure pump governor,
of the steam pressure acting either on the inter- arranged as shown infigure 16-11. The governor
mediate diaphragm or on the lower diaphragm. is the same as the constant-pressure pump gov-
The whole arrangement serves to prevent ernor just described except that it has a special
extreme reactions of the controlling valve in re- top cap. In the regular governor, the steam for
sponse to variations in pump discharge pressure. the operating piston is supplied to the controlling
Limiting the movement of the controlling valve through a port in the governor valve body.
valve in the manner just described reduces the In the automatic shutdown device, the steam for
amount of hunting the governor must do to find the operating piston is supplied to the controlling
each new position. Under constant-load condi- valve through the auxiliary pilot valve. The aux-
tions, the controlling valve takes a position which iliary pilot valve is actuated by the feed booster
AUXILIARY PILOT GOVERNOR

VALVE (WITH SPECIAL TOP CAP)
ACTUATING LINE
FROM DISCHARGE SIDE
OF MAIN FEED PUMP
ACTUATING LINE
FROM DISCHARGE SIDE
OF FEED BOOSTER PUMP
STEAM INLET TO MAIN FEED
TURBINE
38.91
Figure 16-11.—Automatic shutdown device for main feed pump.
433
pump discharge pressure. When the booster which the governor is set, but it does not allow
pump discharge pressure is inadequate, the aux- operation in excess of 107 percent of rated speed.
iliary pilot valve will not deliver steam to the Tt is important to note that this typeof governor
controlling valve of the governor. Thus inade- is adjusted to the maximum operating speed of
quate feed booster pump pressure allows the main the turbine and therefore has no control over the
valve in the governor to close, shutting off the admission of steam until the upper limit of safe
flow of steam to the main feed pump turbine. operating speed is reached.
One common type of speed-limiting governor
SAFETY DEVICES is shown in figure 16-12. This governor is used
Safety devices used on auxiliary turbines in- on main condensate pumps, feed booster pumps,
clude speed-limiting governors and several lube oil service pumps, and other auxiliaries in
kinds of trips. Safety devices differ from speed the engineering plant. The particular speed-lim-
control devices in that they have no control over iting governor shown here is designed for useon
the turbine under normal operating conditions. It a main condensate pump with a vertical shaft;
is only when some abnormal condition occurs that speed-limiting governors that operate on very
the safety devices come into use to stopthe unit much the same principle are used on main feed
or to control its speed. pumps and other auxiliaries that have horizontal
shafts.
Speed- Limiting Governors The governor shaft is driven directly by an
auxiliary shaft in the reduction gear, and rotates
The speed-limiting governor is essentially at the same speed as the pump shaft. This speed
a safety device for variable speed units. It is proportional to—although lower than—the
allows the turbine to operate under all conditions speed of the driving turbine. Two flyweights are
from no-load to overload, up to the speed for pivoted to a yoke onthe governor shaft and carry
1am
tl ! PIVOT ADJUSTING Z
LEVER NUT :
=a) } isa
“7 ; A. J
gare Silent? a,:
VALVE. SPINDLE aw SiS
AL
G=VH#77A=
J ZA A |
OZ)ae »)
Qa EMLESSNeal ae
———
NA =
HRS Uj =
Z
oe STEM g o, ==
Z M4 SD Y
g My Fo SS
Z 4\D All Ho YY 1
ae AS
ggee yD| NEO
PaO AD)
4S
WEIGHTS g
7 Hoe
g fle x g\ame
ead EK A
Ge
47.54
Figure 16-12.—Speed-limiting governor.
434
arms which bear on a push rod assembly. The

push rod assembly is held down by a strong
spring. BELL CRANK HANDLE
Because of centrifugal force, the position of
the flyweights is at all times a function of tur-
bine speed. As the turbine speed increases, the PLUNGER
flyweights move outward and lift the arms. As
EMERGENCY GOVERNOR
the speed of the turbine approaches the speed
DETAIL
for which the governor is set, the arms lift
against the spring tension. If the turbine speed
begins to exceed the speed for which the governor
HAND TRIP
is set, the flyweights move even farther out,
thereby causing the governor valve to throttle
down on the steam.
When the turbine slows down, as from anin-
crease in load, the centrifugal force on the fly-
weights is diminished and the governor push rod
spring acts to pull the flyweights inward. This
action rotates the lever about its pivot andopens
the governor valve, thus admitting more steam
to the turbine. The turbine speedincreases until VALVE
normal operating speed is reached.
The speed-limiting governor acts as a
constant-speed governor when the turbine is op-
erating at or near rated speed, although it
is designed only as a safety device to prevent
overspeeding. The governor has no effect onthe
38.93
speed of the turbine at speeds below about 95 per-
Figure 16-13.—Overspeed trip for turbogen-
cent of rated speed.
erator.
Trips
Several kinds of trips are used as safety de-

vices on auxiliary turbines.
Overspeed trips are used on turbines that
have constant-speed governors. The overspeed
trip shuts off the supply of steam to the turbine ADJUSTING
BUSHING
and thus stops the unit when a predetermined
speed has been reached. Overspeed trips are LOCKNUT
usually set to trip out at about 110 percent of
normal operating speed. In the past overspeed
trips were used primarily on constant- speed tur-
bines and on some commercial-type variable-
speed units. Recent specifications require over-
speed trips onallnaval auxiliary turbines of over
100 horsepower. Figure 16-13 shows the con-
struction of an overspeed trip used on turbogen-
erator.
Back-pressure trips are installed on turbo-
generators to protect the turbine by closing the
throttle automatically when the back pressure
(exhaust pressure) becomes too high. A back-
pressure trip is shown in figure 16-14.
Emergency hand trips are installed on turbo-
generators to provide a means for closing the 96.25
throttle quickly, by hand, in case of damage to Figure 16-14.—Back-pressure trip.
435
System, Subsystem, or Component

Reference Publications
Ship Service Turbogenerator
Conirel No.
Bureau Cord
Maintanance Requirement cea feteenaed|| rem |meeees
35|4842 Wil. Sample and inspect lube oil. W-1 MM2 0.3 None
- Lubricate speed regulating governor FN 0.3
linkage.
- Operate turbine by steam or turn
idle turbine by hand while operating
hand lube oil pump.
. Purify lube oil. W-2 MM3 1.0 None
. Test overspeed trip. M-1 MM2 0.3 None
. Test overspeed trip. M-2 MM2 0.5 None

2. Test lube oil pressure alarm. MM3 0.5
FN 0.5
4844 Qi1. Clean lube oil sump. Q-1 MM1 3.0 W-2
2. Sound and tighten foundation bolts. FN 3.0
4845 Qjl. Test back pressure trip. Q-2 MM2 0.5 None
2. Test lube oil pressure alarm by MM3 0.5
operation.
4845 Qjl. Test back pressure trip. Q-3 MM2 0.5 None
2. Test lube oil pressure alarm by M3 0.5
operation.
4847) Ql. Inspect pinion and reduction gears. Q-4 MMC 0.3 None
MM3 0.3
2897 Qi1. Measure turbine thrust clearance. Q-5 MM2 0.3 None
4714 Qi1l. Inspect the high speed pinion shaft Q-6 MM1 1.0 None
gear and intermediate speed shaft FN 1.0
gears.
4719 Q]1. Take depth micrometer measurement Q-7 MM1L 0.2 None
on the journal bearings.
403g QJ1. Measure turbine thrust clearance. Q-8 MM2 0.5 None
FN 0.5
4849 S|l. Operate turbine casing relief valve S-1 FN (qu None
by hand.
(Page 1 of 2)
MAINTENANCE INDEX PAGE BUREAU PAGE CONTROL NUMBER E-13/62-65

OPMAV FORM 4700-3 (4-64)
98.171
Figure 16-15-.—Maintenance Index Page,
either the turbine or the generator. A hand trip TESTING SAFETY DEVICES
may be seen in the illustration of an overspeed Speed limiting governers and safety trips
trip (fig. 16-13). must be tested and maintained in accordance with
Some auxiliary turbines (generator turbines, the requirements set forth by the Naval Ship Sys-
in particular) are fitted with low oil pressure tems Command and at the intervals specified by
alarms to warn operating personnel when the lu- the Planned Maintenance Subsystem of the 3-M
bricating oil pressure becomes dangerously low. System. Testing must be done under the super-
When the oil pressure drops below normal, a vision of the engineer officer and the results of
pressure-actuated switch completes an electri- the tests must be entered in the engineering log.
cal circuit to sound an audible alarm. Control Figure 16-15 shows some of the required tests
systems may also be arranged to trip the tur- and maintenance requirements (Maintenance
bine if lubricating oil pressure drops too low. Index page) for a turbogenerator.
436
CHAPTER 17
COMPRESSED AIR PLANTS
Compressed air serves many purposes sidered from start to finish, and approximately
aboard ship, and air outlets are installed in var- adiabatic when considered within any one stage
ious suitable locations throughout the ship. The of the compression process. In order toachieve
uses of compressed air include (but are not lim- some benefits from each type of process (iso-
ited to) the operation of pneumatic tools and thermal and adiabatic) most air compressors are
equipment, diesel engine starting and control, designed with more than one stage and with
torpedo charging, aircraft starting and cooling, a cooling arrangement after each stage. Multi-
air deballasting, and the operation of pneumatic staging and after-stage cooling have the further
control systems. The systems that supply com- advantages of preventing the development of ex-
pressed air for the various shipboard needsare cessively high temperatures in the compressor
discussed in chapter 9 of this text; inthe present and in the accumulator, reducing the horsepower
chapter we are concerned with the equipment requirements, condensing some of the entrained
used to compress the air and supply it to the moisture, and increasing volumetric efficiency.
compressed air systems. The general arrangement of a multistage
Compressed air represents a storage of compressed air plant with after-stage cooling is
energy. Work is done on the working fluid (air) illustrated in figure 17-1. This illustration shows
so that work can later be done by the working a reciprocating air compressor withtwo stages;
fluid. Air compression may be either an adiabatic however, the same general arrangement of parts
or an isothermal process. 1 Adiabatic compres- is found in any type of compressed air plant that
sion results in a high internal energy level utilizes multistaging and after-stage cooling.
of the air being discharged from the com- The accumulator shown in figure 17-1 is found
pressor. However, much of the extra energy in all compressed air plants, although the size of
provided by adiabatic compression may be dis- the unit varies according to the needs of the sys-
Sipated by heat losses, since compressed air is tem. The accumulator (also called a receiver)
uSually held in an uninsulated receiver until it is helps to eliminate pulsations in the discharge line
used, Isothermal compression is, in theory, the of the air compressor, acts as a storage tank
most economical method of compressing air in during intervals when the demand for air exceeds
that it requires the least work to be done on the the capacity of the compressor, and allows the
working fluid. However, the isothermal com- compressor to shut down during periods of light
pression of air requires a cooling medium to re- load. Overall, the accumulator functions to re-
move heat fromthe compressor and its contained tard increases and decreases in the pressure
air during the compression process. The more of the system, thereby lengthening the start-
closely isothermal compression is approached, stop-start cycle of the compressor.
the greater the cooling effect required; ina com-
pressor of finite size, then, we reach a point at COMPRESSOR CLASSIFICATIONS
which it is no longer practicable to continue to
strive for isothermal compression. Air compressors are classified in various
In actual practice, the process of air com- ways. A compressor may be single acting or
pression is approximately isothermal when con- double acting, single stage or multistage, and
horizontal, angle, or vertical, as shown in figure
1 Thermodynamic processes are discussed in chapter 17-2. A compressor may be designed so that
8 of this text. ONLY one stage of compression takes place
437
AFTERCOOLER
INTERCOOLER
AIR INLET AIR

OUTLET
FIRST-STAGE SECOND -STAGE

PISTON PISTON
COOLING WATER ACCUMULATOR
INLET
147.118
Figure 17-1.—General arrangement of multistage compressed air plant.
within one compressing element, or so that more several methods. When the compressor and the
than one stage takes place within one compres- driving unit are mounted.on the same shaft, they
sing element. In general, compressors are clas- are close coupled. Close coupling is often used
sified according to the type of compressing ele- for small capacity compressors that are driven
ment, the source of driving power, the method by by electric motors. Flexible couplings are used
which the driving unit is connected to the com- to join the driving unitto the compressor where
pressor, and the pressure developed. the speed of the compressor andthe speed of the
driving unit can be the same.
TYPES OF COMPRESSING ELEMENTS .—
V-belt drives are commonly used with small,
Air compressor elements may be of the centrif-
low pressure, motor-driven compressors, and
ugal, rotary, or reciprocating types. The recip-
with some medium pressure compressors. Ina
rocating type isgenerally selected for capacities
few installations, a rigid coupling is used be-
below 1,000 cfm and for pressures of 100 psi or
tween the compressor and the electric motor of
above, the rotary type for capacities up to 10,000
a motor-driven compressor. In a steam turbine
cfm and for pressures below 100 psi, and the cen-
drive, compressors are usually driven through
trifugal type for 10,000 cfm or greater capacities
reduction gears.
and for up to 100 psi pressures.
Most of the compressors used in the Navy
PRESSURE CLASSIFICATION.—In accord-
have reciprocating elements (fig. 17-3). In this
ance with General Specifications for Ships of the
type of compressor the air is compressed in one
United States Navy, compressors are classified
or more cylinders, very much like the compres-
as low pressure, medium pressure, or high pres-
sion which takes place in aninternal combustion
sure. Low pressure compressors are those
engine,
which have a discharge pressure of 150 psi or
SOURCES OF POWER.—Compressors are less. Medium pressure compressors are those
driven by electric motors, internal combustion which have a discharge pressure of 151 psi to
engines, steam turbines, or reciprocating steam 1,000 psi. Compressors which have a discharge
engines. Most of the air compressors in naval pressure above 1,000 psi are classified as high
service are driven by electric motors. pressure.
Most low pressure air compressors are of
DRIVE CONNECTIONS.—The driving unit the two-stage type with either a vertical V (see
may be connected to the compressor by one of fig. 17-3) or a vertical W arrangement of
438
Chapter 17. -COMPRESSED AIR PLANTS
SUCTION VALVE DISCHARGE VALVE
DISCHARGE VALVE
CYLINDER
SNANAANANAS
CYLINDER PISTON
PISTON SUCTION VALVE
eee VALVES
DISCHARGE VALVE DISCHARGE be ian ae
SUCTION SUCTION VALVE oll
VALVE
Na yi CYLINDERS
PISTONS
PISTON CYLINDERS PISTON
3RD STAGE
2ND STAGE
47.151
Figure 17-2.—Types of air compressors: A. Vertical. B. Horizontal. C. Angle.
D. Duplex. E. Multistage.
439
cylinders. Two-stage, V-type low pressure com- one cylinder for the second stage. This arrange-
pressors usually have one cylinder for the first ment is shown in the two-stage, three-cylinder,
(lower pressure) stage of compression, and one radial arrangement in part A of fig. 17-4.
cylinder for the second (higher pressure) stage Compressors may be classified according to
of compression. W-type compressors have two a number of other design features or operating
cylinders for the first stage of compression, and characteristics.
INTERCOOLER
1) INTERCOOLER
|Z RELIEF VALVE UNLOADER
FEATHER of
VALVE
FEATHER
VALVE
SEAT
1 Le 4 y
y . LOW PRESSURE
os ee bam | 2 > DISCHARGE
2.ND STAGE | x F TST. STAGE
PISTON Y PISTON
OIL RESERVOIR
47,152
Figure 17-3.—Reciprocating air compressor (vertical V, two stage, single-acting,
low pressure).
440
RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS Operating Cycle
Reciprocating air compressors are suffi- Let us consider first the operating cycle that
ciently similar in design and operation so that occurs during one stage of compression in
the following discussion applies in large part to a single-acting reciprocating air compressor
all reciprocating compressors now in naval use. such as the one shown in figure 17-3. The oper-
ating cycle consists of two strokes of the piston:
Medium pressure air compressors are ofthe
a suction stroke and a compression stroke.
two-stage, vertical, duplex, single-acting type.
Many medium pressure compressors have dif- The suction stroke begins when the piston
ferential pistons; this type of piston has more moves away from top dead center (TDC). The air
than one stage of compression during each stroke under pressure in the clearance space (above the
of the piston. (See fig. 17-4, A.) piston) expands rapidly until the pressure falls
Modern air compressors are generally below the pressure on the opposite side of the air
motor-driven (direct or geared), liquid-cooled, inlet valve. At this point the difference in pres-
four-stage, single-acting units with vertical or sure causes the inlet valve toopenand air is ad-
horizontal cylinders. Cylinder arrangements for mitted to the cylinder. Air continues to flow into
high pressure air compressors installed on Navy the cylinder until the piston reaches bottom dead
ships are illustrated in part B of figure 17-4. center (BDC).
Small capacity high pressure air systems may
have three-stage compressors. Large capacity, The compression stroke starts as the piston
high pressure, air systems may be equipped with moves away from BDC and compression of the
five- or six-stage compressors. air begins. When the pressure in the cylinder
2-STAGE, 3 CYL. RADIAL
DIFFERENTIAL
PISTON
2-STAGE, VERTICAL, WITH

all
2 DIFFERENTIAL PISTONS 3-STAGE ARRANGEMENTS
A B
47.153
‘Figure 17-4.—Air compressor cylinder arrangements. A. Low and medium pressure
cylinders. B. High pressure cylinders.
441
equals the pressure on the opposite side of the or the pressure of the discharged air on the dis-
air inlet valve, the inlet valve closes. Airis in- charge valve. Onmost compressors, a thin plate,
creasingly compressed as the piston moves low lift type of valveisused. A valve of this type
toward TDC; the pressure in the cylinder finally is shown in figure 17-5.
becomes great enough to force the discharge The design of pistons and cylinders depends
valve open against the discharge line pressure primarily upon the number of stages of compres-
and the pressure of the valve springs. During the sion which take place withina cylinder. Common
balance of the compression stroke, the air which arrangements of pistons and cylinders are shown
has been compressed in the cylinder is dis- in a previous illustration (fig. 17-2).
charged, at almost constant pressure, through Two types of pistons are in common use.
the open discharge valve. Trunk pistons (fig. 17-6) are driven directly by
The basic operating cycle just described is the connecting rods. Since the upper end of a con-
repeated a number of times in doubleacting necting rod is fitted directly to the piston wrist
compressors and in other stages of multistage pin, there is a tendency for apiston to develop a
compressors. In a double-acting compressor, side pressure against the cylinder walls. To dis-
each stroke of the piston is a suction stroke in tribute the side pressure over a wide area of the
relation to one end of the cylinder and a com- cylinder walls or liners, trunk pistons with long
pression stroke in relation to the other end of skirts are used. This type of piston tends to elim-
the cylinder. In a doubleacting compressor, inate cylinder wall wear. Differential pistons
therefore, two basic compression cycles are (fig. 17-7) are modified trunk pistons having two
always in process when the compressor is oper- or more different diameters. These pistons are
ating; but each cycle, considered separately, is fitted into special cylinders which are arranged
simply one suction stroke and one compression so that more than one stage of compression is
stroke. served by one piston. The compression for one
In multistage compressors, the basic com- stage takes place over the piston crown; com-
pression cycle must occur at leastonce for each pression for the other stage or stages takes place
stage of compression. If the compressor is de- in the annular space between the largeand small
signed with two compressing elements for the diameters of the piston.
first (low pressure) stage, two compression
cycles will be in process inthe first stage at the LUBRICATION SYSTEM.—Lubrication of air
same time. If the compressgpr is designed so that compressor cylinders is generally accomplished
two stages of compression occur at the same time by means of a mechanical force-feed lubricator
in one compressing element, the two basic cycles which is driven from a reciprocating ora rotary
(one for each stage) will occur atthe same time. part of the compressor. Oil is fed from the lu-
bricator through a separate feed line to each cyl-
Compressor Components inder. A check valve is installed at the end
of each feed line to keep the compressedair from
A reciprocating air compressor consists of forcing the lube oil back to the lubricator. Each
a compressor element, a lubrication system, a feed line is equipped with a sight glass. Lubri-
cooling system, a control system, and an unload- cation begins automatically as the compressor
ing system. In addition to these basic com- starts up. The amount of oil that must be fed to
ponents, the compressor has a system of con- the cylinders depends upon the cylinder diame-
necting rods, crankshaft, and flywheel for ter, the cylinder wall temperature, and the vis-
transmitting the power developed by the driving cosity of the oil.
unit to the air cylinder pistons. On small low pressure and medium pressure
compressors, the cylinders may be lubricated by
COMPRESSING ELEMENT.—The compres- the splash method, from dippers on the ends of
sing element of a reciprocating air compressor the connecting rods, instead of by a mechanical
consists of the air valves, the cylinder, and the force-feed lubricator.
piston. Lubrication of the running gear of most com-
The valves of modern compressors are of the pressors is accomplished by a lube oil pump
automatic type. The opening and closing of these (usually of the gear type) whichis attached to the
valves is caused solely by the difference between compressor and driven from the compressor
the pressure of the air in the cylinder and the shaft. This pump draws oil from the reservoir,
pressure of the external air on the intake valve as shown in figure 17-8, and delivers it, through
442
GUIDE PLATE
AZ
VALVE PLATE VALVE PLATE GUIDE PLATE STOP PLATE

47.154X
Figure 17-5.—Diagram of a thin plate air compressor valve.
a filter, to an oil cooler. From the cooler, the and flushing system. The cooling water is usually
oil is distributed to the top of each main bearing, available to each unit through at least two
to spray nozzles for reduction gears, and to out- sources. Compressors located outside the larger
board bearings. The crankshaft is drilled so that machinery spaces are generally equipped withan
oil fed to the main bearings is picked up at the attached circulating water pump as a standby
main bearing journals and carried to the crank source of cooling water. Some small low pres-
pin journals. The connecting rods contain pas- sure compressors are air cooled by a fan
sages which conduct lubricating oil from the mounted on or driven by a compressor shaft.
crank pin bearings up to the wrist pin bushings. The path of water inthe cooling water system
As oil leaks out from the various bearings, it for a four-stage compressor is shown in figure
drips back to the reservoir in the base of 17-9. The flow paths are not identical in all
the compressor and is recirculated. Oilfrom the cooling water systems, but in all systems it is
outboard bearings is carried back to the base by important that the coldest water beavailable for
the drain lines. circulation through the oil cooler. Valves are
The discharge pressure of lubricating oil usually provided so that the flow of water to the
pumps varies, depending upon the pump design.A cooler can be controlled independently of the rest
relief valve fitted to each pump functions when the of the system. Thus the oil temperature can be
discharge pressure exceeds the pressure for controlled without affecting other parts of the
the valve is set. Whenthe relief valveopens, ex- compressor. Cooling water is then supplied to the
cess oil is returned to the reservoir. intercoolers and the aftercooler and then to the
cylinder jackets and heads. A high pressure air
COOLING SYSTEM.—Most compressors are compressor may require from 6 to 25 gallons of
cooled by sea water supplied from the ship’s fire cooling water per minute, while a medium
443
2ND STAGE
Yin
EY Wsjth
L army |
fle 1ST STAGE
DISCHARGE
LLLELEG ff LLIL XL7) VALVE
SS
< VIL
IE,
TLTEDDLSL
GLEE
AE
IEMA
FOLGE
hi
ILS
VEL
47.155.1
Figure 17-6.—Trunk Piston. 47.155.2
Figure 17-7.—Differential Piston.
pressure air compressor may require from 10
to 20 gallons per minute. tube coolers, baffles are provided to guide the air
As previously noted, cooling of the airis re- and water. In coiltype coolers, the air passes
quired for most economical compression. through the coil and the water flows around the
Another reason for cooling the air between stages outside. Air-cooled coolers may be of the radia-
and after the last stage isto condenseany mois- tor type or may consist of abankof finned copper
ture that may be present. The resulting conden- tubes located in the pathofablastof air supplied
sate is then drained off. If the moisture is not by the compressor fan.
removed from the air, it will be carriedinto the Both intercoolers and aftercoolers are fitted
accumulator or into the air lines, where it can with moisture separators on the discharge side
cause serious trouble. to remove moisture (and also any oil that may be
The intercoolers used between stages and the present) from the air stream. Various designs
aftercooler used after the last stage are of the of moisture separators are in use; the removal
same general construction except that the after- of liquid may be accomplished by centrifugal
cooler is designed to withstand ahigher working force, impact, or sudden changes in the velocity
pressure than the intercoolers. Water-cooled of the air stream.
coolers may be of the straight shell-and-tube
type or of the coil type. In coolers designed for CONTROL SYSTEM.—The control system of
air pressures below 250 psig, the air flows either a reciprocating air compressor may include one
through the tubes or over and around them; in or more devices such as automatic temperature
coolers designed for air pressures above 250 shutdown devices, start-stop controls, constant-
psig, the air flows through the tubes. In straight- speed controls, and speed-pressure governors.
444
(e hapter 17. —-COMPRESSED AIR PLANTS
~*~
THIRD STAGE FOURTH STAGE

CYLINDER CYLINDER |
FIRST STAGE |
CYLINDER
=> | I
I) |
M Mm fn
6 oQ
Fae a
TO OIL SPRAY FOR
TURBINE PINION elellatil|
—_— LUBRICATOR FOR |
|
d| }, CYLINDERS
4 le Ip
|
Hl
he OIL PUMP
bs —
Go ys
(See
ath a
F THERMOMETER {1} ) |
y eae ee ot Ss
[i] owriTeR \ LY |
—¢7)
}
OIL TO TURBINE
PINION BEARING
47.156
Figure 17-8.—Lubrication system for turbine-driven high pressure air compressor.
Automatic temperature shutdown devices are accumulator pressure is piped to a control

fitted to all recent designs of high pressure air valve (also called a pilot, trigger, or aux-
compressors. Such a device stops the com- iliary valve) which, when the designed cutoff
pressor automatically (and does not allow it to pressure is reached, admits air to a plunger
restart automatically) when the cooling water connected with the turbine governor valve.
temperature rises abovea Safe limit. Some com- This causes steam to be shut off and the
pressors are fitted with a device that shuts down compressor to stop. When the pressure falls
the compressor if the temperature of the air to a predetermined level, the control valve
leaving any stage exceeds a preset value. closes and the air acting upon the plunger
Control or regulating systems for naval air is released by leakage or bleeding to at-
compressors are mainly of the start-stop type. mosphere. The steam is thereby permitted
With this type of control, the compressor starts to flow through the governor valve and re-
and stops automatically as the accumulator pres- start the turbine.
sure rises or falls to predetermined limits. On Constant-speed control is a method of con-
electrically driven compressors, the system is trolling the pressure in the air accumulator by
very simple: the accumulator pressure operates controlling the output of the compressor without
against a pressure switch that opens when the stopping or changing the speed of the unit. This
pressure upon it reaches a given limit and type of control is used on compressors that have
closes when the pressure drops a predetermined a fairly constant demand for air, where frequent
amount. On -steam-driven compressors, the stopping and starting is undesirable.
445
THIRD STAGE COOLER

WATER OUTLET
THIRD STAGE
CYLINDER
FIRST STAGE COOLER SECOND STAGE COOLER
FIRST STAGE CYLINDER SECOND STAGE CYLINDER
WATER INLET ——> Eo 283 is E i 4" WATER OUTLET

OIL OUTLET OIL INLET
OIL COOLER
47.157
Figure 17-9.—Cooling water system for multistage air compressor.
Combined speed and pressure governorsare miscellaneous constant-speed unloading de-

usually furnished for compressors which are vices, and using various combinations of these
driven by reciprocating steam engines. Neither methods.
the start-stop nor the constant-speed control is As an example of a typical compressor un-
entirely satisfactory for this type of compressor. loading device, consider the MAGNETIC TYPE
UNLOADER. Figure 17-10 illustrates the un-
UNLOADING SYSTEM.—Air compressor unloader valve arrangement. This typeof unloader
loading systems are installed for the removal of consists of a solenoid-operated valve connected
all but the friction loads onthe compressors. An with the motor starter. When the compressor is
unloading system automatically removes the at rest, the solenoid valveis deenergized, admit-
compression load from the compressor while the ting air from the receiver to the unloading mech-
unit is starting and automatically applies the load anism. When the compressor approximates nor-
after the unit is up to operating speed. For units mal speed, the solenoid valve is energized,
that have the start-stop type of control, the un- releasing the pressure from the unloading mech-
loading system is separate from the control sys- anism and loading the compressor again.
tem. For compressors equipped with the
constant-speed type of control, the unloading ROTARY-CENTRIFUGAL AIR COMPRESSORS
system is an integral part of the control system.
A number of different unloading methodsare The one non-reciprocating type of air com-
used, including closing or throttling the compressor that is found aboard ship is variously
pressor intake, holding intake valves off their referred toasa rotary compressor, a centrifugal
seats, relieving intercoolers to atmosphere, compressor, or a “‘liquid piston’? compressor.
opening abypass from the discharge to theintake, Actually, the unit is something of a mixture,
Opening up cylinder clearance pockets, using operating partly on rotary principles and partly
446
The rotary-centrifugal compressor, shown in

figure 17-11, consists of a round, multi-bladed
rotor which revolves freely in an elliptical cas-
|} ~—= FROM
} RECEIVER ing. The elliptical casing is partially filled with
SOLENOID ‘ To
high-purity water. The curved rotor blades
JUNLOADERS project radially from the hub. The blades, to-
gether with the side shrouds, form a Series of
pockets or buckets around the periphery. The
rotor, which is keyed to the shaft of an electric
}=~ motor, revolves at a speed high enough to throw
} EXHAUST the liquid out from the center by centrifugal
force, resulting in a solid ring of liquid revolv-
ing in the casing at the same speed as the rotor
but following the elliptical shape of the casing.
This action alternately forces the liquid to enter
and recede from the buckets in the rotor at high
47.158 velocity.
Figure 17-10.—Magnetic type unloader. To follow through a complete cycle of oper+
ation, let us start at point A. The chamber (1) is
on centrifugal principles; most accurately, full of liquid. The liquid, because of centrifugal
perhaps, it might be called a rotary-centrifugal force, follows the casing, withdraws from the
compressor. rotor, and pulls air in through the inlet port. At
The rotary-centrifugal compressor is used to (2) the liquid has been thrown outward from the
supply low pressure compressed air. Because chamber in the rotor and has been replaced with
this compressor is capable of supplying air that atmospheric air. As the rotation continues, the
is completely free of oil, it is often used as the converging wall (3) of the casing forces the liquid
compressor for pneumatic control systems and back into the rotor chamber, compressing the
for other applications where oil-free air is re- trapped air and forcing it out through the
quired. discharge port. The rotor chamber (4) is now full
INLET DISCHARGE
DISCHARGE
PORT
147,119
Figure 17-11.—Rotary-centrifugal compressor.
447
High-Pressure Air Compressor
. Operate compressor by power.

- Blow down all air flasks, separa-
tors, and filters.
. Sample and inspect lube oil.
. Lift relief valves by hand.
. Clean suction filter.

. Test inlet and outlet valves by
operation.
- Test temperature switch by opera-
tion.
. Test automatic start and stop switch
by operation.
- Test operation of speed- limiting

governor and overspeed trip.
- Test operation of temperature con-
trol.
- Clean lubricator reservoir.
- Clean and test air coolers and

oil cooler.
- Inspect internal parts for wear.
. Test relief valves by pressure.
. Clean, inspect, and preserve

exterior of turbine casing.
- Inspect carbon packing for wear.
. Inspect high-pressure air system

for oil contamination.
MAINTENANCE INDEX PAGE BUREAU PAGE CONTROL NUMBER A-3/16-95

OPNAV FORM 4700-3 (4-64)
98.171
448
of liquid and ready to repeat the cycle which takes because of a diesel effect. 2 Ignition tempera-
place twice in each revolution. tures may result from rapid pressurization
of a low pressure dead end portion of the
A small amount of seal water must be con-
piping system, malfunctioning of compressor
stantly supplied to the compressor to make up
aftercoolers, leaky or dirty valves, and many
for that which is carried over with the compres-
other causes. Every precaution must be taken to
sed air. The water which is carried over with
have only clean, dryairatthe compressor inlet.
the compressed air is removed in a refrigera-
Air compressor accidents have also been
tion-type dehydrator.
caused by improper maintenance procedures
such as disconnecting parts while they are
under pressure, replacing parts with units
AIR COMPRESSOR MAINTENANCE designed for lower pressures, and installing
stop valves or check valves in improper lo-
Minimum requirements for the performance cations. Improper operating procedures have
of inspections and maintenance on high pressure also caused air compressor accidents, with
air plants are shown on the maintenance index resulting serious injury to personnel and
page figure 17-12. damage to equipment.
It is the responsibility of the engineer offi- In order to minimize the hazards inherent
cer to determine if the condition of the equip- in the process of compression and in the use
ment, hours of service, or operating conditions of compressed air, all safety precautions
necessitate more frequent inspections and tests. outlined in the manufacturers’ technical ma-
Details for outline tests and inspections may be nual and in the Naval Ships Technical Ma-
obtained from the appropriate manufacturer’s nual must be strictly observed.
instruction book or from the Naval Ships Tech-
nical Manual.
2 A diesel engine operates by taking inair, compress-
ing it, and then injecting fuel into the cylinders, where
the fuel is ignited by the heat of compression. The
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS same effect (normally called the diesel effect) can
occur in hydropneumatic machinery andin air, oxygen,
or other gas systems, if even a very small amount of
There are many hazards associated with the "fuel''—a smear of oil, for example, or asingle cotton
process of air compression. Serious explosions thread—is present to be ignited by the heat of
have occurred in high pressure air systems compression.
449
CHAPTER 18
DISTILLING PLANTS
Naval ships must be self-sustaining as far dependent upon the rate at which heat is trans-
as the production of fresh water is concerned. mitted to the water. The rate of heattransfer to
The large quantities of fresh water required the water is dependent upon anumber of factors;
aboard ship for boiler feed, drinking, cooking, of major importance are the temperature differ-
bathing, and washing make it impracticable to ence between the substance giving up heat and the
provide storage tanks large enough for more than substance receiving heat, the available surface
a few days’ supply. Therefore, all naval ships area through which heat may flow, and the coef-
depend upon distilling plants to meet the require- ficient of heat transfer of the substances and ma-
ments for large quantities of fresh water of ex- terials involved in the various heat exchangers
tremely high chemical and biological purity. that constitute the distilling plant. Additional
factors such as the velocity of flow of the fluids
PRINCIPLES OF DISTILLATION and the cleanliness of the heat transfer surfaces
also have a marked effect upon heat transfer in
All shipboard distilling plants not only per- a distilling plant.
form the same basic function but also perform Since a shipboard distilling plant consists of
this function in much the same way. The distil- a number of heat exchangers, each serving one
lation process consists of heating sea water to or more specified purposes, the plantasa whole
the boiling point and condensing the vapor provides an excellent illustration of many
to obtain fresh water (distillate). The distilla- thermodynamic processes and concepts. Prac-
tion process for a shipboard plant is illustrated tical manifestations of heat transfer—including
very simply in figure 18-1. heating, cooling, and change of phase—abound in
At a given pressure, the rate at which sea the distilling plant, and the significance of the
water is evaporated in a distilling plant is pressure-temperature relationships of liquids
and their vapors is clearly evident. 1
The sea water which is the raw material of
the distilling plant is a water solution of various
minerals and salts. In addition to the dissolved
material, sea water also contains suspended
EVAPORATION CONDENSATION matter such as vegetable and animal growths and
bacteria and other micro-organisms. Under
(BOILING) (COOLING)
proper operating conditions, naval distilling
plants are capable of producing fresh water which
contains only minute traces of the chemical and
SEA WATER DISTILLATE
HEAT SOURCE
1 Much of the information given in chapter 8 of this
text has direct and immediate application to the study
75.284 of distilling plants. Applicable portions of chapter 8
Figure 18-1.—Simplified diagram of shipboard should be reviewed, if necessary, as a basis for the
distillation process. study of distilling plants.
450
Chapter 18. —DISTILLING PLANT
biological contaminants which are found natu- Condensation.— The latter part of the process
rally in sea water. 2 of distillation. Condensation is the process of
One of the problems that arises inthe distil- cooling the vapor to produce usable fresh water.
lation of sea water occurs because some of the
salts present in sea water are negatively solu- Feed.—The sea water which is the raw ma-
ble—that is, they are less soluble in hot water terial in the distillation process.
than they are in cold water. A negatively soluble
salt remains in solution at low temperatures but Vapor.—The product of the evaporation of sea
precipitates out of solution at higher tempera- water. The terms vapor and fresh water vapor
tures. The crystalline precipitation of various are used interchangeably.
sea salts forms scale on heat transfer surfaces
and thereby interferes with heat transfer. In Distillate.—The product resulting from the
naval distilling plants, this problem is partially condensation of the fresh water vapor produced
avoided by designing the plants to operate under by the evaporation of sea water. Distillateis also
vacuum or (in the case of one type of plant) at referred to as condensate, as fresh water, as
approximately atmospheric pressure. fresh water condensate, and as sea water distil-
The use of low pressures (and therefore low late. However, the use of the term condensate
boiling temperatures) has the additional advan- should be avoided whenever there is any possibil-
tage of greater thermodynamic efficiency than ity of confusion between the condensate of the
can be achieved when higher pressures and tem- distilling plant and the condensate that results
peratures are used, With low pressures and tem- from the condensation of steam in the main and
peratures, less heat is required to make the sea auxiliary condensers. In general, it is best to
water boil and less heat is lost overboard through use the term distillate when referring to the
the circulating water that cools and condenses the product resulting from the condensation of vapor
vapor. in the distilling plant.
DEFINITION OF TERMS Salinity.—The concentration of salt inwater.
The manner in which the various kinds of dis- Brine.—Water in which the concentration of
tilling plants accomplish the distilling process salt is higher than it is in sea water.
can best be understood if we first become famil-
iar with certain terms relating to the process.
TYPES OF DISTILLING UNITS
The terms defined here relate basically to all
types of distilling plants now in naval use. Ad-
Distilling units installed in naval ships are
ditional terms that apply specifically to a par-
of two general types. The vapor compression type
ticular type of distilling unit are defined as
of unit is used aboard submarines and small
necessary in subsequent discussion.
diesel-driven surface craft where the daily re-
quirements do not exceed 4000 gallons per day
Distillation.—The process of boiling sea (gpd). The low pressure steam distilling unit is
water and then cooling and condensing the result-
used aboard all steam-driven surface ships and
ing vapor to produce fresh water.
on nuclear submarines. The major difference be-
tween the two types of distilling units is in the
Evaporation.—The first part ofthe process of
kind of energy used to operate the unit. Vapor
distillation. Evaporation is the process of boiling
compression units use electrical energy; steam
sea water in order to separate itintofresh water
distilling units use auxiliary exhaust steam.
vapor and brine.
VAPOR COMPRESSION DISTILLING UNITS
2 It should be noted that distilling plants are not effec- A vapor compression distilling unit is shown
tive in removing volatile gases or liquids which have in cutaway view in figure 18-2 and schematically
a lower boiling point than water, nor are they effective
in figure 18-3. The unit consists of three main
in killing all micro-organisms. These points are of
particular importance when a ship is operating in con- components—the evaporator, the compressor,
taminated or polluted waters, as discussed at the end and the heat exchanger—and a number of acces-
of this chapter. sories and auxiliaries.
451
RELIEF VALVE
PRESSURE GAGE
BYPASS VALVE
DRIVEN SHAFT
(THREE LOBE)
COMPRESSOR
(TWO LOBE)
COMPRESSED
VAPOR PIPE
VAPOR SEPARATOR
REED: INEBT
MANHOLE
TUBE SHEET
FUNNEL
INSULATION
BAFFLES
DOWNTAKE
BRINE OVERFLOW TUBE

ELECTRIC HEATERS
75.286
Figure 18-2.—Cutaway view of vapor compression distilling plant.
452
Chapter 18. —DISTILLING PLANTS
EVAPORATOR.—The cylindrical shell in The separator consists of two cylindrical baf-

which vaporization and condensation occur is fles. One cylinder extends downward from the
commonly called the evaporator. The evaporator upper head plate of the evaporator; the other ex-
consists of two principal elements: the steam tends upward, and is fitted around the upper cyl-
chest and the vapor separator. inder to form a baffle. The floor of the separator
The steam chest’ includes all space within is formed by the bottom of the outer cylinder. The
the evaporator shell except the space thatisoc- space between the two cylinders provides a pas-
cupied by the vapor separator. The steam chest sage for the vapor flowing from the evaporating
is considered to have an evaporating side anda side of the steam chest to the suction side of the
condensing side. The evaporating side includes compressor.
the space within the tubes of the tube bundle The vapor from the boiling sea water rises
(which is located in the lower part of the evapo- up through the space between the shell wall and
rator shell) and the space which communicates the outer cylinder of the separator; it then flows
with the inside of the tubes. The condensing side downward through the space between the cyl-
includes the space which surrounds the external inders of the separator and enters the separator
surfaces of the tubes; this space communicates chamber. From the separator chamber, the
with the discharge side of the compressor by vapor travels upward to the intake side of the
means of a pipe, as shown in figure 18-3. compressor.
The tube bundle is enclosed in a shell. At In the course of this roundabout passage
top and bottom of the bundle the tube ends are through the vapor separator, the vapor is separa-
expanded into tube sheets. Most of the tubesare ted from any entrained particles of water. The
small; but a few, set near the periphery, water drops to the floor of the separator and is
are larger. Each of the larger tubes contains an continuously drained away. This water hasahigh
electric heater. As the sea water feed flows salt concentration, and must be continuously
through these larger tubes, it is heated to the drained in order to keep it from entering
boiling point by the heaters. the compressor and thus getting into the condens-
The feed inlet pipe extends horizontally to the ing side of the evaporator, where it would
center of the evaporator, where it branches into contaminate the distillate.
a Y. The two ends of the feed pipe turn downward
into the downtake, as shown in figure 18-2. Sea VAPOR COMPRESSOR.— The vapor which
water feed enters the evaporator through the flows upward from the separator is compressed
horizontal inlet pipe, pours into the downtake, and by a positive-displacement compressor. The
passes down to the bottom head of the evaporator type of compressor discussed here has two
shell; from there, the feed flows upward through three-lobe rotors of the type shown in the insert
the tubes. on figure 18-2 andin figure 18-3. Two-lobe com-
A funnel is installed inside the downtake, at pressors of the type shown in the main part of
the top. The top of the funnel is about 2 inches figure 18-2 were an earlier design.
above the top of the evaporator tubes, and the
The two rotors are enclosed in a compact
brine level in the evaporator shell is thus main-
housing which is mounted on the evaporator. The
tained at this height. About one-half to two-
three lobes on each rotor are designed to produce
thirds of the feed is vaporized; the remaining
a continuous and uniform flow of vapor. The vapor
brine overflows continuously into the funnel and
enters the compressor housing at the bottom and
then into the brine overflow tube which is
then passes upward between the inner and outer
installed inside the downtake. The overflow tube
walls of the housing to the rotor chamber, where
leads the brine out through the bottom of
it fills the space between the rotor lobes. The
the evaporator shell, to the heat exchanger. In
vapor is then carried around the cylindrical sides
the heat exchanger, the brine gives upits heat and
of the housing, anda pressureis developed at the
raises the temperature of the incoming feed.
bottom as the lobes roll together. Clearances are
The vapor separator is an internal compart-
provided so that the rotor lobes do not actually
ment located at the top of the evaporator shell.
touch each other and do not touch the housing.
The shaft of one rotor is fitted with a drive
3 "Steam chest" is a somewhat misleading term for a
pulley on one end and a gear on the other end.
unit which is not operated by steam and which has no
steam coming into it from an external source. Although This gear meshes with a gear onthe shaft of the
called a steam chest, it might more accurately be other rotor, to provide the necessary drive for
thought of as a "vapor chest." the second rotor.
453
PRESSURE GAGE
RELIEF VALVE
BYPASS VALVE
DESUPERHEATER DRIP
COMPRESSOR
VAPOR SEPARATOR
MANOMETER
VAPOR SEPARATOR DRAIN
CHECK VALVE
FROM DESUPERHEATER TANK
FEED INLET,
VENT LINE
CONDENSATE
— 3/64' ORIFICE OUTLET
STEAM CHEST VENT
BRINE
OVERFLOW
pe:
HEAT
y
TUBE
SSRN
VENT
EXCHANGER OUTLET
STEAM
DRAIN TRAP
ELECTRIC HEATER BRINE OVERFLOW OUTLET
ES] FEED WATER [7 CONDENSATE

[7 VAPOR AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
KS CONCENTRATED BRINE
COMPRESSED VAPOR aa Sat OWE PATS
75.287
Figure 18-3.—Schematic view of vapor compression distilling plant.
HEAT EXCHANGER.—The heat exchanger The heat exchanger is a horizontal double-
preheats the incoming sea water feed by two heat tube unit. Either sea water or brine flows
exchange processes. In one process, the sea through the inner tubes, while distillate flows
water feed is heated by the distillate which is
through the space between the inner and the outer
being discharged from the distilling unit to the
tubes.
ship’s tanks. In the other process, the sea water
feed is heated by the brine overflow which is
being discharged overboard or to the brine col- Figure 18-4 shows the construction of the heat
lecting tank. exchanger and also illustrates the flow paths.
454
7 FEED INLET
DETAIL SECTION OF RETURN END
FEED OUTLET
VENT OUTLET |
OVERFLOW INLET
CONDENSATE INLET
FEED. INLET OVERFLOW OUTLET

cae 6 5 64
¢ ' ] ’
FEED. OUTLET OVERFLOW INLET VENT INLET VENT OUTLET CONDENSATE INLET
75.288
Figure 18-4.—Heat exchanger for a vapor compression distilling plant.
There are four distinct flow paths: feed, brine brine overflow pumps; feed regulating and flow
overflow, condensate (distillate), and vent. control valves; relief valves; compressor bypass
valves; rotameters; anda variety of pressure and
ACCESSORIES AND AUXILIARIES.—A num- temperature gages.
ber of accessories and auxiliaries are required
for the operation of the vapor compression dis- THE VAPOR COMPRESSION PROCESS.—
tilling unit. These include feed, distillate, and Now that the principal parts of a vapor
455
compression unit have been described, let us generate enough vapor for compressor opera-
summarize briefly the sequence of events within tion. After the cycle has been started and the
the unit and consider some of the factors that are compressor is adequately supplied with vapor,
important in the vapor compression process of the normal operating cycle begins and the elec-
distillation. tric heaters are used henceforth only to provide
The cold sea water feed enters the heat the heat necessary to make up for heat losses.
exchanger and is heated there to about 190° After the unit has become fully operational, then,
or 200 F. From the heat exchanger, the feed the heat input from the heaters is Only a small
goes into the evaporator. Here it flows down the part of the total heat input.
downtake and into the bottom of the evaporator The major part of the heat input comesfrom
shell, then upward in the tubes. Boiling and the compression work that is done on the vapor
evaporation take place in the tubes at atmos- by the compressor. The major energy transfor-
pheric pressure. About one-half to two-thirds of mations involved in normal operation are thus
the incoming feed is evaporated; the remainder from electrical energy (put in at the compres-
flows out through the brine overflow, thus main- sor motor) to mechanical energy (work done by
taining a constant water level within the evapo- the compressor on the vapor) to thermal energy.
rator. The thermal energy thus supplied is used to boil
The vapor thus generated rises and enters the the sea water feed and keep the process going.
vapor separator, where any particles of moisture The compression process serves another
that may be present are separated from the vapor vital function in the vapor compression distilling
and drained out of the separator. The vapor goes unit. Since the boiling point of sea wateris sev-
to the suction side of the compressor. Inthe com- eral degrees higher than the boiling point of fresh
pressor, distilled water drips onto the rotors and water at any given pressure, the boiling sea water
thus desuperheats the vapor asitis compressed. in the evaporator is actually above 212° F and
The vapor is compressed to a pressure of about would therefore be too hot to condense the fresh
3 to 5 pounds above atmospheric pressure, and water vapor if the vapor were atthe same pres-
is discharged to the space surrounding the tubes sure as the boiling sea water. By compressing
in the steam chest. As the vapor condenses on the vapor, the boiling point of the vapor is raised
the outside of the smaller tubes, the distillate above the boiling point of the sea water at atmos-
drops down and collects onthe bottom tube plate. pheric pressure. Therefore the compressed
Every time a pound of compressed vapor con- vapor canbe condensed on the outside of the tubes
denses, approximately a pound of vapor is in which sea water feed is being boiled. This
formed in the evaporator section; the compres- process would not be possible without the pres-
sor suction is thus kept supplied with the right sure difference between the evaporating side and
amount of vapor the condensing side of the unit, and this pressure
The distillate is drawn off through a steam difference is created by the compression of the
trap and flows into the heat exchanger ata tem- vapor.
perature of about 220° F.Asitflows through the
heat exchanger, the distillate gives up heat to the
STEAM DISTILLING UNITS
incoming feed and is cooled to within about 18° F
of the cold feed water temperature. Nonconden-
Steam distilling plants now in naval use are
sable gases, together with a small amount of
practically all of the low pressure type. Theyare
vapor, flow into the vent line and then to the heat
“low pressure’”’ units from two points of view.
exchanger.
First, they utilize lowpressure steam (auxiliary
Meanwhile, the sea water which
is not vapor- exhaust steam) as the source of energy; and sec-
ized in the evaporator is flowing continuously into
ond, they operate at less than atmospheric pres-
the funnel, down the brine overflow tube, and into
sure. There are three major types of low
the heat exchanger. The temperature of this brine pressure steam distilling units: submerged tube
is about 214° F. In passing through the heat ex- units, flash-type units, and vertical basket units.
changer, the hot brine raises the temperature of
the sea water feed that is entering through the
heat exchanger. Submerged Tube Units
The entire distillation cycle is started by
using the electric heaters to bring the sea water Submerged tube distilling units range from
feed temperature up to the boiling point and to 4000 to 50,000 gallons per day incapacity. There
456
are three kinds of submerged tube distilling After being desuperheated, the steam passes
units: (1) the Soloshell double-effect unit, (2) the into the first-effect tube nest, where itheats the
two-shell double-effect unit, and (3) the three- sea water feed that surrounds the first-effect
shell triple-effect unit. tubes. The sea water boils, generating steam
The difference between double-effect units which is called vapor to distinguish it from the
and triple-effect units is merely in the number steam which is the external source of energy for
of stages of evaporation. Two stages of evapora- the unit. The condensate that results from the
tion occur in a double-effect unit, and threein a condensation of the supply steam is discharged
triple-effect unit. by the first- effect drain pump to the low pressure
drain system or to the condensate system andis
SOLOSHELL DOUBLE-EFFECT UNITS.— thus eventually used again in the boiler feed sys-
Most Soloshell double-effect units have capac- tem.
ities of 12,000 gallons per day or less. However, Although the vapor generated in the first-
some Soloshell units of 20,000 gpd capacity are effect shell is pure water vapor, it does contain
in use. small particles of liquidfeed. As the vapor rises,
A Soloshell double- effect unit is shown sche- a series of baffles above the surface of the water
matically in figure 18-5 and in cutaway view in begins the process of separating the vapor and
figure 18-6. The unit consists of a single cylin-
the water particles.
drical shell which is mounted with the long axis
After passing through the baffles, the vapor
in a horizontal position. A longitudinal vertical enters the vapor separator. As the vapor passes
partition plate divides the shell into a first-effect
around the hooked edges of the baffles and vanes
shell and a second-effect shell. The first-effect
in the separator, it is forced to change direction
shell contains the firsteffect tube bundle, a
several times; and with each change of direction
vapor separator, and the vapor feed heater. The
some water particles are separated from the
second-effect shell contains the second-effect
vapor. The hooked edges trap particles of water
tube bundle, a vapor separator, and the distilling and drain them away, discharging them back into
condenser. A distillate cooler, not a part of the the feed at a distance from the vapor separator.
main cylindrical shell, is mounted at any conven-
After passing through the first-effect vapor
ient location, as piping arrangements permit.
separator, the vapor goes to the vapor feed
Another separate unit, the air ejector condenser,
heater. Sea water feed passes through the tubes
is mounted on brackets on the outside of the evap-
of the vapor feed heater, and part ofthe vapor is
orator shell. The air ejector takes suction on the
condensed asit flows over the tubes of the heater.
second-effect part of the shell, maintaining it
This distillate, together with the remaining un-
under a vacuum of approximately 26 inches of
condensed vapor, goes through an external
mercury. A lesser vacuum—about 16 inches of crossover pipe and enters the tube nest of the
mercury—is maintained in the first-effect shell. second-effect shell. The remaining vapor is now
Steam for the distilling unit is obtainedfrom
condensed as it gives up the rest ofits latent heat
the auxiliary exhaust line through a regulating
to the sea water feed in the second- effect shell.
valve. This valve is adjusted to maintain a con-
stant steam pressure of 1 to 5 psig in the line be- Since the pressure in the second- effect shell
tween the regulating valve and a control orifice. is considerably less than the pressure in the
The size of the opening in the control orifice de- first-effect shell, the introduction of the vapor
termines the amount of steam admitted to the and the distillate from the first-effect shell
distilling unit and hence controls the output of causes the sea water feed in the second-effect
distilled water. shell to boil and vaporize.
When the steam pressure is reduced by the The vapor thus generated in the second- effect
regulating valve, the steam becomes super- shell passes through baffles just above the sur-
heated. Since superheat has the undesirable ef- face of the water and then goes to the second-
fect of increasing the rate of scale formation, effect vapor separator. From the vapor sepa-
provision is made for desuperheating the steam. rator, it passes to the distilling condenser. The
This is done by spraying hot water into the steam condensing tubes nearest the incoming vapor are
line between the control orifice and the point utilized as a feed heating section; the vapor con-
where the steam enters the first- effect shell. The denses on the outside of the tubes and thus heats
hot water for desuperheating the steam is taken the incoming sea water feed whichis circulating
from the first-effect drain pump discharge. through the tubes. The remainder ofthe vaporis
457
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condensed in the condensing section and is dis- section of the distilling condenser, through the
charged to the test tanks as distillate. air ejector condenser, and through the
The first-effect distillate which was used in first-effect vapor feed heater before it is dis-
the second-effect tubes to boil and vaporize the charged to the first-effect shell. These paths of
feed in the second-effect shell is discharged the distilling condenser circulating water and the
through the second-effect tube nest drain reg- evaporator feed may be traced in figure 18-5.
ulator and is led to the distilling condenser by As previously described, some of the sea
way of aflash chamber. The flash chamber is es- water feed in the first-effect shell is boiled and
sentially a receptacle within which the vapor, lib- vaporized by the supply steam. The remaining
erated when the second- effect drains are reduced portion becomes more dense and has a higher
to a pressure and temperature corresponding to salinity than the original sea water feed; this
the distilling condenser vacuum, is separated denser, saltier water is called brine to distin-
from the condensate and directed to the distilling guish it from sea water. After a certain amount
condenser. As may be seen in figure 18-6, the of sea water feed has been vaporized in the first-
flash chamber is located just outside of the sec- effect shell, the remaining brine is led to the
ond-effect shell. second-effect shell through a pipe that has a man-
The distilling condenser circulating water ually controlled feed regulating valve installed
pump takes suction from the sea anddischarges in it. When the feed regulating valveis open, the
the sea water through the shell of the distillate higher pressure in the first-effect shell causes
cooler (which is external to the unit) and then the brine to flow from the first- effect shell to the
through the tubes of the distilling condenser. second-effect shell. After the brine has been used
Some of the cooling water is then discharged as feed to generate vapor in the second-effect
overboard; but a portion (which is now called shell, the remaining brine is discharged over-
evaporator feed) goes through the feed heating board by the brine overboard discharge pump.
FIRST-EFFECT SECOND-EFF ECT DISTILLING

SEPARATOR SEPARATOR CONDENSER
AIR BAFFLE
VAPOR FEED
HEATER
SECOND-EFFECT
TUBES
FIRST-EFFECT
FLASH
TUBES CHAMBER
BRINE PUMP
SUCTION
FIRST-EFFECT SECOND-EFFECT
DRAIN REGULATOR DIVISION PLATE DRAIN REGULATOR
47.117
Figure 18-6.—Cutaway view of Soloshell double-effect distilling plant.
TWO-SHELL DOUBLE-EFFECT UNITS.— permit. The air ejector condenser is also a

Two-shell double-effect units of 20,000 gpd ca- separately mounted unit.
pacity are used on some ships. A typical unit of A standard 30,000 gpd triple-effect unit is
this kind is shown in figure 18-7. As may be seen, also inuse. Thisis similar to the standard 20,000
the unit consists of two cylindrical evaporator gpd unit except that the 30,000 gpd unitis larger.
shells, mounted horizontally, with the long axes There are two types of 40,000 gpd triple-
of the shells parallel. The first- effect vapor feed effect units that may be regarded as standard,
heater is built into the upper part of the first- since both are widely used in naval ships. The
effect shell. The distilling condenser and the dis- first type uses the same arrangement as the
tillate cooler are built into separate shells, which standard 20,000 gpd triple-effect unit but has the
are usually mounted between the two evaporator larger components needed for the increased ca-
shells. The air ejector condenser is also a sep- pacity. The second type consists of three hori-
arate unit, though it is mounted on one of the zontal shells, usually mounted side by side, with
shells. axes parallel. In this design, both vapor feed
The operation of the two-shell double- effect heaters and distilling condensers are built
unit is almost precisely the same as the opera- as three independent units, each mounted sepa-
tion of the Soloshell double-effect unit. The flow rately outside the evaporator shells. The air
paths of steam, condensate, sea water, brine, ejector condenser and the distillate cooler are
vapor, and distillate may be traced out on figure also in independent shells and are separately
18-7. mounted outside the evaporator shells.
Triple-effect units operate in virtually the
THREE-SHELL TRIPLE-EFFECT UNITS.— same way as the Soloshell and the two-shell
Three-shell triple-effect distilling units are double- effect units previously described, except
similar to the double-effect units previously dis- that the comparable actions ina triple- effect unit
cussed except that the triple-effect units have an are spread out through more equipment and
intermediate evaporating stage. through one more effect. In a triple-effect unit,
A triple-effect distilling unit is shown sche- the sea water feed is piped to the first effect
matically in figure 18-8. Although there are sev- shell, then to the second-effect shell, and then to
eral kinds of triple-effect units, the general re- the third-effect shell. Steam from the auxiliary
lationships shown in this illustration hold for any exhaust line is used to vaporize the feed in the
triple-effect plant. first-effect shell; in the second- effect and third-
A standard 20,000 gpd triple- effect unit con- effect shells, the vapor is generated by the heat
sists of three horizontal cylindrical shells, set given up by vapor generated in the previous shell.
side by side with their axes parallel. The first- In the triple-effect units, as in the double- effect
and second-effect vapor feed heaters are built units, this sequence of events is possible because
into the front end of the second- and third- effect the vacuum is greatest in the shell of the final
evaporator shells. The distilling condenser is effect and least in the shell of the first effect.
contained within the third-effect shell. The air
ejector condenser and the distillate cooler are Flash-Type Distilling Units
in separate shells and are mounted on the
third-effect shell. Some recent ships are equipped with flash-
Another 20,000 gpd triple-effect design con- type distilling units. Although these units differ
sists essentially of three horizontal shells bolted somewhat in design from the submerged tube
together end to end, with vertical partition plates units, certain operating principles are common
between each shell to separate the effects. Vapor to both types. In particular, both the flash-type
separators in independent shells are installed in and the submerged tube type of unit depends upon
the vapor piping between effects and between the pressure differentials between the stages (or ef-
third effect and the distilling condenser. The fects) to generate vapor from the sea water feed.
first- and second-effect vapor feed heaters are Flash-type units consist of two or more
in separate shells and are mounted in the piping stages. Two-stage units of 12,000 gpd capacity
at the inlet to the second-effect and third- effect are installed on some recent destroyer type
tube nests, respectively. The two sections of the ships. Five-stage units of 50,000 gpd capacity are
distilling condenser and the distillate cooler are installed on some recent carriers.
built into a single shell and independently Each stage of a flash-type unit has a flash
mounted as space and piping arrangements may chamber, a feed box, a vapor separator, and a
460
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distilling condenser. A two-stage or three-stage feed water in the space between the outside of
air ejector, a distillate cooler, and a feed water the basket and the shell of the evaporator. The
heater are also provided. Feed water passes condensate resulting from the condensation of
through the tubes of the distillate cooler, the steam drains downward and is returned to the
stage distilling condenser, and the air ejector boiler feed system. The vapor generated from
condenser. In each of these heat exchangers the the boiling sea water feed passes through the
feed picks up heat. The final heating is done by cyclonic separator above the evaporation sec-
low pressure steam admitted to the shell of the tion, where most of the entrained liquid particles
feed water heater. From this heater the feed are removed from the vapor by centrifugal force.
water enters the first-stage feed box and comes The vapor continues on through the second vapor
out through orifices into the flash chamber. As separator (called the ‘‘snail’’), where the re-
the heated feed water enters the chamber, a por- maining water droplets are separated from the
tion flashes or vaporizes because the pressure vapor. The liquid particles from both of these
in the chamber is lower than the saturation pres- separators drain downward and become part of
sure corresponding to the temperature of the hot the brine drains.
feed. The vapor condenses on the tubes of the
The vapor generated in the first-effect shell
first-stage distilling condenser. The feed which
does not vaporize in the first chamber passes to passes from the steam dome of the first- effect
shell. It goes through the vapor feed water heater
the second chamber. The process is repeatedin
and then enters the steam chest and evaporator
each stage and the brine remaining in the last
stage is removed by the brine overboard pump.
basket of the second-effect shell. The first-ef-
Vapor formed in each stage passes through a fect vapor boils the second-effect feed and thus
causes the generation of second-effect vapor.
vapor separator and into the stage distilling con-
denser, where it is condensed into distillate. The The second-effect vapor goes through the cy-
clonic separator and the snail in the second-
distillate passes through a loop seal on its way
effect shell. From the steam dome, this vapor
to the distilling condenser of the next stage. The
then goes to the distilling condenser, where the
distillate pump removes the distillate from the
last stage and discharges it through the distillate
vapor is condensed on the outside of the tubes.
cooler and the solenoid-operated dump valve to The second-effect distillate drains down and col-
the ship’s tanks. lects in the flash tank.
The general arrangement of a two-stage As the first-effect vapor is being used to boil
flash-type unit is shown in figure 18-9; a five- the second-effect feed, some of the vapor con-
stage unit is shown in figure 18-10. The major denses. This distillate drains downward into the
circuits are shown in each illustration. second-effect steam chest and is discharged to
the flash tank at the bottom ofthe distilling con-
Vertical Basket Distilling Units denser, where it mixes with the distillate formed
from the second-effect vapor. The distillate is
Some recent ships are equipped with vertical removed from the flash tank by the distillate
basket distilling units. A unit of this typeis shown pump and is discharged through the distillate
in figure 18-11. The unit shown has two effects; cooler and the solenoid-operated dump valve to
however, some units of this type have more than the ship’s tanks. Should the salinity of the
two effects. distillate exceed 0.065 epm, the dump valve auto-
The vertical basket unit consists of two or matically dumps the distillate to the bilges.
more evaporators, a distiller condenser, vapor
Sea water flows through the tubes of the dis-
feed heaters, a distillate cooler, andair ejectors.
tillate cooler and the distilling condenser, creat-
The major difference between a vertical basket
ing a suction for the brine pump and maintaining
unit and a submerged tube unit is in the design
a back pressure for the feed system. About 25
of the evaporators. In the vertical basket unit,
percent of the sea water passes through supple-
each evaporator consists of a vertical shell in
mentary heating sections in the distilling con-
which a deeply corrugated vertical basket is in-
denser to the air ejector condenser, and feeds
stalled. Figure 18-12 shows a sectional view of
the evaporator shells in parallel. As the sea
the evaporator and basket.
water passes through the air ejector condenser,
Low pressure steam is admitted to the inside it condenses the air ejector steam; the resulting
of the first-effect basket. This steam boils the condensate drains to an atmospheric drain tank.
463
|
AIR |
STEAM TO R
AIR EJECTOR Bacio
STRAINERS
1ST STAGE
VENT LINE
DENSER
=e | 1
g 5!
a? am5 I
3-WAY SOLENOID
TRIP VALVE ae!
Ee <|
Fa me | 3
DISTILLATE >
ea 6
igre m
COOLER = =
a
DISTILLATE
FLOWRATOR Q
To
SAMPLING § —@ © | |i Boy fo fe \ =--=---- jh ----==-
BICGE CONNECTION —
DISTILLATE
WATER METER COOLER BYPASS
FEED
ROTAMETER~*
SCREEN
CO aes
oh DISTILLATE :
\\ GLAND SEAI =|) ae We °
=D
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=
z
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_—— ><}
GLAND SEAL iaa
INLET SEA DISTILLER BRINE™| => m= i (
WATER VALVE OVERBOARD PUMP
SALT-WATER BRINE i (P) NSS

CIRCULATING OVERBOARD @=>E=L
PUMP X TO
A -BILGE
SAMPLING
CONNECTION
47,131
Figure 18-9.—General arrangement of two-stage flash-type distilling plant.
464
Chapter 18. -DISTILLING PLANTS
REGULATOR
y2
STRAINER BYPASS LINE
SUPPLY AIR ky
\
SEPARATE SOURCE OF
PURE WATER FOR
BIR-ORERATED DESUPERHEATER TO BE
DIARHRAGH
TYPE, STEAM USED Tae
WHEN STARTING
CONTROL
VALVE
DIAPHRAGM VALVE
ACTUATING LINE
STRAINER LEGEND
VENT ’
LOOP SEAL
DOWN
CONTROL VALVES TO STOP CHECK VALVE
BE INTERLOCKED
———. =<-SAMPLING WHEN ONE |S OPEN
ita CONNECTION OTHER IS CLOSED
eS
TO FRESH WATER TO
DRAIN SYSTEM BILGE DESUPERHEATER WATER
i TO BE USED AFTER COMPOUND GAGE
|| SALT-WATER HEATER VENT PLANT IS IN OPERATION SALINITY CELL
Sade RELIEF VALVE
1ST STAGE at [@)= | vacuum Gace
| DRAIN REGULATOR O
REGULATOR NEEDLE VALVE
z z 0 ><} TO BILGE mmm | SEA WATER

| 1ST STAGE FEED > & i
|
REGULATING VALVE ES TO LOW PRESSURE
Fa ) © fieSV7><}~ rain SYSTEM | Zz | CONDENSATE
BILGE ISTILLAT
XZ7 TO CONDENSATE 3
DSTRECATE
[ao] GAGE GLASS
DISTILLER SALT-WATER w
HEATER DRAIN PUMP
SAMPLING
CONNECTION
47,131
Figure 18-9.—General arrangem ent of two-stage flash-type distilling plant-- continued.
465
\ 921° F }
le «=O BRINE i
Lae DISCHARGE PIPING
> {} i.
V Teh 1
aS FLOWRATOR !}
AFTER HELL i
Yes’ CONDENSER i i
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AFTER CONDENSER CONDENSATE CONDENSATE, TO WASTE
ra a ee a eee i ee menor
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BRE COOrEE PRE COOLER ly
CONDENSATE f iW
ATS
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ae
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ana BORER 1| OORSEAL "i ACID INLET |
SOLENOID VALVE 1
| . f || FROM TANK | ;
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DISTILLATE \TZ | STAGE 4 | STAGE 3 ty
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A DISTILLATE —=4 1
DISTILLATE > mur
ca 2 {a DISTILLATE PUMP ; H !
: O
CaeTER V<if STAGE 5 roe
loot DRAIN
EAU PIPING Se eee | 8 =|6|S
z2 DISTILLATE |
5AS |
RELIEF VALVE |
=! = |
>< |
ie | 1
bE
7 to. z! oot
STRAINER TT >| |
O y FLOWRATOR | |
+ | |—O | OVERBOARD
FEED WATER | O) PUMP
—— ><) fax
FEED WATER BRINE WASTE |
PUMP 261,600 LB/HR |
510 GPM
104.0° F
96.30
Figure 18-10.—General arrangement of five-stage flash-type distilling plant.
466
Chapter 18. —-DISTILLING PLANTS
a aa a i SS >
|
4
|
Bc eee
ee we a a ! PRE-HEATER
151.0° F
ipa
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139.0° F |
RELIEF i]
VALVE ee
pg th SJ conoensare
PRE-HEATER
CONDENSATE STEAM TO SALT
f—4 siteo steam
WATER HEATER f
y ORIFICE NOZZLE
o if
SS —
i STEAM
7) 4500 LBS/HR
i 153.0° F RELIEF VALVE | 5 PSI
l f | SALT WATER HEATER imal H

|
Y
[ee= 11 PSIA
|
-
ID
(|
1
RE ee
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eeee ee we ee J seid nevuen|
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TO RETURN H CONDE aATE t
ob i .
aA | DRAIN
| REGULATOR
: | STRAINER
' |ee
°
170° F { loa
1
|
1 |
! es : }
| vent | $ SALT WATER
ie HEATER
\ CONDENSATE
SYMBOLS real
— +d
cs =— FEED WATER ;
DISTILLATE ——9 = DISTILLATE
J — ee CONDENSATE SALT WATER HEATER
| X mee ecm BRINE WASTE DRAIN PUMP
' STEAM
——— eeSS
— ee = jeepers = NON-CONDENSABLES.
—tpee+ SALINITY CELL
—} ORIFICE
ped GLOBE & ANGLE VALVE
| Dd GATE VALVE
Ny CHECK VALVE
) THERMOMETER
|
|
|
96.30
Figure 18-10.—General arrangement of five-stage flash-type plant--continued
467
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reduces the capacity of the unit. Excessive scale

formation may also impair the quality of the dis-
tillate.
Various methods have been used to retard
scale formation in distilling units. In the past,
CORRUGATED a common method was the continuous injection
BASKET TYPE
HEATING SECTION of a solution of Navy boiler compound and corn-
starch into the distilling unit. The boiler com-
pound tends to minimize the formation of scale,
EVAPORATOR
and the cornstarch tends to minimize priming.
SHELL
The boiler compound and cornstarch method
STEAM Gm SEA WATER of treatment is not fully effective in preventing
scale formation, however, and daily removal of
47.127 scale is required when this method is used. The
Figure 18-12.—Sectional view of evaporator and removal of scale isaccomplished by a procedure
basket in vertical basket distilling plant. called chill shocking. For chill shocking, the unit
is secured and pumped dry while it is still hot.
Then cold sea water is introduced, and the result-
ing thermal shock causes scale to flake off and
DISTILLING PLANT OPERATION fall to the bottom of the tube nest. The unit is then
pumped dry, the loose scale is removed, andthe
Although a detailed discussion of distilling unit is filled with water and started up again.
plant operation is beyond the scope of this text,
certain operational considerations should be Chill shocking is an effective way of removing
noted, The factors mentioned here apply primar- scale, but it is somewhat laborious and time-con-
ily (although not exclusively) to low pressure suming. A particular disadvantage of the chill
steam distilling units. shocking process is that it requires each operat-
ing distilling unit to be out of production for an
Naval distilling plants are designed to pro-
hour or more each day. This canleadto serious
duce distillate of very high quality. The chloride
content of distillate discharged to the ship’s tanks water shortages under some circumstances.
must not exceed 0.065 equivalents per million. A new chemical compound called HAGEVAP
Any distilling unit which cannot produce distillate has been adopted as the standard compound for
of this quality is not considered to be operating evaporator feed treatment. This compound has
properly. proved superior to the boiler compound and corn-
Steady operating conditions are essential to starch previously used, and is now authorized
the satisfactory operation of a distilling unit. for use in submerged tube, vertical basket, and
Fluctuations in the pressure and temperature of five-stage flash-type distilling units; it doesnot
the first-effect generating steam will cause fluc- appear to be necessary for two-stage flash-type
tuations of pressure and temperature through- units. Where the HAGEVAP treatment is used,
out the entire unit. Such fluctuations may cause chill shocking is not necessary because there
priming, with increased salinity of the distillate, is no scale formation (or practically none). The
and may also cause erratic operation of the feed use of this compound requires the installation of
and brine pump. Rapid fluctuations of pressure certain equipment, including special pumps,
in the last effect tend to cause priming. tanks, and piping; authorization for such installa-
tion has been issued, and the alteration has been
To achieve satisfactory operation ofa distil- or will soon be made for all classes of ships
ling unit, it isnecessary to maintain the designed having low pressure steam distilling plants
vacuum in all effects. When the unit is operated (other than two-stage flash-type units).
at less than the designed vacuum, the heat level
rises throughout the unit and there is an The concentration of brine (or brine density,
increased tendency toward scale formation. as it is called) hasa direct bearing on the quality
Scale formation is highly undesirable, since of the distillate. If the brine concentrationis too
scale interferes with heat transfer and thus low, there willbealossin capacity and economy.
469
If the brine concentration is too high, there will

be an increase in the rate of scaling of the evap-
orator tube surfaces, and the quality of the dis-
tillate may be impaired. The density of the brine
overboard discharge should normally be main-
tained just under 1.5/32, and should never exceed
this figure. Since the average sea water contains
about 1 part of dissolved sea salts to 32 parts of
water (by weight), the brine density should be just
under 1 1/2 times that of the average sea water.
Brine density is measured with a special kind of
hydrometer 4 which is called a salinometer.
Salinometers as shown in figure 18-13 are cal-
ibrated in thirty-seconds, on four separate
scales which indicate the salinity of the brine at
four different temperatures (110° , 115° ,120°,
and 125° F).
Special restrictions are placed upon the oper-

ation of distilling units when the ship is operat-
ing in contaminated waters. Because most dis-
tilling plants operate at low pressures (and
therefore low temperatures) the distillate is not
sterilized by the boiling process in the evapor-
ators and may contain dangerous micro-orga-
nisms or other matter harmful to health. All
water in harbors, rivers, inlets, bays, land-
locked waters, and the open sea within 10 miles of
the entrance to such waters must be considered
contaminated unless a specific determination to
the contrary is made. Inother areas, contamina-
tion may be declared to exist by the fleet surgeon
or his representatives, as local conditions may
warrant. When the ship is operating in contami-
nated waters, the distilling units must be oper-
ated in strict accordance with special procedures
established by the Naval Ship Systems Command.
47.136X
4 Hydrometers are discussed in chapter 7ofthis text. Figure 18-13.—Salinometer.
470
CHAPTER 19
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING PLANTS
Refrigeration equipment is used aboard ship Refrigeration is a process involving the flow
for a number of purposes, including the refrig- of heat, and is therefore a thermodynamic
eration of ship’s stores, the refrigeration of process. From previous discussion in this text,
cargo, the cooling of water, and the conditioning we may surmise that a closed eyclet would be
of air for certain spaces. The distinction be- most practicable for alarge-scale refrigeration
tween refrigeration and air conditioning should system. When we try to visualize such a cycle,
be noted. Refrigeration is onlya cooling process; however, it may appear at first glance that the
air conditioning is aprocess oftreating air So as cycle will have to run backwards. Thus far in
to simultaneously control its temperature, hu- this text, we have been primarily concerned with
midity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the a closed cycle in which thermal energy (in the
requirements of the conditioned spaces. form of heat) is converted into mechanical
energy (in the form of work). Now, instead of
wanting to convert heat into work, we want to
REFRIGERATION remove heat from a body and we want to con-
tinue to remove heat from this body even after
its temperature has been lowered below that of
The purpose of refrigeration is to cool its Surroundings, in order to maintain the body
Spaces, objects, or materials and to maintain at its lowered temperature. In other words, we
them at temperatures below the temperature of want to extract heat from a cold body and dis-
the surrounding atmosphere. In order to produce charge it to a warm area.
a refrigeration effect, it is merely necessary to
expose the material to be cooled to a colder The question is: How can this be done, since
object or environment and allow heat to flow in we know from the second law of thermodynamics
its ‘‘natural’’ direction—that is, from the warm- that heat cannot, of itself, flow from acolder body
er material to the colder material. For example, or region to a warmer one? It is entirely pos-
a pan of hot water placed ona cake of ice will be sible to extract heat from a body at a low tem-
cooled by the flow of heat from the hot water to perature and discharge it to a body or region at
the ice. We can maintainthis refrigeration effect a higher temperature, provided a Suitable expen-
as long as the ice lasts. Butno matter how much diture of energy is made toaccomplish this. The
ice we have, we cannot produce a refrigeration energy supplied to the refrigeration cycle for
effect any greater than the cooling of the water this purpose is in the form of work (mechanical
to 32° F. We cannot, for example, cause the water energy) done on the working fluid (refrigerant)
to freeze by this method, since freezing would
require the removal of the latent heat of fusion
from the water after it had been cooledto 32° F;
and for this process we would need a temperature
difference that does not exist when both the water 1 Thermodynamic cycles are discussed in chapter 8 of
and the ice are at 32°F. Whenthe purpose of re- this text. A closed cycle is one in which the working
fluid never leaves the system except through accidental
frigeration is the production of ice or the mainte-
leakage. Instead, the working fluid undergoes a series
nance of temperatures lower than 32 °F at atmos- of processes which are of such a nature that the fluid
pheric pressure, it is obvious that ice is nota is returned periodically to its initial state and is then
Suitable refrigerant. used again,
471
by a compressor.2 In a refrigeration cycle, the SPECIFIC HEAT.—The specific heat of a

refrigerant must alternate between low tempera- substance is the quantity of heat required to
tures and high temperatures. When the refrig- raise the temperature of unit mass of the sub-
erant is at a low temperature, heat flows from stance 1 degree. In British systems of measure-
the space or object to be cooled to the refrig- ment, specific heat is expressed in Btu per pound
erant. When the refrigerant is at a high temper degree Fahrenheit.
perature, heat flows from the refrigerant to a
condenser. The energy supplied as work is used SENSIBLE HEAT .—Sensible heat is the term
to raise the temperature of the refrigerant toa used to identify heat that is reflectedina change
high enough value so that the refrigerant willbe of temperature.
able to reject heat to the condenser. This point
is discussed in more detail later inthis chapter, LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION .—The
but should be noted now since it is basic to the heat required to change a liquid to a gas (or, on
understanding of a mechanical refrigeration the other hand, the heat which must be removed
cycle. from a gas in order to condense it to a liquid)
Because the energy transformations in a without any change in temperature is called the
refrigeration cycle occur in an order that is latent heat of vaporization.
precisely the reverse of the sequence ina power
cycle, the refrigeration cycle is sometimes said LATENT HEAT OF FUSION .—The heat which
to be one in which heat is pumped ‘‘uphill.’’ must be removed from a liquid in order to
This view of a refrigeration cycle is entirely change it into a solid (or, on the other hand, the
legitimate, provided the ‘‘reverse order’’ of amount of heat which must be added to a solid
energy transformations does not imply actual to change it to a liquid) without any change in
thermodynamic reversibility. True thermody- temperature is called the latent heat of fusion.
namic reversibility is here, as elsewhere in
the observable world, considered to be an im- REFRIGERATING EFFECT .—Since the heat
possibility. A refrigeration cycle does not give removed from an object that is being refrig-
us something for nothing. Instead, we must put erated is absorbed by the refrigerant, the re-
energy into the cycle in order to extract heat at frigerating effect of a refrigeration cycle is
a low temperature and discharge it at a higher defined as the heat gainper pound of refrigerant.
temperature.
REFRIGERATION TON.—The unit which
DEFINITION OF TERMS measures the amount of heat removal and thereby
indicates the capacity of a refrigeration system
Some of the standard terms used in the is known as the refrigeration ton. The refrigera-
discussion of refrigeration are defined in this tion ton is based on the cooling effect of 1 ton
section. A few of these terms have been defined (2000 pounds) of ice at 32° F melting in 24 hours.
in chapter 8 of this text but are briefly noted The latent heat of fusion of ice (or water) is
here because of their importance in the study of approximately 144 Btu. Therefore, the number of
refrigeration. Btu required to melt one ton ofice is 144 x 2000,
or 288,000 Btu. The standard refrigeration ton is
UNIT OF HEAT.—The British thermal unit defined as the transfer of 288,000 Btu in 24
(Btu) is the standard unit of heat measurement hours. On an hourly basis, the refrigeration ton
used in refrigeration, as in most other engineer- is 12,000 Btu per hour (288,000 divided by 24
ing applications. By definition, 1 Btu is equal to equals 12,000).
778.26 foot-pounds.
It should be noted that the refrigeration ton
is not necessarily a measure of the ice-making
2 : , -
A compressor provides the required energy in a capacity of a machine, since the amount of ice
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, which is the that can be made depends upon the initial tem-
cycle most commonly used in naval refrigeration perature of the water and other factors.
plants. Other kinds of refrigeration cycles use other
forms of energy to accomplish the same purpose—
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE .—The
namely, to raise the temperature of the refrigerant
after it has absorbed heat from the space or object to coefficient of performance of a refrigeration
be cooled, cycle is essentially comparable to the thermal
472
Chapter 19. -REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING PLANTS
efficiency of a power cycle. The thermal ef- to discharge heat at a relatively high tempera-
ficiency of a power cycle is given by the equation ture.
work output
thermal efficiency = heat input The R-12 Cycle
Since thermal efficiency is a function of ab- The basic cycle of an R-12 refrigeration
solute temperature alone in the Carnot cycle, cycle is shown shcematically in figure 19-1. As
the equation may also be given as an introduction to the system, it will be helpful
[ae — de to trace the refrigerant through the entire cycle,
s r
thermal efficiency = noting especially the points at which the re-
ue
Ss frigerant changes from liquid to vapor and from
vapor to liquid, and noting also the concomitant
where Tg is the absolute temperature at the heat flow of heat in one direction or another.
source and Ty is the absolute temperature at the As shown in figure 19-1, the cycle has two
heat receiver. pressure sides. The low pressure side extends
For the refrigeration cycle, the coefficient of from the orifice of the thermostatic expansion
performance is given by the equation valve up to and including the intake side of the
compressor cylinders. The high pressure side
coefficient of performance = geteeeabiny etiect extends from the discharge side of the com-
work input
pressor to the thermostatic expansion valve.
The condensing and evaporating pressures and
which, as inthe power cycle, canbe shown to be a
temperatures indicated in figure 19-1 are not
function of absolute temperature alone. standard for all refrigeration plants, since pres-
sures and temperatures are established as part
THE R-12 PLANT
of the design of any refrigeration system. It
The refrigeration system most commonly should be noted, also, that the pressures and
used in the Navy utilizes R-12 as the refrig- temperatures shown in figure 19-1 are theoreti-
erant.3 Chemically, R-12 is dichlorodifluoro- cal rather than actual values, even for this
methane (CCL9F9). The boiling point of R-12 is particular system. If the system were in actual
so low that the subtance cannot exist as a liquid operation, the pressures and temperatures would
unless it is confined and put underpressure; for vary slightly because they are dependent upon
example, R-12 boils at -21°F at atmospheric the temperature of the cooling water entering the
pressure, at 0 F at 9.17 psig, at 50°F at 46.69 condenser, the amount of heat absorbed by the
psig, and at 100F at 116.9 psig. Because of its refrigerant in the evaporator, and other factors.
low boiling point, R-12 is well suited for use in Liquid R-12 enters the thermostatic expan-
refrigeration systems designed for only mod- sion valve at high pressure, from the highpres-
erate pressures. It also has the advantage of sure side of the system. The refrigerant leaves
being practically nontoxic, nonflammable, non- the outlet of the expansion valve ata much lower
explosive, and noncorrosive; and it does not pressure and enters the low pressure side of the
poison or contaminate foods. system. Because of the relatively lowpressure,
The R-12 refrigeration system is classified the liquid refrigerant begins to boil and to flash
as a mechanical system of the vapor-compres- into vapor.
sion type. It is a mechanical system because From the thermostatic expansion valve, the
the energy input is in the form of mechanical refrigerant passes into the cooling coil (evapo-
energy (work). Itisa vapor-compression system rator). The boiling point ofthe refrigerant under
because compression of the vaporized refrig- the low pressure in the evaporator is extremely
erant is the process whichallows the refrigerant low—much lower than the temperature of the
spaces in which the cooling coil is installed.
As the liquid boils and vaporizes, it picks up its
3In accordance with recent policy, refrigerants used latent heat of vaporization from the surround-
in the Navy are no longer identified by trade names. ings, thereby cooling the space. The refrigerant
Instead, they are identified by the letter R followed by
continues to absorb heat until all the liquid has
the appropriate number, or else they are identified
simply as "refrigerants."' For example, the refriger- been vaporized and the vapor has become slightly
ant formerly known as "Freon 12" is now identified superheated. As a rule, the amount of superheat
either as R-12 or simply as a refrigerant. is about 10°F.
473
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The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a seen from figure 19-2, however, a shipboard
low pressure superheated vapor, having ab- refrigeration system may (and, indeed, usually
sorbed heat and thus cooled the space. The does) include more than one evaporator and may
remainder of the cycle is concerned with dispos- include additional compressor and condenser
ing of this heat and getting the refrigerant back units to provide operational flexibility and to
into a liquid state so that it can again vaporize protect against loss of refrigerating capacity.
in the evaporator and thus again absorb heat.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE .— The
The low pressure superheated vapor is drawn
thermostatic expansion valve, shown in figure
out of the evaporator to the suction side of the
19-4, is essentially a reducing valve between the
compressor. The compressor is the unit which
high pressure side and the low pressure side of
keeps the refrigerant circulating through the
the system. The valve is designed to proportion
system. In the compressor cylinders, the re-
the rate at which the refrigerant enters the cool-
frigerant is compressed from a low pressure
vapor to a high pressure vapor, and its tem-
ing coil to the rate of evaporation of the liquid
refrigerant in the coil; the amount depends, of
perature rises accordingly.
course, on the amount of heat being removed
The high pressure R-12 vapor is discharged
from the refrigerated space.
from the compressor to the condenser. Here the
A thermal bulb for the thermostatic expan-
refrigerant condenses, giving up its superheat,
sion valve is clamped to the cooling coil, near
its latent heat of vaporization, and its heat of
compression to the cooling sea water which
the outlet. The bulb contains R-12. Control tub-
ing connects the bulb with the area above the
flows through the condenser tubes. The refrig-
diaphragm in the thermostatic expansion valve.
erant, still at high pressure, is now a liquid
When the temperature at the bulb rises, the R-12
again.
expands and transmits a pressure to the dia-
From the condenser, the refrigerant flows
phragm; this causes the diaphragm to be moved
into a receiver, which serves as a storage place
downward, thus opening the valve and allowing
for the liquid refrigerant. From the receiver,
more refrigerant to enter the cooling coil.
the refrigerant goes to the thermostatic expan-
When the temperature at the bulb falls, the
sion valve and the cycle begins again.
pressure above the diaphragm is decreased
From this brief summary of an R-12 vapor-
and the valve tends to close. Thus the tem-
compression refrigeration system, it may be
perature near the evaporator outlet controls
seen that the cycle is indeed one in which heat
the operation of the thermostatic expansion
is ‘‘pumped uphill’’ as a result of the arrange-
valve.
ments which cause the refrigerant to gothrough
successive phases of expansion, evaporation, EVAPORATOR.—The evaporator consists of
compression, and condensation. a coil of copper tubing installed in the space to
be refrigerated. Figure 19-5 shows some ofthis
Major Components tubing. The liquid R-12 enters the tubing ata
very much reduced pressure and the boiling
The major components of a shipboard R-12 point is therefore very much lowered. In pass-
refrigeration plant are shown diagrammatically ing through the expansion valve, going from the
in figure 19-2. The primary parts of the system high pressure side of the system to the low
are the thermostatic expansion valve, the evapo- pressure Side, some of the refrigerant boils and
rator, the compressor, the condenser, and the vaporizes because of the reduced pressure and
receiver. Additional equipment required to com- some of the remaining liquid refrigerant is
plete the plant includes piping, pressure gages, thereby cooled to its boiling point. Then, as the
thermometers, various types of control switches refrigerant passes through the evaporator, the
and control valves, strainers, relief valves, sight heat flowing to the evaporator from the sur-
flow indicators, dehydrators, and charging con- rounding air causes the rest of the liquid re-
nections. Figure 19-3 shows most of the compo- frigerant to boil and vaporize.
nents on the high pressure side of an R-12 After the refrigerant has absorbed its latent
system, as actually installed aboard ship. heat of vaporization and all the liquid has been
In the following discussion of the major com- vaporized, the refrigerant continues to absorb
ponents of an R-12 system, we will treat the heat until it has acquired about 10° F of super-
system as though it had only one evaporator, heat. The amount of superheat is determined by
one compressor, and one condenser. AS may be the amount of liquid refrigerant admitted to the
475
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47.92
Figure 19-3.—High pressure side of R-12 installation aboard ship.
477
7.
DIAPHRAGM
SPRING (
CHAMBER
PRESSURE AND
ADJUSTMENT FLOW PATHS
168.1
Figure 19-4.—Thermostatic expansion valve.
evaporator; and this, in turn, is controlled by of the vaporized refrigerant provides a conden-
the spring adjustment of the thermostatic expan- sation temperature high enoughto permit the use
sion valve. About 10°F of superheat is considered of sea waterasa cooling and condensing medium.
desirable because it increases the efficiency of In other words, the compressor raises the pres-
the plant and because it ensures the evaporation sure of the vaporized refrigerant sufficiently
of allliquid, thus preventing liquid carryover into high to permit heat transfer and condensation
the compressor. to take place in the condenser.
In addition to this primary function, the
COMPRESSOR .—In a vapor-compression re- compressor also serves to keep the refrigerant
frigeration system, the compressor is the unit circulating and to maintain the required pressure
that pumps heat ‘‘uphill’’ from the cold side to differential between the high pressure side and
the hot side of the system. the low pressure Side of the system.
The heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the Many different types of compressors are used
evaporator must be removed before the refrig- in refrigeration systems. Figure 19-6 shows a
erant can again absorb latent heat in the evapo- motor-driven, single-acting, two-cylinder re-
rator. The only way in which the vaporized ciprocating compressor ofa type commonly used
refrigerant can be made to give up the latent in naval shipboard refrigeration plants.
heat of vaporization that it absorbed in the
evaporator is by condensation. In view of the CONDENSER.—The compressor discharges
relatively high temperature of the available the high pressure, high temperature refrigerant
cooling medium (sea water), the only way to vapor to the condenser, where it flows around the
make the vapor condense is by first compress- tubes through which sea water is being pumped.
ing it. As the vapor gives up its superheat tothe circu-
The vapor drawn into the compressor is at lating sea water, the temperature of the vapor
very low pressure and very low temperature. In drops to the condensation point. As soon as the
the compressor, both the pressure and the tem- temperature of the vapor drops to its condensing
perature are raised. Since an increase in pres- point at the existing pressure, the vapor con-
sure causes a proportional rise intemperature, denses and in the process gives up the latent
and since the condensation point of a vapor is heat of vaporization that it picked up in the
determined by the pressure, raising the pressure evaporator. The refrigerant, now inliquid form,
478
A dehydrator (or dryer) is placed in the

liquid refrigerant line between the receiver
and the thermostatic expansion valve. In older
installations, such as the one shown in figure
19-2, bypass valves allow the dehydrator to be
cut in or out of the system. In newer instal-
lations, the dehydrator is installed in the liquid
refrigerant line without any bypass arrange-
ment. A refrigerant dehydrator is shown in
figure 19-9.
A solenoid valve is installed in the liquid
line leading to each evaporator. Figure 19-10
shows a solenoid valve and the thermostatic
control switch that operates it. The thermo-
static control switch is connected by long flex-
ible capillary tubing to a thermal bulb which
is located in the refrigerated space. When
47.93 the temperature in the refrigerated space drops
Figure 19-5.—Evaporator tubing. to the desired point, the thermal bulb causes
the thermostatic control switch to open, thereby
is subcooled slightly below its boiling point at closing the solenoid valve and shutting off all
this pressure to ensure that it will not flash flow of liquid refrigerant to the thermostatic
into vapor. expansion valve. When the temperature in the
A water-cooled condenser for an R-12 re- refrigerated space rises above the desired point,
frigeration system is shown in figure 19-7. the thermostatic control switch closes, the
Circulating water is obtained through a branch solenoid valve opens, and liquid refrigerant
connection from the firemain or by means of an once again flows to the thermostatic expansion
individual pump taking suction from the sea. valve.
A water regulating valve (not shown) is usually The solenoid valve and its related thermo-
installed to control the flow of cooling water static control switch serve to maintain the
through the condenser. The purge connection proper temperature in the refrigerated space.
shown in figure 19-6 is on the refrigerant side; However, we may wonder why the solenoid
it is used to remove air and other noncondens- valve is necessary, since the thermostatic
able gases that are lighter than the R-12 vapor. expansion valve controls the amount of refrig-
Most condensers used in naval refrigeration erant admitted to the evaporator. Actually, the
plants are water cooled. However, some small solenoid valve is not necessary in systems
units have air-cooled condensers. These consist having only one evaporator. In systems having
of tubing with external fins to increase the heat more than one evaporator, where there is wide
transfer surface. Most air-cooled condensers variation in load, the solenoid valve provides
have fans to ensure positive circulation of air the additional control required toprevent spaces
around the condenser tubes. from becoming too cold at light loads.
In addition to the solenoid valve installed
RECEIVER.—The receiver, shown in figure
in the line to each evaporator, a large refrig-
19-8, acts as a temporary storage space and
eration plant usuaily has a main liquid line
surge tank for the liquid refrigerant which flows
solenoid valve installed just after the receiver.
from the condenser. The receiver also serves
If the compressor stops for any reason except
as a vapor Seal to prevent the entrance of vapor
normal suction pressure control, the main liquid
into the liquid line to the thermostatic expansion
line solenoid valve closes and prevents liquid
valve.
refrigerant from flooding the evaporator and
ACCESSORIES AND CONTROLS.—In addition flowing to the compressor suction. Great dam-
to the five major components just described, a age to the compressor can result if liquid is
refrigeration system requires a number of con- allowed to enter the compressor suction.
trols and accessories. The most important of Whenever Several refrigerated spaces of
these are discussed briefly in the following varying temperatures are to be maintained
paragraphs. by one compressor, an evaporator pressure
479
VALVE CAGE
VALVE
DISK
V-BELT PULLEY
SUCTION
VALVE
SHAFT SEAL
47.94
Figure 19-6.—Reciprocating compressor for R-12 refrigeration plant.
regulating valve is installed at the outlet of line. When the solenoid valves in the lines to
each evaporator except the evaporator in the the various evaporators are closed, so that
space in which the lowest temperature is to be the flow of refrigerant to the evaporators is
maintained. The evaporator pressure regulating stopped, the pressure of the vapor in the com-
valve is set to keep the pressure in the coil pressor suction line drops quickly. When the
from falling below the pressure corresponding suction pressure has dropped to the desired
to the lowest temperature desired in that space. pressure, the low pressure cutout switch causes
The low pressure cutout switch is the con- the compressor motor to stop. When the tem-
trol that causes the compressor to go on or perature in the refrigerated space has risen
off as required for the normal operation of the enough to operate one or more of the solenoid
refrigeration plant. This switch is located on valves, refrigerant is again admitted to the
the suction side of the compressor and is cooling coils and the compressor suction pres-
actuated by pressure changes in the suction sure builds up again. At the desired pressure,
480
GASKET enw
a iyj i
f’,Is one Se
ee So
ic. sage
VAPOR
D
| [igi?4
De
Ne 4Ho |
REFRIGERANT
Zeling
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.
LIQUID
REFRIGERANT
OUTLET
47.95
Figure 19-7.—Water-cooled condenser for R-12 refrigeration system.A. Cutaway view.
B. Water-flow diagram. C. Arrangement of head joints. D. Position of zincs.
the low pressure cutout switch closes, starting when the pressure reaches 160 psi and to start
the compressor again and repeating the cycle. it again when the pressure drops to 140 psi. As
A high pressure cutout switch is connected previously noted, the low pressure cutout switch
to the compressor discharge line to protect the is the compressor control for normal operation
high side of the system against excessive pres- of the plant; the high pressure cutout switch, on
sures. This switch is very similar to the low the other hand, is a safety device only and does
pressure cutout switch; however, the low pres- not have control of compressor operation under
sure cutout switch is designed to close when normal conditions.
the suction pressure reaches its upper normal A spring-loaded relief valve is installed in
limit, whereas the high pressure cutout switch the compressor discharge line as an additional
is designed -to open when the discharge pres- precaution against excessive pressures. The
sure is too high. The high pressure cutout relief valve is set to open at about 225 psi;
switch is normally set to stop the compressor therefore, it functions only in case of failure or
481
actuated switch, generally similar to the low

CHARGING TO EXPANSION
VALVE pressure cutout switch and the high pressure
CONNECTION
cutout switch previously described. If the water
failure switch should fail to function, the re-
frigerant pressure in the condenser would
quickly build up to the point where the high
pressure cutout switch would function.
Because of the solvent action of R-12, any
particles of grit, scale, dirt, and metal that
~ the system may contain are very readily circu-
lated through the refrigerant lines. To avoid
damage to the compressor from such foreign
matter, a strainer is installed inthe compressor
suction connection. In addition, a liquid strainer
is installed in the liquid line leading to each
evaporator; these strainers serve to protect
the solenoid valves and the thermostatic ex-
pansion valves.
A number of pressure gages and thermom-
47.96 eters are used in refrigeration systems. A
Figure 19-8.—Receiver for R-12 compound refrigerant gage is shown in figure
refrigeration system. 9-12. The temperature markings on this gage
show the boiling point (or condensing point) of
improper setting of the high pressure cutout the refrigerant at each pressure; the gage can-
switch. If the relief valve opens, it discharges not measure temperature directly. The dark
high pressure vapor to the suction side of the pointer (which is actually red in color) is a
compressor. stationary pointer that can be set manually to
A water regulating valve, as shown in figure indicate the maximum working pressure. Other
19-11, is usually installed to control the quantity pressure gages and thermometers include a
of circulating water flowing to the refrigerant water pressure gage, installed in the circulating
condenser. The valve is located either at the water line to the condenser, and standard ther-
inlet to the condenser or at the outlet from the mometers of appropriate range, installed in the
condenser. The valve is actuated by the refrig- refrigerant lines.
erant pressure inthe compressor discharge line; Refrigerant piping is normally made of
this pressure acts upon a diaphragm or a bel- copper. Copper is particularly good for this
lows arrangement which transmits motionto the purpose because it does not become corroded
valve stem. As the temperature of the circu- by the refrigerant, the internal surface is smooth
lating water increases, the temperature of the enough to minimize friction, and the tubing is
refrigerant vapor increases; this causes the easily shaped to meet installation requirements.
pressure of the refrigerant to increase, and
AIR CONDITIONING
thereby raises the condensation point. When this
occurs, the increased pressure of the refrig- Air conditioning is a field that deals with
erant causes the water regulating valve to open the design, construction, and operation of equip-
wider, thus automatically permitting more cir- ment used in establishing and maintaining de-
culating water to flow through the condenser. sirable indoor air conditions. It is the science
When the condenser is cooler than necessary, of maintaining the atmosphere of an enclosure
the water regulating valve allows less water to at any required temperature, humidity, and pur-
flow through the condenser. Thus the flow of ity. As such, air conditioning involves the
cooling water through the condenser is auto- cooling, heating, dehumidifying, ventilating, and
matically maintained at the rate actually re- purifying of air.
quired to condense the refrigerant under vary- Aboard ship, air conditioning serves to keep
ing conditions of load and temperature. the ship’s crew comfortable, alert, and physi-
A water failure switch is provided to stop cally fit. The temperature, humidity, cleanli-
the compressor in the event of failure of the ness, quantity, and distribution of the condi-
circulating water supply. This is a pressure- tioned air supply is a matter of vital concern.
482
SPRING
CARTRIDGE
DEHYDRANT
DISPERSION TUBE
END CAP si
(Ge
ee(ESS
\
47.97
Figure 19-9.—Refrigerant Dehydrator.
The comfort and efficiency of the crew is important in connection with air conditioning
not the only immediate reason for shipboard are discussed in the following sections.
air conditioning. Mechanical cooling, heating,
or ventilating must be provided for a number HUMIDITY.—The vapor content of the at-
of spaces for a variety of reasons. Ammunition mosphere is referred to as humidity. Excessive
- Spaces must be kept below a certain tempera- humidity and too little humidity both lead to
ture in order to prevent deterioration of the discomfort and impaired efficiency; hence the
ammunition; gas storage spaces must be kept measurement and control of the moisture con-
cool in order to prevent the buildup of exces- tent of the air is an important phase of air
Sive pressures in containers; electrical and conditioning.
electronic equipment must be maintained at The air holds varying amounts of water
certain temperatures, with controlled humidity, vapor, depending upon the temperature of the
in air that is relatively free of dust and dirt. air; the higher the temperature, the greater
the amount of moisture the air can hold. For
PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING every temperature there is a definite limit as
to the amount of moisture the air is capable of
To achieve the objectives of air condition- holding. When air attains the maximum amount
ing, it is necessary to take account of a number of moisture which it can hold at a specified
of factors. The principal factors that are temperature, the air is Said to be saturated.
483
MAGNETIC COIL- BREAKAWAY PIN
VALVE STEM F PLUNGER
VALVE SEAT
O
PISTON
INLET OUTLET
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTIONS
MAGNET
CONNECTOR
ROD
BELLOWS
SPRING
47.98
Figure 19-10.—Solenoid valve (top) and thermostatic control switch (bottom).
The saturation point is usually called the the result of water vapor from the air condensing
dew point. If the temperature of saturated air on the cold surfaces of the pipes.
falls below its dew point, some of the water The amount of water vapor in the air is ex-
vapor in the air must condense into water. The pressed in terms of the weight of the water
dew that is visible in early morning after a vapor. This weight is usually given in grains
drop in temperature is the result of such con- (7000 grains = 1 pound). Absolute humidity is
densation. The sweating of cold water pipes is the weight of water vapor (in grains) per cubic
484
——
foot of air. Specific humidity is the weight of

water vapor (in grains) per pound of air. It
should be noted that the weight refers only to
the weight of the moisture which is present in
ADJUSTING the vapor state; it does not include moisture
SPRING
that may be present in the liquid state.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the weight
of water vapor in a sample of air to the weight
REFRIGERANT of water vapor which that same sample of air
CONNECTION
would hold if saturated at the existing tem-
perature. This ratio is usually stated as a
percentage. For example, when air is fully satu-
rated, its relative humidity is 100 percent.
iui \ ‘} INV VtT

When air contains no moisture atall, its relative
humidity is zero percent. When air is half
f ‘ saturated—that is, holding half as much mois-
ture as it is capable of holding at the existing
temperature—its relative humidity is 50 per-
cent.
Relative humidity, rather than absolute hu-
midity or specific humidity, is the factor that
affects comfort. This is true because it is the
relative humidity that affects evaporation. Mois-
ture tends to travel from regions of greater
wetness to regions of lesser wetness. If the air
above a liquid is saturated, the liquid and the
vapor are in equilibrium contact and no further
evaporation can take place. If the air above the
liquid is only partly saturated, some evapora-
168.4X tion can take place.
Figure 19-11.—Water regulating valve (cross A specific example may illustrate the differ-
section.) ence between absolute or specific humidity and
relative humidity. If the specific humidity of
the air is 120 grains per pound and the tem-
PRESSURE TEMPERATURE INDICATED perature of the air is 76°F, the relative humidity
INDICATED IN BLACK IN RED is nearly 90 percent—that is, the air is nearly
saturated. With a relative humidity of 90 per-
cent, the body may perspire freely but the
perspiration does not evaporate rapidly; hence
there is a general feeling of discomfort.
If the temperature of the air is 86°F, how-
ever, with the specific humidity remaining
constant at 120 grains per pound, the relative
humidity is only 64 percent. Although the
amount of moisture in the air is the same as
before, the relatively humidity is lower because
at 86°F the air is capable of holding more water
vapor than it can hold at 76°F. The body can
therefore evaporate excess moisture and the
general feeling of comfort is much greater even
though the temperature is 10 degrees higher.
TEMPERATURE.—When testing the effec-

47.102 tiveness of air conditioning equipment and when
Figure 19-12.—Compound R-12 pressure gage. checking the humidity of spaces, two different
485
temperatures are usually considered. These are provided with a small motor-driven fan and dry
the dry-bulb temperature and the wet-bulb tem- cell batteries. Motorized psychrometers are
perature. gradually replacing the sling psychrometers.
The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature An exposed view ofa hand electric psychrometer
of the air as measured by an ordinary dry-bulb is shown in figure 19-14. With either type of
thermometer. The dry-bulb temperature re- psychrometer, the wet-bulb temperature must
flects the sensible heat of the air. be observed at intervals as the water is being
The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature evaporated. The point at which there is no fur-
of the air as measured by a wet-bulb thermom- ther drop in temperature on the wet-bulb ther-
eter. A wet-bulb thermometer is an ordinary mometer is the wet-bulb temperature of the
thermometer with a loosely woven cloth sleeve space.
or wick placed around the bulb and then wet As may be inferred from this discussion,
with water. The water in the sleeve or wick is the wet-bulb depression is an indication that
made to evaporate by a current of air at high latent heat of vaporization has been used to
velocity. The evaporation lowers the tempera- vaporize the water in the sleeve or wick around
ture of the wet-bulb thermometer. The differ- the wet-bulb thermometer.
ence between the dry-bulb temperature and the When the air contains some moisture but is
wet-bulb temperature is called the wet-bulb not saturated, the dew-point temperature is
depression. When the air is saturated, so that lower than the dry-bulb temperature and the
evaporation cannot take place, the dry-bulb wet-bulb temperature is between the dew-point
temperature is the same as the wet-bulb tem- and the dry-bulb temperatures. As the amount
perature; the condition of saturation is unusual, of moisture in the air increases, the difference
however, and a wet-bulb depression is normally between the dry-bulb temperature and the wet-
to be expected. bulb temperature becomes less and less. When
The wet-bulb thermometer and the dry-bulb the air is saturated, the dew-point temperature,
thermometer are usually mounted side by side the dry-bulb temperature, and the wet-bulb
on a frame. A handle ora short chain is attached temperature are identical.
to the frame so that the thermometers may be
whirled in the air, thus providing an air current AIR MOTION.—In perfectly still air, a layer
of high velocity to facilitate evaporation. Such a of air adjacent to the body absorbs the sensible
device is known as a Sling psychrometer. (See heat given off by the body and increases in tem-
fig. 19-13.) Motorized psychrometers are perature. This layer of air also takes up the
SNAP LINK
5.65
Figure 19-13.—A standard sling psychrometer.
486
as a higher or lower temperature in conjunction

with compensating relative humidity and air
motion.
The term used to identify the net effect of
these three factors is effective temperature.
The effective temperature cannot be measured
with any instrument, but can be found on a
special psychrometric chart when the dry-bulb
temperature, the wet-bulb temperature, and
the air velocity are known.
Although all of the combinations of tem-
perature, relative humidity, and air motion of
a particular effective temperature may produce
the same feeling of warmth or coolness, they
are not all equally comfortable or healthful.
For best health and comfort, a relative humidity
of 40 to 50 percent in cold weather and 50 to
60 percent in warm weather is desirable. An
overall range of 30 to 70 percent is acceptable.
1. Sliding door. 7. Thermometer MECHANICAL COOLING

2. Spring contact. holder.
3. Battery compartment. 8. Wet-bulb wick. Mechanical cooling equipment is provided on
4. Water bottle. 9. Knob ships to cool and dehumidify practically all
5. Bottle compartment. 10. Exhaust parts. parts of the ship except the machinery spaces.
6. Hinge pin. 11. Sliding air intake. In general, three types of mechanical cooling
equipment are used aboard naval ships: refrig-
168.23 erant circulating systems, chilled water circu-
Figure 19-14.—Exposed view of hand electric lating systems, and self-contained air condi-
psychrometer. tioners.
water vapor given off by the body and increases Refrigerant Circulating Systems
in relative humidity. The body is thus surrounded
by an envelope of air which is at a higher tem- A refrigerant circulating system is shown
perature and higher relative humidity than the in figure 19-15. As may be seen, this system
ambient air, and the amount of heat that the body is essentially a refrigeration system consisting
can lose to this envelope of motionless air is of a compressor, a condenser, cooling coils,
considerably less than that which it can lose to a fan, an air filter, and the necessary controls.
the ambient air. If the air is set in motion, the Hot moist air from the space to be cooled
motionless envelope of air is broken up and is drawn through a duct, where it mixes with
replaced by ambient air, thereby increasing the fresh air drawn from outside. The fan blows the
heat loss from the body. When the increased heat air over the cooling coil and the refrigerant
loss improves the heat balance of the body, we inside the coil cools the surface of the coil.
are likely to speak cheerfully of feeling a Heat flows from the air to the coil and excess
‘“‘breeze,’’ but when the increase is excessive, moisture in the air is condensed on the coil.
we Speak less cheerfully of feeling a ‘‘draft.’’ The moisture drips off into a pan below the
coil and is carried off by drain piping. The cool
SENSATION OF COMFORT .—From the pre- dry air leaving the coil is blown into the com-
vious discussion, it is evident that the three partment to be cooled, where it absorbs the
factors of temperature, relative humidity, and excess heat and moisture from the air already
air motion are closely interrelated and that all in the space The air is then returned to the
three factors have a definite effect upon comfort cooling coil and the cycle is repeated. Air is
and efficiency. In fact, a given combination of exhausted from the space being cooled in order
temperature, relative humidity, and air motion to allow fresh air to be drawn into the space.
produces the same feeling of warmth or coolness The cooling coils are installed in the ventilation
487
THERMOSTATIC SWITCH L.P. R-12 LIQUID

TO THERMOSTATIC SWITCH
LIQUID CONTROL MANIFOLD
Cm
a
DUCT TYPE COOLING COIL
LIQUID CONTROL MANIFOLD
PURGE VALVE
SEA WATER
QS bw
WATER—
FAILURE
SWITCH
KING SOLENOID VALVE

DISCHARGE
VALVE STRAINER
sii THERMOMETER
=
SAFETY ee) f
= «|
H.P. R-12 VAPOR ie SIGHT-FLOW
L.P. R-12 VAPOR LIQUID RECEIVER : INDICATOR
SUCTION TRAP
|Lae—DEHYDRATOR
H.P. R-12 LIQUID
hap. ra? Loup
_/)
47.109
Figure 19-15.—Refrigerant circulating type of mechanical cooling system.
ducts leading to the spaces to be cooled. The ship. Both systems utilize chilled water as the
refrigerant used in this system is usually R-12. secondary refrigerant, but one type uses R-12
as the primary refrigerant and the other uses
Chilled Water Circulating Systems
R-11. R-12 systems use reciprocating com-
Two types of chilled water circulating sys- pressors; R-11 systems use centrifugal com-
tems are used for mechanical cooling aboard pressors.
488
Both types of chilled water circulating sys- The secondary refrigerant picks up heat in
tems operate on the same general principle. the coils of the air conditioned space and car-
The secondary refrigerant (chilled water) is ries this heat to the cooler. The function of the
circulated to the various cooling coils. Heat cooler is to transfer the heat from the secondary
from the spaces being cooled is absorbed by refrigerant to the primary refrigerant which
the chilled water and is removed from the surrounds the tubes of the cooler. As this heat
water by the primary refrigerant in a water is transferred, the liquid primary refrigerant
chiller. absorbs its latent heat of vaporization, boils,
Figure 19-16 illustrates the flow of primary and vaporizes. The quantity of liquid refrig-
refrigerant, secondary refrigerant, and con- erant thus evaporated varies directly with the
denser water in an R-11 chilled water circulat- amount of heat picked up by the secondary
ing system which has a single-stage centrifugal refrigerant. The vaporized primary refrigerant
compressor. The primary refrigerant vapor goes to the compressor, and the same Sequence
goes from the evaporator to the compressor, of events is repeated in acyclical manner.
where it is compressed. It is then discharged Figure 19-17 illustrates an R-11 chilled
to the condenser. In the condenser, the primary water circulating system with a two-state cen-
refrigerant vapor condenses, giving up its trifugal compressor. The refrigerant vapor
superheat, its latent heat of vaporization, and coming from the cooler goes into an opening
its heat of compression to the cooling water around the hub of the first wheel of the centrifu-
that flows through the condenser tubes. The gal compressor. The blades in the rapidly
liquid primary refrigerant then passes through rotating wheel impart velocity to the vapor. The
a high pressure float valve to the cooler. vapor is then directed to the hub of the second
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

COOLING COILS
[ > REFRIGERANT
SSXN SECONDARY REFRIGERANT
GM CONDENSER WATER
COMPRESSOR
147.120
Figure 19-16.—Flow diagram, chilled water circulating system with
single-stage centrifugal compressor.
489
CONDENSER _, ~~
WATER IN
CONDENSER _ ,
WATER OUT
CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSOR
REFRIGERANT
LIQUID
[ea]
REFRIGERANT
VAPOR
}
CHILLED
WATER OUT
BSSS55S55
CHILLED2 oo) =
WATER IN > ©
°
35° TO 45°F
47.110
Figure 19-17.—Chilled water circulating system with two-stage centrifugal compressor.
wheel, where it is compressed and discharged mechanical cooling systems. A self-contained

to the condenser. air conditioner is built with the entire unit in
Between the condenser and the cooler, the one metal cabinet. The compressing element in
liquid refrigerant passes through an economizer, the unit is usually of the hermetically sealed
A float in the upper chamber of the economizer type, with the motor and the compressor con-
allows the passage of refrigerant into the lower tained in a welded steel shell. Some Self-
chamber. By connecting the economizer to the contained air conditioners utilizea thermostatic
second stage of the compressor, the pressure expansion valve similar to the type used in large
in the lower chamber is greatly reduced. The refrigeration plants; others utilize capillary
reduced pressure causes some of the liquid tubes to ensure an even flow of refrigerant
refrigerant to flash into vapor, thus cooling the through the cooling coil.
remainder of the refrigerant. Thus the econo-
HEATING AND VENTILATION
mizer acts as an interstage flash cooler and
increases the efficiency of the plant. A float in Aboard ship, heating is accomplished by
the lower chamber of the economizer allows means of steam heaters installed in the ventila-
the passage of the refrigerant into the cooler. tion ducts and by means of space heaters. On
In the cooler, the liquid refrigerant absorbs steam-driven ships, the steam for the heaters
heat from the water and changes from a liquid is supplied at reduced pressure from an auxiliary
to a vapor. steam system. Ondiesel-driven ships, the steam
is supplied by an auxiliary boiler.Some electric
Self-Contained Air Conditioners heaters are also used aboard ship; these are
used primarily for heating spaces which are | |
Self-contained air conditioners are installed located at a considerable distance fromthe steam | |
on some ships that were originally built without piping system.
490
EE
Ventilation is accomplished chiefly by means 12. Regulators and pressure gages pro-
of fans which supply and exhaust through ven- vided for use with a particular gas must
tilation duct systems. Most fans used in duct NOT be used on cylinders containing other
systems are of the axial-flow type, but some gases.
centrifugal fans are used. Bracket fans are used 13. Never attempt to repair or alter cylin-
to provide local circulation in certain spaces. ders or valves.
Portable fans are used for such purposes as 14. Never fill R-12 cylinders beyond 80
temporary ventilation of compartments after percent of capacity.
painting, exhausting toxic gases from closed 15. Whenever possible, store cylinders ina
spaces and tanks, and cooling hot areas around cool, dry place, in an upright position. If the
machinery while repairs are being made. cylinders are exposed to excessive heat, a
dangerous increase in pressure will occur. If
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS cylinders must be stored in the open, take care
that they are protected against extremes of
Refrigerants are furnished in cylinders for
weather. NEVER allow a cylinder to be sub-
use in Shipboard refrigeration and air condition-
jected to a temperature above 125°F.
ing systems. The following precautions must be
16. NEVER allow R-12 to come in contact
observed by personnel handling, using, and stor-
with a flame or red-hot metal! When exposed
ing these cylinders:
to excessively high temperatures, R-12 breaks
1. Never drop cylinders nor permit them to down into PHOSGENE gas, an extremely poison-
strike each other violently. ous substance. Because R-12 is such a powerful
2. Never use a lifting magnet or a sling freezing agent that even a very small amount
(rope or chain) when handling cylinders. A crane can freeze the delicate tissues of the eyes,
may be used if a safe cradle or platform is causing permanent damage; it is essential that
provided to hold the cylinders. goggles be worn by all personnel who may be
3. Caps provided for valve protection must exposed to a refrigerant, particularly in its
be kept on cylinders except when the cylinders liquid form. If refrigerant does get in the eyes,
are being used. the person suffering the injury should receive
4. Whenever refrigerant is discharged from medical treatment immediately in order to avoid
a cylinder, the cylinder should be weighed permanent damage to the eyes. Inthe meantime,
immediately and the weight of the refrigerant put drops of clean olive oil, mineral oil, or
remaining in the cylinder should be recorded. other nonirritating oil in the eyes, and make
5. Never attempt to mix gases inacylinder. sure that the person does not rub his eyes.
6. NEVER put the wrong refrigerant into a CAUTION: Do not use anything except clean,
refrigeration system! No refrigerant except the nonirritating oil for this type of eye injury.
one for which the system was designed should (NOTE: If large leaks are indicated, the soap
ever be introduced into the system. In some method should be used to detect leaks; for
cases, putting the wrong refrigerant into a sys- minute leaks, the halide torch should be em-
tem may cause a violent explosion. ployed.)
7. When a cylinder has been emptied, close
the cylinder valve immediately to prevent the If R-12 comes in contact with the skin, it
entrance of air, moisture, or dirt. Also, be sure may cause frostbite. This injury should be
to replace the valve protection cap. treated as any other case of frostbite. Immerse
8. Never use cylinders for any purpose other the affected part in a warm bath for about 10
than their intended purpose. DO NOT use them minutes, then dry carefully. DO NOT rub or
as rollers, supports, etc. massage the affected area.
9. DO NOT tamper with the safety devices R-12 is considered a fluid of low toxicity.
in the valves or cylinders. However, in closed spaces, high concentrations
10. Open cylinder valves slowly. Never use displace the oxygen in the air and thus do not
wrenches or other tools except those provided sustain life. If a person should be overcome
by the manufacturer. by R-12 remove him IMMEDIATELY to a well-
11. Make sure that the threads on regulators ventilated place and get medical attention at the
or other connections are the same as those on earliest opportunity. Watch his breathing. If
the cylinder valve outlets. Never force connec- the person is not breathing, give artificial
tions that do not fit. respiration.
491
CHAPTER 20
SHIPBOARD ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Shipboard electrical systems include a great bound to the atom by the positive charge within
variety of equipment which provides numerous the nucleus.
services indispensable to the operation of a The electrons in the outer orbits of certain
modern naval ship. These systems distribute elements are easily separated from the positive
power throughout the ship for offensive and de- nuclei of their parent atoms. Should an outside
fensive weapons, the ship’s movement, and ship- force be applied, one of these loosely bound
board habitability. Since the systems and equip- electrons will be released from the parent
ment utilizing electric power are often under atom, thus becoming a free electron, and travel
the cognizance of a division other than the to another atom. It is on this ability of an elec-
electrical division, a joint responsibility fre- tron to move about from one atom to another
quently exists for the operation, maintenance, that the electron theory is based.
and repair of electrical systems and equipment. Elements such as silver, copper, gold, and
This chapter provides some information on aluminum have many loosely bound electrons
basic electrical theory and gives a brief de- and are considered to be good conductors of
scription of shipboard electrical systems and electricity. In materials used as insulators,
equipment. electron flow from one atom to another is
relatively non-existent, since the planetary elec-
BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY trons in the outer orbital shells are more tightly
bound to their parent nuclei.
The word electric is derived from the Greek
Ordinarily an atom is most likely to be in
word meaning amber. The ancient Greeks used
that state in which the internal energy is ata
the word to describe the strong forces of attrac-
minimum, having a neutral electrical charge.
tion and repulsion that were exhibited by amber
However, if an atom absorbs sufficient energy
after it had been rubbed with a cloth. Since
from an outside source, loosely bound electrons
scientists are still unable to define electricity
in the outer orbital shells will leave the atom.
clearly, and since many of the phenomena which
An atom that has lost or gained one or more
occur cannot be completely explained, theories
electrons is said to be ionized. If an atom loses
can only be postulated from the reactions ob-
electrons it becomes positively charged and is
served.
referred to as a positive ion; if an atom gains
Through research and experiment, scientists
electrons it is referred to as a negative ion and
have observed and described many predictable
is said to have a negative charge. Apositive ion
characteristics of electricity and have postulated
will attract any free electron in its surround-
certain rules which are often called ‘‘laws.’’
ings in order to reach a neutral state.
These laws of electricity, together with the
electron theory, are the basis for our present
STATIC ELECTRICITY
concepts of electricity.
When two bodies have unlike charges, one
ELECTRON THEORY
positive and the other negative, an electrical
Every atom is primarily an electrical sys- force is exerted between the two. This force is
tem with high speed planetary electrons orbiting called a static charge or an electrostatic force.
around its nucleus. The electron, whose negative A static charge can easily be produced by
charge forms a natural unit of electricity, is the force of friction when two materials are
492
Chapter 20. -SHIPBOARD ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
rubbed together. If the materials used are both

good conductors, it is difficult to obtain a de-
tectable charge because equalizing currents will UNLIKE
CHARGES
flow easily in and between the conducting mate- ATTRACT
rials. However, if the materials used are poor
conductors (insulators), little equalizing current
can flow and an electrostatic charge is built up.
Charged Bodies
One of the fundamental laws of electricity

is that like charges repel each other and unlike LIKE CHARGES
REPEL
charges attract each other. A positive charge
and a negative charge, being unlike, tend to
move toward each other; thus in the atom the
negative electrons are held in their orbital
shells by the positive attraction of the nucleus.
The law of charged bodies may be demon- ox =>
strated by a simple experiment using
(paper pulp) balls suspended near one
two pith
another
B)
by threads, as shown in figure 20-1, and a hard
147,121
rubber rod. If the hard rubber rod is rubbed to
Figure 20-1.—Reaction between charged bodies.
give it a negative charge and then held against
the right-hand ball in part (A), the rod will im-
Electric Current Flow
part a negative charge to the ball. The right-
hand ball will be charged negatively with respect A difference of potential exists between two
to the left-hand ball, and when released the two bodies having opposite electrostatic charges. If
balls will be drawn together. When the two balls a path is provided between the two bodies, elec-
touch, they will remain in contact with each trons will flow from the negatively charged body
other until the left-hand ball acquires a portion to the positively charged body until the charges
of the negative charge, at which time they will have equalized and the difference of potential
Swing apart as shown in part (C) of figure 20-1. no longer exists. This movement of electrons
Should positive charges be placed on both balls, is called electric current. The rate of flow is
as shown in part (B) of figure 20-1, the balls measured in amperes. One ampere may be de-
would also repel each other. fined as the flow of one coulomb per second
past a fixed point in a conductor.
The force or difference in potential which
Coulomb’s Law of Charges
causes electrons to flow from one charged body
to another is called electromotive force (emf).
The amount of attracting or repelling force
Electromotive force is measured in volts. One
which acts between two electrically charged
volt may be defined as the potential difference
bodies in free space depends upon the magnitude
between two points when one joule of work is
of their charges and the distance between them.
required to move a one-coulomb charge between
This relationship between charged bodies was
these points.
first discovered by a French scientist named
Coulomb. Coulomb’s law of charges states that
MAGNETISM
charged bodies attract or repel each other with
a_force that is directly proportional to the The relationship between magnetism and
product of their charges and inversely propor- electricity was first shown in 1819 when the
lonal to the square of the distance between Danish scientist Oersted observed that a small
them. compass needle was deflected when it was passed
The practical unit of charge a body has is near a wire carrying a current. About 12 years
expressed in coulombs. One coulomb is the later, Michael Faraday discovered that movinga
charge carried by approximately 6 x 1018 elec- conductor in a magnetic field would produce an
trons. electric current.
493
Magnets may be found in the natural state action are the two methods most commonly used
in the form of an iron oxide, but the majority aboard ship; hence the present discussion is
are produced by artificial means. Artificial limited to these two methods. It should be noted,
magnets may be either permanent magnets or however, that a voltage can also be produced by
temporary magnets, depending upon their ability friction, pressure, light, and heat.
to retain magnetic strength after the magnetiz-
ing force has been removed.
Permanent magnets are bars of hardened Voltage Produced By
steel or other alloy which have been perma- Chemical Action
nently magnetized. Permanent magnets are used
extensively in electrical instruments, meters, Chemical energy is transformed into elec-
telephone receivers, and magnetos. trical energy within the cells of a battery. Ship-
Electromagnets are temporary magnets board uses of electricity from this source
composed of soft-iron cores around which are include power supply for emergency lighting
wound coils of insulated wire. Electromagnets (with dry cell batteries) and the starting of small
are used in electric motors, generators, and engines (with wet cell batteries).
transformers. When an electric current flows
The most common dry cell battery consists
through the coil, the core becomes magnetized.
of a cylindrical zine container, a carbon elec-
Magnetism is a field of force exerted in
trode, and an electrolyte of ammonium chloride
space. A magnetic field consisting of imaginary
and water in paste form. The zinc container is
lines along which the magnetic force acts sur-
the negative electrode of the cell; itislined with
rounds each magnet. A visual representation of
a nonconducting material to insulate it from the
a magnetic field can be obtained by placing a
electrolyte. When a circuit is formed, the cur-
plate of glass over a magnet and sprinkling iron
rent flows from the negative zinc electrode to
filings onto the glass. The filings arrange them-
the positive carbon electrode.
Selves in a pattern of definite paths between the
poles, along the magnetic lines of force, as In a common wet cell storage battery, the
shown in figure 20-2. electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by
the chemical action that takes place when the
cell delivers current. Such a battery may be
restored to its original condition by forcing an
electric current through it in the opposite di-
rection to that of discharge.
The most common wet cell storage battery
in use is the lead-acid battery having an emf of
\ 2.2 volts per cell. In the fully charged state, the
positive plates are pure lead peroxide and the
x negative plates are pure lead immersed in a
YS IN RE EAI
SAM,
x
dilute sulfuric acid electrolyte.
W
When a circuit is formed, the chemical action
41.4 between the ionized electrolyte and dissimilar
Figure 20-2.—Magnetic field pattern around a metal plates converts chemical energy to elec-
magnet. trical energy. As the storage battery discharges,
the sulfuric acid is depleted by being gradually
Magnetic flux is the entire quantity of lines converted to water, while both positive and
in a magnetic field, with gauss being the unit negative plates are converted to lead sulfate.
measurement of its density. One gauss is equal This chemical reaction is represented by the
to one line of force per square centimeter of following equation, the reversibility of which is
magnetic field. dependent upon electrical energy being added
during the charging cycle.
PRODUCING A VOLTAGE
There are six commonly used methods of lone device for producing a voltage by heat is the
producing a voltage. Magnetism and chemical thermocouple, discussed in chapter 7 of this text.
494
DISCHARGING
Pb + PbO, + 2H,SO 2
2PbSO, + 2H,O
2 4~ CHARGING
The capacity of a battery is measured in

ampere-hours. The capacity is equal to the
product of the current (in amperes) and the
time (in hours) during which the battery is sup-
plying this current to a given load. The capacity
depends upon many factors, the most important
of which are (1) the area of the plates in contact CONDUCTOR MOVED CONDUCTOR MOVED
DOWN UP
with the electrolyte, (2) the quantity and specific
gravity of the electrolyte, (3) the general condi-
tion of the battery, and (4) the final limiting
voltage, CONDUCTOR
MOTION
Voltage Produced by Magnetism
One of the most useful and widely employed

applications of magnets is in the production of
vast quantities of electric power from mechani-
cal sources. The mechanical power may be pro-
vided by a number of different devices, including
gasoline engines, diesel engines, water tur-
bines, steam turbines, and gas turbines. The
final conversion of these energies to electricity LEFT-HAND GENERATOR RULE
is done by generators employing the principle
of electromagnetic induction. 12.143
There are three conditions which must exist Figure 20-3.—Left-hand generator rule.
before a voltage can be produced by electro-
magnetic induction. First, we must have a emf exists only so long as relative motion
magnetic field; second, a conductor; and third, occurs between the conductor and the field.
relative motion between the field and the con- There is a definite relationship between the
ductor. In accordance with these conditions, direction of flux, the direction of motion of the
when a conductor is moved across a magnetic conductor, and the direction of the induced emf.
field so as to cut the lines of force, electrons When two of these directions are known, the
within the conductor are forced to move; thus third can be found by applying the left-hand rule
a voltage is produced. for generators. To find the direction of the emf
Producing a voltage by magnetic induction induced in a conductor, extend the thumb, the
is illustrated in figure 20-3. If the ends ofa index finger, and the second finger of the left
conductor are connected to a low-reading volt- hand at right angles to each other, as shown in
meter or galvanometer and the conductor is figure 20-3. Point the index finger in the direc-
moved rapidly down through a magnetic field, tion of the flux (toward the south pole) and the
there is a momentary reading on the meter. thumb in the direction in which the conductor
When the conductor is moved up through the is moving in respect to the fields. The second
field, the meter deflects in the opposite direc- finger then points in the direction in which the
tion. If the conductor is held stationary and the induced emf will cause the electrons to flow.
magnet is moved so that the field cuts across
the conductor, the meter is deflected inthe same DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
manner as when the conductor was moved and
the field was stationary. An electric circuit is a complete path through
The voltage developed across the conductor which electrons can flow from the negative ter-
terminals by electromagnetic induction is known minal of the voltage source, through the con-
as an induced emf, and the resulting current that necting wires (conductors), through
the load, and
flows is called induced current. The induced back to the positive terminal of the voltage
495
source (fig. 20-4). The resistance2 of a circuit circuit, power is equal to the product of the
(opposition to current flow) controls the amount voltage and the current. Expressing the power
of current flow through the circuit. The unit of in watts (P), the current in amperes (I), and the
electrical resistance, the ohm (symbol (2), is emf in volts (E), the equation is
named after the German physicist Georg Simon
Ohm, who in the 19th century proved by experi- P=IE
ment the constant proportionality between cur-
rent and voltage in the simple electric circuit. The various implications of Ohm’s law may
be derived from the algebraic transposition of
the units I, E, R, and P. A summary of the 12
basic formulas which may be derived from
transposing these units is given in figure 20-5.
The unit in each quadrant of the smaller circle
is equivalent to the quantities in the same quad-
rant of the larger circle.
Series Circuits
4.125
Figure 20-4.—Simple electric circuit. The analysis of a series circuit to determine
values for voltage, current, resistance, and
OHM’S LAW power is relatively simple. It is necessary only
to draw or to visualize the circuit, to list the
Ohm’s law is fundamentally linear andthere- known values, and to determine the unknown
fore simple. It is exact and applies to d-c cir- values by means of Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
cuits and devices in its basic form; ina modified law of voltages.
form it may also be applied to a-c circuits. Kirchhoff’s law of voltages states that the
Ohm’s law may be stated in words as: the algebraic sum of all the voltages in any com-
intensity of the current (in amperes) in any plete electric circuit is equal to zero. In other
electric circuit is equal to the difference in words, the sum of all positive voltages must be
potential (in volts) across the circuit divided equal to the sum of all negative voltages. For
by the resistance (in ohms) of the circuit. Ex- any given voltage rise there must be an equal
pressed as an equation, Ohm’s law becomes voltage drop somewhere in the circuit. The volt-
age rise (potential source) is usually regarded
ak
Sa
ae
where
I = intensity of current (in amperes)

E = difference in potential (in volts)
R = resistance (in ohms)
TAT
If any two of these quantities are known, the
third may be found by applying the equation.
In addition to the volt, the ampere, and the
ohm, the unit of power frequently appears in
electric circuit calculations. In a d-c electric
2 all conductors have some resistance, and therefore

a circuit made up of nothing but conductors would have
some resistance, however small it might be. In cir-
cuits containing long conductors, through which an
appreciable amount of current is drawn, the resistance
of the conductors becomes important. For the pur-
poses of this chapter, however, the resistance of the Figure 20-5.—Summary of basic Ohm’s law
conducting wires is neglected. formulas,
496
as the power supply, such as a battery. The the terminal point coincides with the starting
voltage drop is usually regarded as the load, point.
such as a resistor. The voltage drop may be 3. Sources of emf are preceded by a plus
distributed across a number of resistive ele- sign if, in tracing through the source, the first
ments, such as a string of lamps or several terminal encountered is positive; if the first
resistors. However, according to Kirchhoff’s terminal is negative, the emf is preceded by a
law, the sum of their individual voltage drops minus Sign.
must always equal the voltage rise supplied by 4. Voltage drops along wires and across
the power source. resistors (loads) are preceded by a minus sign
The statement of Kirchhoff’s law can be if the trace is in the assumed direction of elec-
translated into an equation, from which many tron flow; if in the opposite direction, the sign
unknown circuit factors may be determined. is plus.
(See fig. 20-6.) Note that the source voltage E, 5. If the assumed direction of electron flow
is equal to the sum of the three load voltages is incorrect, the error is indicated by a minus
Ej, Eg, and Eg. In equation form, sign preceding the current, as obtained in solv-
ing for circuit current. The magnitude of the
|= 1a +E +E current is not affected.
s 1 2 3 The preceding rules may be applied to the
The following procedure may be used to solve example of figure 20-6 as follows:
problems applicable to figure 20-6:
1. The left terminal of the battery is nega-
tive, the right terminal is positive, andelectron
1. Note the polarity of the source emf (Eg)
flow is clockwise around the circuit.
and indicate the electron flow around the circuit.
2. The trace may arbitrarily be started at
Electron flow is out from the negative terminal
the positive terminal of the source and con-
of the source, through the load, and back to the
tinued clockwise through the source to itsnega-
positive terminal of the source. In the example
tive terminal. From this point the trace is con-
being considered, the arrows indicate electron
tinued around the circuit to a, b, c, d, and back
flow in a clockwise direction around the circuit.
to the positive terminal, thus completing the
2. To apply Kirchhoff’s law it is necessary
trace once around the entire closed circuit.
to establish a voltage equation. The equation is
3. The first term of the voltage equation is
developed by tracing around the circuit and not-
+E.
ing the voltage absorbed (that is, the voltage
4. The second, third, and fourth terms are,
drop) across each part of the circuit, and ex-
respectively, -E,, -E2, -E3. Their algebraic
pressing the sum of these voltages according to
sum is equated to zero, as follows:
the voltage law. It is important that the trace
be made around a closed circuit, and that it E,- FE, - E,- EF, =0
encircle the circuit only once. Thus, a point is
Transposing the voltage equation and solving
arbitrarily selected at which to start the trace.
for Eg,
The trace is then made and, upon completion,
E. = Ey + Ey + Ex
Since E = IR, from Ohm’s law, the voltage
drop across each resistor may be expressed in
terms of the current and resistance of the indi-
vidual resistor, as follows:
ee IR, + IR, 3 IR
where Rj, Ro, and Rg are the resistances of
resistors R1, R2, and R3, respectively. Eg is
the source voltage and I is the circuit current.
Es may be expressed in terms of the circuit
current and total resistance as IR;. Substituting
13.15 IR; for E,, the voltage equation becomes
Figure 20-6.—Series circuit for demonstrating
Kirchhoff’s law of voltages. TR, = IR; + Ry + Rez
497
Since there is only one path for current in

the series circuit, the total current is the same
in all parts of the circuit. Dividing both sides of
the voltage equation by the common factor I, an
expression is derived for the total resistance of
the circuit in terms of the resistances of the
individual devices:
R, = R, + R, + Rg
Therefore, in series circuits the total re-

sistance is the sum of the resistances of the
individual parts of the circuit.
In the example of figure 20-6, the total
resistance is 5+10+15= 30 ohms. The total
current may be found by applying the equation
Lair oo 1 ampere 13.16

Rt Figure 20-7.—Parallel electric circuit.
The power absorbed by resistor Rj is 12R1, resistance of the branch, the higher will be
or 12x5=5 watts. Similarly, the power absorbed the current through that branch. The individual
by Rg is 12 x10=10 watts, and the power ab- currents can be found by the application of Ohm’s
sorbed by Rg is 12 x 15 = 15 watts. The total law to the individual resistors. Thus,
power absorbed is the arithmetic sum of the E
power of each resistor, or5+10 +15 = 30 watts. Uy] = 30 6 amperes
The valueis also
30 x 1 = 30 watts.
calculated by Pt = Etk=
Ry
and
Parallel Circuits
E
= = aos 3 amperes
The parallel circuit differs from the simple 2 10
series circuit in that two or more resistors, or Ro
loads, are connected directly tothe same source and
of voltage. There is accordingly more than one
path that the electrons can take. The more paths
ee a 1 ampere
(or resistors) that are added inparallel, theless 3 Rg 30
opposition there is to the flow of electrons from
the source. This condition is opposite to the ef-
The total current, It, of the parallel circuit
fect that is produced in the series circuit where
is equal to the sum of the currents through the
added resistors increase the opposition to the
individual branches. This, in slightly different
electron flow.
words, is Kirchhoff’s law. In this case, the total
As may be seen from figure 20-7, the same
current is
voltage is applied across each of the parallel
resistors. In this case the voltage applied across Lalit lo Igis 6 Sa 1 = 10 amperes
the resistors is the same as the source voltage,
Eg.
h Current flows from the negative terminal of
the source to point a where it divides and passes In order to find the equivalent, or total,
through the three resistors to point band back to resistance (Ry) of the combination shown in
the positive terminal of the voltage source. The figure 20-7, Ohm’s law is used to find each of
amount of current flowing through each individual the currents (It, Ij, Ig, and 13) in the preceding
branch depends on the source voltage and onthe formula. The total current is equal to the sum
resistance of that branch—that is, the lower the of the branch currents. Thus,
498
Hera (pt #ES

Ri Ri Ry Rg
or
E Ss 1 1 1
—=+E a — gt
Rt ats R9 =
E, = 20v
Both sides of this equation may be divided by

Eg without changing the value of the equation; is
therefore, R1 IN SERIES WITH PARALLEL COMBINATION OF R2 AND R3
27.237
Figure 20-8.—Compound electric circuit.
The total resistance, Rt, of figure 20-8 is

By means of the preceding equation the total determined in two steps. First, the resistance
resistance of the circuit shown in figure 20-7 Ro3 of the parallel combination of R2 andR3 is
may be determined. Thus determined as
ogc pcg yes RJR

Ri 5 10°30 Ro 3 = 23H 3 iG) 18/25. cama
Ro Rg 3 +6
and
The sum of Ro 3 and Ry (that is, R,) is
1 _ 10
Rt 30 Rt = Ro 3 + Ri = 2+ 2=4 ohms
If the total resistance, Rt, and the source

voltage, Eg, are known, the total current, |,
may be determined by Ohm’s law. Thus, in
figure 20-8,
E.p = LR, = 5 x 2 = 10 volts
A useful rule to remember in computing the and
equivalent resistance of a d-c parallel circuit
is that the total resistance is always less than
E
pe = Re 3 = 5 x 2 = 10 volts
the smallest resistance in any of the branches.

According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the
In addition to adding the individual branch
sum of the voltage drops around the closed cir-
currents to obtain the total current in aparallel
cuit is equal to the source voltage. Thus,
circuit, the total current may be found directly
by dividing the applied voltage by the equivalent Fab * Epe = Es
resistance, R,. For example, in figure 20-7:
or
10 + 10 = 20 volts
2 = 10 amperes If the voltage drop Epe across Rg 3—that is,
the drop between points b and c—is known, the
current through the individual branches may be
determined as
Three or more resistors may be connected
in series and parallel combinations to forma
E
compound circuit. One basic series-parallel cir-
I, = ZES = = = 3.333 amperes
cuit composed of three resistors is shown in
R2 3
figure 20-8.
499
and balanced, there is no difference in potential

across terminals b and d
and the galvanometer
Epe
ce HAO, deflection, when the switch is closed, will be
Ig Rice Sire 1.666 amperes
zero. Should the bridge become unbalanced due
to a change in resistance of Rx, the difference
According to Kirchhoff’s current law, the of potential between terminals b andd will cause
sum of the currents flowing in the individual a deflection in the galvanometer.
parallel branches is equal to the total current. When this type of circuit is used as a com-
Thus, ponent of a resistance thermometer, R x is the
temperature-sensing element. The resistance of
Ip a0 Ig = It
R, varies directly with the temperature; thus a
change in temperature results in an unbalanced
or
bridge and a deflection of the galvanometer.
3. 333 + 1.666 = 5 amperes (approx. )
DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS
The total current flows through R1; at point
b it divides between the two branches in inverse
A d-c generator is a rotating machine that
proportion to the resistance of the branches.
converts mechanical energy into electrical en-
Twice as much goes through R2 as through R3
ergy. This conversion is accomplished by rotat-
because R2 has one-half the resistance of R3.
ing an armature, which carries conductors, in
Thus, 3.333 (or two-thirds of 5) amperes flow
a magnetic field, thus inducing an emf in the
through R2; and 1.666 (or one-third of 5) am-
conductors.
peres flow through R3.
A d-c generator (fig. 20-10) consists essen-
tially of a steel frame or yoke containing the
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE pole pieces and field windings; an armature con-
Sisting of a group of copper conductors mounted
A type of circuit that is widely usedfor pre- in a slotted cylindrical core; a commutator for
cision measurements of resistance is the Wheat- maintaining the current in one direction through
stone bridge. The circuit diagram of a Wheat- the external circuit; and brushes with brush
stone bridge is shown in figure 20-9. R1, R2, holders to carry the current from the commu-
and R3 are precision variable resistors, andRy tator to the external load circuit.
is the resistor whose unknown value is to be The frame, in addition to providing mechan-
determined. The galvanometer, G, is inserted ical support for the pole pieces, serves as a
across terminals b and d to indicate the condi- portion of the magnetic circuit in that it pro-
tion of balance. When the bridge is properly vides a path for the magnetic flux between the
poles.
CAP SCREW FIELD POLE

FOR MOUNTING AND
POLE PIECE FIELD CORE
BRUSHES
BELL
ARMAT URE COMMUTATOR
12.251
Figure 20-9,—Wheatstone bridge circuit 73.161
diagram. Figure 20-10.—A d-c generator.
500
GENERATING A VOLTAGE
The field windings of ad-c generator receive

current either from an external d-c source or
directly across the armature, thus becoming
electromagnets. They are connected sothat they
produce alternate north and south poles and, when
energized, they establish magnetic flux in the
field yoke, pole pieces, air gap, and armature
core, as shown in figure 20-11.
The armature is mounted on a shaft and is
rotated through the field by an outside energy
source (prime mover). Thus we have a magnetic
field, a conductor, and relative motion between
the two—which, it will be remembered, are the
three essentials for producing a voltage by mag-
netism. If the output of the armature is con- 41.10
nected across the field windings, the voltage Figure 20-12.—Single-coil generator
and the field current at start will be small with commutator.
because of the small residual flux in the field
poles. However, as the generator continues to segments of the split ring are insulated from
run, the small voltage across the armature will each other and the shaft, thus forming a simple
circulate a small current through the field coils commutator which mechanically reverses the
and the field will become stronger. In a self- armature coil connections tothe external circuit
excited generator, this action causes the gen- at the same instant that the direction of gener-
erator voltage to rise quickly tothe proper value ated voltage reverses in the armature coil.
and the machine is saidto ‘‘buildup’’ its voltage. The emf developed across the brushes is
The simplest generator armature winding isa pulsating and unidirectional. Figure 20-13 is a
loop or single coil. Rotating this loop in a mag- graph of the pulsating emf for one revolution of
netic field will induce an emf whose strength a single-loop armature in a 2-pole generator.
is dependent upon the strength of the magnetic A pulsating direct voltage of this characteristic
field and the speed of rotation of the conductor. (called ripple) is unsuitable for most applica-
A single-coil generator with each coil ter- tions. In practical generators, more coils and
minal connected to a bar of a two-segment more commutator bars are used to produce an
metal ring is shown in figure 20-12. The two output voltage waveform withless ripple. Figure
DEVE.
F:
E.M.
INDUCED
: 27,248.1 41.10
Figure 20-11.—Magnetic circuit of a 2-pole Figure 20-13.—Pulsating voltage from asingle-
generator. coil armature.
501
20-14 shows the reduction in ripple obtained by type of generator has good voltage regulation
the use of two c. ‘ls instead of one. Since there characteristics and at the same time ensures
are now four commutator segments and only good parallel operation.
two brushes, the voltage cannot fall any lower
than point A; therefore, the ripple is limited by VOLTAGE CONTROL
the rise and fall between points Aand B. By add-
Voltage control is either manual or auto-
ing still more armature coils, the ripple can be
matic. In most cases, the process involves
reduced still more. changing the resistance of the field circuit,
thus controlling the field current which permits
control of the terminal voltage. The major dif-
ference between the various voltage regulator
systems is merely the method by which the
field circuit resistance is controlled.
DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS
The construction of a d-c motor is essen-
tially the same as that of a d-c generator. The
d-c generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy, and the d-c motor converts
the electrical energy into mechanical energy.
A d-c generator may be made to function as a
motor by applying a suitable source of direct
voltage across the normal output electrical
EMF
INDUCED terminals.
There are various types of d-c motors,
depending upon the way in which the field coils
REVOLUTIONS
are connected. Each type has characteristics
that are advantageous under given load condi-
41.9 tions.
Figure 20-14.—Voltage from atwo-coil Shunt motors have the field coils connected
armature. in parallel with the armature circuit. This type
of motor, with constant potential applied, de-
TYPES OF D-C GENERATORS velops variable torque at an essentially constant
speed, even under changing load conditions. Such
D-c generators are usually classified ac- loads are found in drives for such machine shop
cording to the manner in which the field windings equipment as lathes, milling machines, drills,
are connected to the armature circuit (fig. 20- planers, and shapers.
115); Series motors have the field coils connected
A separately excited d-c generator is indi- in series with the armature circuit. This type of
cated in part A of figure 20-15. In this machine motor, with constant potential applied, develops
the field windings are energized from a d-c variable torque but its speed varies widely under
source other than its own armature. changing load conditions. The speed of a series
Self-excited d-c generators may be of three motor is low under heavy loads but becomes
types, as indicated in part B of figure 20-15. excessively high under light loads. Series motors
A shunt generator has its field windings con- are commonly used to drive electric cranes,
nected parallel with the armature, whereas the hoists, and winches.
field windings of a series generator are con- Compound motors are a compromise between
nected in series with the armature. The com- shunt and series motors, having one set of field
pound d-c generator employs both shunt and coils in parallel with the armature circuit and
series field windings. another set of field coils in series with the ar-
The d-c generator most widely used in the mature circuit. The compound motor develops
Navy is the stabilized shunt generator, which an increased starting torque over the shunt motor
employs a light series field winding on the and has less variation in speed than the series
same poles with the shunt field windings. This motor.
502
SERIES COMPOUND
(A) (B)
SEPARATE EXCITATION SELF EXCITATION
147,122
Figure 20-15.—Types of d-c generators.
The operation of a d-c motor depends on the The vertical projection (dotted line in fig.
principle that a current-carrying conductor 20-17) of a rotating vector may be used to
placed in, and at right angles to, a magnetic represent the voltage at any instant. Vector Ej,
field tends to move at right angles to the direc- represents the maximum voltage induced in a
tion of the field. A convenient method of deter- conductor rotating at uniform speed in a 2-pole
mining the direction of motion of a current- field (points 3 and 9). The vector is rotated
carrying conductor in a magnetic field is by counterclockwise through one complete revolu-
use of the right-hand motor rule for electron tion (360°). The point of the vector describes a
flow (fig. 20-16). Extend the thumb, index finger, circle. A line drawn from the point of the vector
and second finger of the right hand at right perpendicular to the horizontal diameter of the
angles to each other, with the index finger circle is the vertical projection of the vector.
pointed in the direction of the flux (toward the The circle also describes the path of the
south pole) and the second finger pointed in the conductor rotating in the bi-polar field. The
direction of electron flow. The thumb then points vertical projection of the vector represents the
in the direction of motion of the conductor with voltage generated in the conductor at any instant
respect to the field. corresponding to the position of the rotating
vector as indicated by angle @. Angle é repre-
ALTERNATING-CURRENT THEORY sents selected instants at which the generated
voltage is plotted. The sine curve plotted at the
Just as a current flowing in a conductor
produces a magnetic field around the conductor,
the reverse of this process is true. A voltage
can be generated ina circuit ‘by moving a con-
ductor so that it cuts across lines of magnetic
force or, conversely, by moving the lines of
force so that they cut across the conductor. An
a-c generator utilizes this principle of electro-
magnetic induction to convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
In the case of alternating current, electrons
move first in one direction andthen inthe other.
Thus the direction of the current reverses
periodically and the magnitude of the voltage is
constantly changing. This variation incurrent is 12.143
represented graphically in sine waveform in Figure 20-16.—Right-hand motor rule for
figure 20-17. electron flow.
503
+E +EM
86.6V, 100V3
esenth ——
|
Y
(Eel coed a
blot 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
-86.6Vg -100Vg
-EM
41.19
Figure 20-17.—Generation of sine-wave voltage.
right of the figure represents successive values A generator made to deliver 60 cps, and
of the a-c voltage induced in the conductor as having two field poles, would need an armature
it moves at uniform speed through the 2-pole designed to rotate at 3600 rpm.
field, because the instantaneous values of rota-
PROPERTIES OF A-C CIRCUITS
tionally induced voltage are proportional to the
sine of the angle @ that the rotating vector makes Resistance, the opposition to current flow,
with the horizontal. has the same effect in an a-c circuit as it does
The sine wave in figure 20-17 represents one in a d-c circuit. However, in the application of
complete revolution of the armature or one Ohm’s law to a-c circuits, other properties
voltage cycle. The frequency of a-c voltage is must be taken into consideration.
measured in cycles per second (cps) and may Inductance is that property which opposes
be determined by the following formula: any change in the current flow and capacitance
is that property which opposes any change in
fs Pxrpm
voltage. Since a-c current is constantly chang-
120
ing in magnitude and direction, the properties
of inductance and capacitance are always pres-
where
ent.
The amount of opposition to current flow in
f = frequency (in cps; according to the
an inductive circuit is referred to as its inductive
National Bureau of Standards Special
reactance, X;. The value of inductive reactance
Publication 304, frequency in cycles
(in ohms) depends onthe inductance of the circuit
per second in the International Systems
and the frequency of the applied voltage. Ex-
of Units is expressed as Hertz (Hz).
pressed in equation form,
One hertz equals one cycle per second. )
rpm = revolutions per minute
x = 27fL
P = number of poles in the generator
504
where
Xx; = inductive reactance, in ohms

Rae. x ;
I
a7 = 3.1416 Flayat 0
f = frequency, in cycles per second
L_ = inductance, in henrys E i
The current flowing in a capacitive circuit | x,
is directly proportional to the capacitance andto
the rate at which the applied voltage is changing. A B
The rate at which the voltage changes is deter-
mined by the frequency. The value of the capaci-
tive reactance, Xq, is inversely proportional to palais qh ele
the capacitance of the circuit and the frequency
of the applied voltage. Thus, | ee
1
ee oe XX, Np Nie sonar 2

X= Brit
where C D
Xo = capacitive reactance, in ohms
a7 = 3.1416 Figure 20-18.—Vector solution of an a-c
f = frequency, in cycles per second circuit.
C = capacitance, in farads
In accordance with Ohm’s law for a-c cir-
The effects of capacitance and inductance in cuits, the effective current through a circuit is
an a-c circuit are exactly opposite. Inductive directly proportional to the effective voltage and
reactance causes the current to lag the applied inversely proportional to the impedance. Thus,
voltage and capacitive reactance causes the cur-
rent to lead the applied voltage. These effects .
tend to neutralize each other, and the combined 7
reactance is the difference between the individual
reactances. where
The total opposition offered to the flow of
current in an a-c circuit is the impedance, Z. I = current, in amperes
The impedance of a circuit, expressed in ohms, E = emf, in volts
is composed of the capacitive reactance, the Z = impedance, in ohms
inductive reactance, and the resistance.
The effects of capacitive reactance, inductive A-C GENERATORS
reactance, and resistance in an a-c circuit can
be shown graphically by the use of vectors. For Most of the electric power for use aboard
example, consider the series circuit shown in ship and ashore is generated by alternating-
part A of figure 20-18. current generators.
The vector representation of the reactances A-c generators are made in many different
is shown in part B of figure 20-18. Because the sizes, depending upon their intended use. For
inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance example, any one of the generators at Boulder
are exactly opposite, they are subtracted di- Dam can produce millions of volt-amperes, while
rectly and the difference shown in part C of generators used on aircraft produce only a
figure 20-18 as capacitive reactance. The re- few thousand volt-amperes.
sultant is found vectorially by constructing a Regardless of size, however, all generators
parallelogram, as shown in part D of figure operate on the same basic principle: a magnetic
20-18. The resultant vector is also the hypote- field cutting through conductors, or conductors
nuse of a right triangle; therefore, passing through a magnetic field. Thus all
generators will have at least two distinct sets
z= VR2 + (X¢ - Xy)” of conductors. They are (1) a group of conductors
505
in which the output voltage is generated, and

(2) a group of conductors through which direct
current is passed to obtain an electromagnetic
field of fixed direction. The conductors in which
the output voltage is generated are always re-
ferred to as the armature windings. The con-
ductors in which the electromagnetic field
originates are always referred to as the field
windings.
In addition to the armature and field, there
must also be relative motion between the two.
To provide this relative motion, a-c generators
are built in two major assemblies—the stator
and the rotor. The rotor rotates inside the
stator. The rotor may be driven by any one of
a number of commonly used prime movers,
including steam turbines, gas turbines, and in-
ternal combustion engines. 0-C
FIELD INPUT ARMATURE WINDINGS
TYPES OF A-C GENERATORS 147.124

Figure 20-19.—Essential parts of a rotating-
In the revolving-armature a-c generator, field a-c generator.
the stator provides a stationary electromagnetic
field. The rotor, acting as the armature, re- to the external loads, as through terminals Tl
volves in the field, cutting the lines of force, and T2 in figure 20-19. This is advantageous
producing the desired output voltage. In this because there are no Sliding contacts and the
generator, the armature output is taken through whole output circuit is continuously insulated,
sliprings and thus retains its alternating char- thus minimizing the danger of arc-over.
acteristics. Sliprings and brushes are still used on the
For a number of reasons, the revolving- rotor to supply direct current to the field; they
armature a-c generator is seldom used. Its are adequate for this purpose because the power
primary limitation is the fact that its output level in the field is much lower than in the ar-
power is conducted through sliding contacts mature circuit.
(sliprings and brushes). These contacts are
subject to frictional wear and sparking. In THREE-PHASE GENERATORS
addition, they are exposed, and thus liable to
arc-over at high voltages. Consequently, re- The three-phase a-c generator has three
volving-armature generators are limited to single-phase windings spaced so that the voltage
applications of low power and low voltage. induced in each winding is 120° out of phase
The revolving-field a-c generator (fig. 20- with the voltages in the other two windings. A
19) is by far the most commonly used type. In Schematic diagram of a three-phase stator
this type of generator, direct current from a Showing all the coils becomes complex and is
separate source is passed through windings on difficult to understand. A simplified schematic
the rotor by means of sliprings and brushes. diagram, showing all the windings of a single
This maintains a rotating electromagnetic field phase as one winding, is given in figure 20-20.
of fixed polarity (similar to a rotating bar mag- The rotor is omitted for the sake of simplicity.
net). The rotating magnetic field, following the The waveforms of voltage are shown to the
rotor, extends outward and cuts through the right of the schematic. The three voltages are
armature windings embedded in the surrounding 120° apart and are similar to the voltages that
stator. As the rotor turns, alternating voltages would be generated by three single-phase a-c
are induced in the windings, since magnetic generators whose voltages are out of phase by
fields of first one polarity and then the other angles of 120°. The three phases are independ-
cut through them. Since the output power is ent of each other.
taken from stationary windings, the output may Rather than have six leads come out of the
be connected through fixed terminals directly three-phase alternator, one of the leads from
Chapter 20 . -SHIPBOARD ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
amount of variation depends on the design of

the generator and on the amount of reactance
ie wA 7B 2G from the inductive or capacitive loads, Under
A B practical shipboard operating conditions, the
ie)
load varies widely with the starting and stopping
of motors.
i}
The only practicable way to regulate the
Cc voltage output of an a-c generator is to control
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC AND WAVE FORMS the strength of the rotating magnetic field. The
strength of the electromagnetic field may be
varied by changing the amount of current flow-
ing through the coil, which is done by connecting
a rheostat in series with the coil. Thus, voltage
regulation in an a-c generator is accomplished
by varying the field current. This allows arela-
tively large a-c voltage to be controlled by a
much smaller d-c voltage and current.
WYE CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION Since manual adjustment of a-c voltage is
not practicable when the load fluctuates rapidly,
27,244
automatic voltage regulators are used. The con-
Figure 20-20.—Three-phase a-c generator.
struction and operating principles of voltage
regulators varies; however, the essential func-
each phase may be connected to form acommon
tion of any voltage regulator is to use the a-c
junction. The stator is then called a wye-
output voltage, which the regulator is designed
connected or star-connected stator. The com-
to control, as a sensing influence to control the
mon lead may or may not be brought out of the
amount of current the exciter supplies to its
machine. If it is brought out, it is called the
own control field.
neutral. The simplified schematic diagram (fig.
20-20) shows a wye-connected stator with the
common lead not brought out. Each load is con- TRANSFORMERS
nected across two phases in series. Thus, Rj,
is connected across phases A and B in series, A transformer (fig. 20-21) is an a-c device
Rac is connected across phases A and C in that has no moving parts and that transfers
series, and Rpe is connected across phases B energy from one circuit to another by electro-
and C in series. Thus the voltage across each magnetic induction. The energy is always trans-
load is larger than the voltage across a single ferred without a change in frequency but usually
phase. The total voltage, or line voltage, across with changes in voltage and current. A step-up
any two phases is the vector sum of the indi- transformer receives electrical energy at one
vidual phase voltages. For balanced conditions, voltage and delivers it at a higher voltage. A
the line voltage is 1.73 times the phase voltage. stepdown transformer’ receives electrical
Since there is only one path for current ina energy at one voltage and delivers it at a lower
line wire and the phase to which itis connected, voltage. Transformers are not used on direct
the line current is equal to the phase current. current.
A three-phase stator can also be connected The conventional constant-potential trans-
so that the phases are connected end to end, as former is designed to operate with the primary
shown in figure 20-20. This arrangement is connected across a constant-potential source
called a delta connection. In the delta connec- and to provide a secondary voltage that is sub-
tion, the line voltages are equal to the phase stantially constant from no load to full load.
voltages. The line currents are equal to the Various types of small single-phase trans-
vector sum of the phase currents. The line cur- formers are used on shipboard equipment. In
rent is equal to 1.73 times the phase current, many installations, transformers are used on
when the loads are balanced. switchboards to step down the voltage for indi-
cating lights. Low-voltage transformers are
VOLTAGE REGULATION
included in some motor control panels to supply
When the load onana-c generator is changed, control circuits or to operate overload relays.
the terminal voltage varies with the load. The Other common uses include low-voltage supply
507
COIL AND CORE ASSEMBLY

ENCLOSURE
147.125
Figure 20-21.—Single-phase transformer.
for gunfiring circuits, special signal lights, and rather than as the high-voltage and the low-
high-voltage ignition circuits. voltage windings.
The typical transformer has two windings The operation of the transformer is based
which are electrically insulated from each other. on the principle that electrical energy can be
These windings are wound on a common mag- transferred efficiently by mutual induction from
netic circuit made of laminated sheet steel. one winding to another. When the primary wind-
The principal parts are the core, which provides ing is energized from an a-c source, an alter-
a circuit of low reluctance for the magnetic nating magnetic flux is established in the trans-
flux; the primary winding, which receives the former core. This flux links the turns of both
energy from the a-c source; and the secondary primary and secondary, thereby inducing volt-
winding, which receives the energy by mutual ages in them. Because the same flux cuts both
induction from the primary and delivers it to windings, the same voltage is induced in each
the load. turn of both windings. Hence the total induced
When a transformer is used to step up the voltage in each winding is proportional to the
voltage, the low-voltage winding is the primary. number of turns in that winding. That is,
When a transformer is used to step down the
voltage, the high-voltage winding is the primary.
E, Ny
The primary is always connected to the source EQ N2
of the power; the secondary is always connected
to the load. It is common practicetorefer to the where E, and Eg are the induced voltages in the
windings as the primary and the secondary, primary and secondary windings, respectively,
508
and N, and No are the number of turns in the

primary and secondary windings, respectively.
In ordinary transformers, the induced primary
voltage is almost equal to the applied primary
voltage; hence, the applied primary voltage and
the secondary induced voltage are approximately
proportional to the respective number of turns in
the two windings.
A-C MOTORS
A-c motors are manufactured in many dif-

ferent sizes, shapes, and ratings for use ina
wide variety of applications. Since this discus-
sion cannot possibly cover all aspects of all
kinds of a-c motors, it will be limited to the
polyphase induction motor. Information on other Ulsvt
types of motors may be found in Basic Elec- Figure 20-22.—Cage-type induction motor rotor.
tricity, NavPers 10086-A, and in various manu-
facturers’ technical manuals. revolving field produced by the stator cuts
The induction motor is a widely used type of across the rotor conductors, thus inducing a
a-c motor because it is simple, rugged, and voltage in the conductors which causes rotor
inexpensive. It consists essentially of a stator current to flow. Hence, motor torque is de-
and a rotor; it can be designed to suit most veloped by the interaction of the rotor current
applications requiring constant speed and vari- and the magnetic revolving field.
able torque.
The stator of a polyphase induction motor POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
consists of a laminated steel ring with slots on The power distribution system is the con-
the inside circumference. The stator winding necting link between the generators that supply
is similar to the a-c generator stator winding electric power and the electrical equipment that
and is generally of the two-layer distributed utilizes this power to furnish the various sery-
preformed type. Stator phase windings are sym- ices necessary to operate the ship. The power
metrically placed on the stator and may be either
distribution system includes the ship’s service
wye connected or delta connected. power distribution system, the emergency power
Most induction motors used by the Navy have
distribution system, and the casualty power dis-
a cage-type rotor (fig. 20-22) consisting of a tribution system.
laminated cylindrical core with parallel slots in
Most a-c power distribution systems on naval
the outside circumference to hold the windings
ships are 450-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle,
in place. The rotor winding is constructed of
three-wire systems. The lighting distribution
individual short circuited bars connected to end
systems are 115-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle,
rings. three-wire systems supplied from the power
In induction motors, the rotor currents are
circuits through transformer banks. On some
supplied by electromagnetic induction. The ships, the weapons systems, some I.C. circuits,
stator windings contain two or more out-of-
and aircraft starting circuits receive electrical
time-phase currents which produce correspond-
power from a 400-cps system.
ing magnemotive forces which establish a ro-
tating magnetic field across the air gap. This
SHIP’S SERVICE POWER
magnetic field rotates continuously at constant
speed, regardless of the load on the motor. The The ship’s service power distribution system
stator winding corresponds tothe primary wind- is the electrical system that normally supplies
ing of a transformer. electric power to the ship’s equipment and ma-
The induction motor derives its name from chinery. The switchboards and associated gen-
the fact that mutual induction (transformer erators are located in separate engineering
action) takes place between the stator and the spaces to minimize the possibility that a single
rotor under operating conditions. The magnetic hit will damage more than one switchboard.
509
The ship’s service generators and distribu- generator and distribution switchboards and
tion switchboards are interconnected by bus ties energize the switchboard buses that supply the
so that any switchboard can be connected to feed lighting circuits.
power from its generator to one or more of the
other switchboards. The bus ties also connect EMERGENCY POWER
two or more switchboards so that the generator
plants can be operated in parallel (or the switch- The emergency power distribution system is
boards can be isolated for split-plant operation). provided to supply an immediate and automatic
In large installations, power distribution to source of electric power to a limited number of
loads is from the generator and distribution selected vital loads in the event of failure of the
switchboards or switchgear groups to load cen- Ship’s service power distribution system. The
ters, to distribution panels, and to the loads, emergency power system, which is separate and
or directly from the load centers to some loads. distinct from the ship’s service power distribu-
On some ships, such as large aircraft car- tion system, includes one or more emergency
riers, a system of zone control of the ship’s distribution switchboards. Each emergency
service and emergency power distribution is switchboard, supplied by its associated emer-
provided. Essentially, the system establishes a gency generator, has feeders which run tothe bus
number of vertical zones, each of which con- transfer equipment at the distribution panels or
tains one or more load center switchboards loads for which emergency power is provided.
supplied through bus feeders from the ship’s The emergency generators and switchboards
service switchgear group. A load center switch- are located in separate spaces from those con-
board supplies power to the electrical loads taining the ship’s service generators and dis-
within the electrical zone in which it is located. tribution switchboards. As previously noted, the
Thus, zone control is provided for all power normal and alternate ship’s service feeders
within the electrical zone. The emergency are located below the waterline on opposite
Switchboards may supply more than one zone, sides of the ship. The emergency feeders are
depending on the number of emergency genera- located near the centerline and higher in the
tors installed. Figure 20-23 shows the ship’s ship (above the waterline). This arrangement
service and emergency power distribution sys- provides for horizontal separation between the
tem in a large aircraft carrier. normal and alternate ship’s service feeders
In smaller installations (fig. 20-24) the dis- and vertical separation between these feeders
tribution panels are fed directly from the and the emergency feeders, thereby minimizing
generator and distribution switchboards. The the possibility of damaging all three types of
distribution panels and load centers (if any) are feeders Simultaneously.
located centrally with respect to the loads they The emergency switchboard is connected by
feed to simplify installation. This arrangement feeders to at least one and usually to two dif-
also requires less weight, space, and equipment ferent ship’s service switchboards. One of these
than if each load were connected to a switch- Switchboards is the preferred source of ship’s
board. service power for the emergency switchboard
At least two independent sources of power and the other is the alternate source. The
are provided for selected vital loads through emergency switchboard and distribution system
automatic bus transfer equipment. The normal are normally energized from the preferred
and alternate feeders to acommonloadrun from source of ship’s service power. If both the pre-
different ship’s service switchboards and are ferred and the alternate sources of ship’s serv-
located below the waterline on opposite sides of ice power fail, the diesel-driven emergency
the ship to minimize the possibility that both generator starts automatically and the emer-
will be damaged by a single hit. gency Switchboard is automatically transferred
The lighting circuits are supplied from the to the emergency generator.
secondaries of 450/115-volt transformer banks When the voltage is restored on either the
connected to the ship’s service power system. preferred or the alternate source of the ship’s
In large ships, the transformer banks are in- service power, the emergency switchboard is
stalled in the vicinity of the lighting distribution automatically retransferred to the source that
panels, at some distance from the generator is available (or to the preferred source, if volt-
and distribution switchboards. In small ships, age is restored on both the preferred and the
the transformer banks are located near the alternate sources). The emergency generator
510
1000 KW, 450 VOLT,

60, 3 EMERGENCY
DIESEL GENERATOR
ral
1500 KW, 450 VOLT,
' ! ' ' ©) 60,3 SHIPS SERVICE
TURBO GENERATOR
NO.3
SECT
EMER
DIST
oe
t
NO.
SECT
L.C.
EMER
&LTG
PWR
EMER GEN & BUS

TRANSF SECT NO.3
EMERGENCY GENERATOR ROOM NO.3
SHORE TERMINAL BOXES PORT
a
|WAG §(CHK
alse!Y
y
I i i NENA I |
45) ES =! al
US TIE & DIST GEN BUSTIE& BUS TIE & DIST GEN BUS” TIES
SECT NO. 7 DIST SECT NO. 7 SECT NO. 6 DIST SECT NO. 6
SWITCHBOARD ROOM NO. 7 SWITCHBOARD ROOM NO. 6
MACH ROOM NO. 3 MACH ROOM NO. 2 AUX MACH ROOM NO. 2
SWITCHBOARD ROOM NO.8
GEN BUS TIE & BUS TIE & DIST SWITCHBOARD ROOM NO. 5
DIST SECT NO.8 _ SECT NO. 8
GEN BUS TIE& BUS TIE& DIST
|
DIST SECT NO. 5 SECT NO. 5
|
iy
ast] |
SHORE TERMINAL BOXES STBD
77,164
Figure 20-23.—Ship’s service and emergency power distribution system in a large carrier.
511
EMERGENCY GENERATOR ROOM NO. 1
EMER GEN & BUS

TRANSF SECT NO.1
EMER
DIST2SECT
NO.
| SECT
L.C.
NO.2 |
|
F| Fs [LU [=
"| EMER
&LTG
PWR al
=
ieee
WF a
2 el>>
EMER GEN & BUS |
TRANSF SECT NO.2
| EMER
DIST
SECT
NO.
1
| SySee NO.1
SECT
L.C.
h OX ia
b [aor
jal
EMERGENCY GENERATOR ROOM NO. 2
r
|
| | |
|( | ee aes
| sel
|
gene
GEN BUS TIE& BUS TIE
&DIST ela
DIST SECT NO.3 SECT NO.3 i
SWITCHBOARD ROOM NO. 3

SECT NO.2 DIST SECT NO. 2
MACH ROOM NO. 4 MACH ROOM NO. 1 AUX MACH ROOM NO. 1
WITCHBOARD ROOM
SWITCHBO ROOM NO.NO.4 GEN BUSTIE& BUS TIE & DIST
DIST
f= ae SECT NO.1| SECT NO. 1
siise
GEN BUS TIE & BUS TIE & DIST
DIST SECT NO. 4 SECT NO.4
SHORE TERMINAL BOXES STBD
65.54.2
Figure 20-23.—Ship’s service and emergency power distribution system
in a large carrier.—Continued.
512
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Chapter 20. -SHIPBOARD
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must be manually shut down. Hence, the emer- of watertight integrity. The risers are per-
gency switchboard and distribution system are manently installed vertical cables for trans-
always energized either by a ship’s service mitting power through the decks without impair-
generator or by the emergency generator. ing the watertight integrity of the ship. A riser
Therefore, the emergency distribution system consists of a cable that extends from one deck
can always supply power to a vital load if both to another with a riser terminal connected to
the normal and the alternate sources of the each end for attaching portable cables.
ship’s service power to this load fail. The
emergency generator is not started ifthe emer- CONTROL AND SAFETY DEVICES
gency switchboard can receive power from a
ship’s service generator. The distribution of electric power requires
A feedback tie from the emergency switch- the use of many devices to control the current
board to the ship’s service switchboard (fig. and to protect the circuits and equipment.
20-24) is provided on most ships. The feedback Control devices are those electrical acces-
tie permits a selected portion of the ship’s sories which govern, in some predetermined
service switchboard load to be supplied from way, the power delivered to any electrical load.
the emergency generator. This feature facili- In its simplest form, the control applies voltage
tates starting up the machinery after major to (or removes it from) a single load. In more
alterations and repairs and provides power to complex control systems, the initial switch may
operate necessary auxiliaries and lighting dur- set into action other control devices that govern
ing repair periods when shore power and ship’s the motor speeds, the compartment tempera-
service power are not available. tures, the depth of liquid in a tank, the aiming
and firing of guns, or the direction of guided
missiles.
CASUALTY POWER Switchboards make use of hand-operated
(manual) switches as well as electrically oper-
The casualty power distribution system is ated controls. Manually operated switches are
provided for making temporary connections to those familiar electrical items which can be
supply electric power to certain vital auxiliaries operated by motions of the hand, as with a
if the permanently installed ship’s service and pushing, pulling, or twisting motion, The type
emergency distribution systems are damaged. of action required to operate the manually
The casualty power system is not intended to operated switch is indicated by the names of
supply power to all the electrical equipment in the controls—push-button switch, pull-chain
the ship but is confined to the facilities neces- switch, or rotary switch.
sary to keep the ship afloat and to get it away Automatic switches are devices which per-
from a danger area. The system also suppliesa form their function of control through the
limited amount of armament, such as antiair- repeated closing and opening of their contacts,
craft guns and their directors, that may be without requiring a human operator. Limit
necessary to protect the ship when ina damaged switches and float switches are representative
condition. The casualty power system for rig- automatic switches.
ging temporary circuits is separate and distinct The Navy uses many different types of
from the electrical damage control equipment, switches and controllers, which range from the
which consists of tools and appliances for cut- very simple to the very complex. A typical a-c
ting cables and making splices for temporary across-the-line magnetic controller is shown
repairs to the permanently installed ship’s serv- in figure 20-25.
ice and emergency distribution systems. The simplest protective device is a fuse,
The casualty power system includes portable consisting of a metal alloy strip or wire and
cables, bulkhead terminals, risers, switchboard terminals for electrically connecting the fuse
terminals, and portable switches. Portable into the circuit. The most important charac-
cables in suitable lengths are stowed in con- teristic of a fuse is its current-versus-time
venient locations throughout the ship. The bulk- or ‘‘blowing’’ ability. Three time ranges for
head terminals are installed in watertight existence of overloads can be broadly defined
bulkheads so that the horizontal runs of cables as fast (5 microseconds through 1/2 second),
can be connected on the opposite sides totrans- medium (1/2 second to 5 seconds), and delayed
mit power through the bulkheads without the loss (5 to 25 seconds).
514
%
s
-
>
.
>
>
_
ideylio
Figure 20-25.—A-c magnetic controller.
515
Normally, when a circuit is overloaded or

when a fault develops, the fuse element melts
FLEXIBLE CONNECTION ARC QUENCHERS
and opens the circuit that it is protecting. How-
ever, all fuse openings are not the result of
current overload or circuit faults. Abnormal
production of heat, aging of the fuse element,
poor contact due to loose connections, oxides or
other corrosion products forming within the fuse
holder, and unusually high ambient temperatures
will alter the heating conditions andthe time re-
quired for the element to melt.
A more complex type of protective device
is the circuit breaker. In addition to acting as
protective devices, circuit breakers perform the
function of normal switching and are used to
isolate a defective circuit while repairs are
being made.
Circuit breakers are available in many
types; Some may be operated both manually
and electrically, while others are restricted to
one mode of operation. Figure 20-26 shows a
circuit breaker which may be operated either
manually or electrically. When operated elec-
trically, the operation is usually in conjunction
with a pilot device such as a relay or switch. OVERCURRENT TRIP
Electrically operated circuit breakers employ
an electromagnet, used as a solenoid, to trip a 27.73
release mechanism that causes the breaker Figure 20-26.—Circuit breaker.
contacts to open. The energy to openthe breaker
is derived from a coiled spring, and the electro- Synchro systems are used throughout the
magnet is controlled by the contacts in a pilot Navy to provide a means of transmitting the
device. position of a remotely located device to one
Circuit breakers designed for high currents or more indicators located away from the trans-
have a double-contact arrangement, consisting mitting area.
of the main bridging contacts and the arcing Part A of figure 20-27 shows a simple
contacts. When the circuit opens, the main con- synchro system. When the handwheel is turned,
tacts open first, allowing the current to flow an electrical signal is generated by the synchro
through the are contacts and thus preventing transmitter and is transmitted through inter-
burning of the main contacts. When the are connecting leads to the synchro receivers. The
contacts are open, they pass under the front synchro receivers will always turn the same
of the arc runner, causing a magnetic fieldto be amount and direction and at the same speed as
set up which blows the are up into the are the synchro transmitter.
quencher and quickly opens the circuit. Part B of figure 20-27 shows the same type
of system using mechanical linkage. As may be
readily seen, mechanical systems are imprac-
SYNCHROS AND SERVOMECHANISMS ticable because of the need for associated belts,
pulleys, gears, and rotating shafts.
Synchros, as identified by the Armed Forces, Synchro systems are widely used for input
are a-c electromagnetic devices which are used control of electromechanical devices (servo-
primarily for the transfer of angular-position mechanisms) that position an object in ac-
data. Synchros are, in effect, single-phase cordance with a variable signal. The essential
transformers in which the _ primary-to- components of a servomechanism system are
secondary coupling may be varied by physically the input controller and the output controller.
changing the relative orientation of these two The input controller provides the means,
windings. either mechanical or electrical, whereby the
516
SYNCHRO
TRANSMITTER
INTERCONNECTING
LEADS
SYNCHRO an
HANDWHEEL RECEIVERS
RECEIVERS
INDICATOR
DIALS
“a
HANDWHEEL
RECEIVERS
INDICATOR
DIALS
72.38
Figure 20-27.—Simple synchro system.
human operator may actuate or operate a re- the direction required to produce the desired
motely located load. function,
The output controller of a servomechanism Figure 20-28 shows a simplified block dia-
system is the component (or components) in gram of a Sservomechanism. When the shaft of
which power amplification and conversion oc- the input controller is rotated in either direc-
cur. This power is usually amplified by vacuum- tion, a voltage is induced in the rotor of the
tube or magnetic amplifiers and then converted control transformer. This voltage is fed to the
by the servomotor into mechanical motion of amplifier, where it is sent throughthe necessary
517
SS ee a SIE EF i CN
stages of amplification, and drives the servo- measuring coils, located at or near the bottom
motor. of the channel, and recording equipment respond
to the Signals induced in the coils as the ship
DEGAUSSING INSTALLATIONS passes over them. These measurements indicate
the distortion of the earth’s magnetic field
A ship is a magnet because of the presence caused by the ship and are used to determine
of magnetic material in its hull and machinery. the values of current needed in the ship’s de-
A ship is therefore surrounded by a magnetic gaussing coils to neutralize this distortion.
field which is strong near the shipand weak at a
considerable distance from the ship. As a ship GYROCOMPASSES
passes over a point on the surface of the earth,
the magnetic field of the ship is superimposed The gyrocompass system provides a means
upon the magnetic field of the earth, thus tending of indicating the ship’s course at various sta-
to distort the earth’s field around the ship. If tions throughout the ship. There are various
the ship is close to a magnetic mine or torpedo, types of gyrocompasses in use; however, all
the distortion caused by the ship’s field will depend upon gyroscopic principles and the rota-
activate the firing mechanism to detonate the tion of the earth for their operation.
mine or torpedo. The gyroscope is a heavy wheel, or rotor,
Degaussing equipment is installed aboard suspended so that it has the freedom to spin,
ship to neutralize the disturbance of the earth’s the freedom to turn, and the freedom to tilt.
magnetic field caused by the ship, and thus to These three degrees of freedom permit the
reduce the possibility of detonating a magnetic rotor to assume any position within the sup-
mine or torpedo. A shipboard degaussing instal- porting frame.
lation consists of one or more coils of electric When a gyroscope rotor is spinning rapidly,
cable in specific locations inside the ship’s hull, the gyroscope develops two properties it does
a d-c power source to energize these coils, and not have when the rotor is at rest. These two
a means of controlling the magnitude and polar- properties, which make it possible to develop
ity of the current through the coils. Compass- the gyroscope into a gyrocompass, are (1)
compensating equipment, consisting of compen- rigidity of plane, and (2) precession.
sating coils and control boxes, is also installed Rigidity of plane results from the fact that
as a part of the degaussing system, to com- the rotating wheel of a gyroscope has high angu-
pensate for the deviation effect of the degaussing lar momentum and kinetic energy. When the
coils on the ship’s magnetic compasses. rotor is set spinning with its axle pointedin one
Naval ships are tested periodically at mag- direction, it will continue to spin with its axle
netic range stations to determine the configu- pointing in the same direction, no matter how
ration of the ship’s magnetic field. Sensitive the frame of the gyroscope is tilted or turned.
Any force that attempts to change the angle
of the plane of rotation of a gyroscope with
OUTPUT CONTROLLER respect to its earlier position produces a move-
ment known as precession. Precession takes
ELECRIC place whenever any torque tends to tilt the axle
SERVO MOTOR of a spinning gyroscope rotor.
A gyrocompass is simply a gyroscope with
a means of exerting a force at right angles to
the end of the axle whenever the axle tilts with
respect to the surface of the earth. Because of
the rotation of the earth, the axle tilts whenever
it is not on the meridian. The axle is precessed
automatically into a north-south direction.
INPUT CONTROLLER SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
72.46 Because of the possibility of injury to per-

Figure 20-28.—Simplified block diagram of a sonnel, the danger of fire, and the possibility of
servomechanism. damage to material, all repair and maintenance
518
work on electrical equipment should be per- The covers of fuse boxes and junction boxes
formed only by duly authorized and assigned should be kept securely closed except when work
persons. is being done. Safety devices suchas interlocks,
overload relays, and fuses should never be
When any electrical equipment is to be altered or disconnected except for replace-
overhauled or repaired, the main supply switches ments. Safety or protective devices must never
or cutout switches in each circuit from which be changed or modified in any way without spe-
power could possibly be fed should be secured cific authorization.
in the open position and tagged. The tag should Fuses should be removed and replaced only
read: ‘‘This circuit was ordered open for re- after the circuit has been deenergized. When a
pairs and shall not be closed except by direct fuse blows, it should be replaced only with a
order of .”’ The name given is usu- fuse of the correct current and voltage ratings.
ally the name of the person directly in charge When possible, circuit should be carefully
of the repairs. After the work has been com- checked before the replacement is made, since
pleted, the tag or tags should be removed by the burned-out fuse is often the result of a
the same person. circuit fault.
519
CHAPTER 21
OTHER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
In addition to the shipboard auxiliary machin- through the motor. The pump is of the variable
ery described in previous chapters of this text, displacement reversible type! ; it is sometimes
there are a number of other units of machinery called the A-end of the transmission. A complex
that are essential to the operation of a ship and machinery system may include one or more
which are directly or indirectly of concern to pumps and one or more motors. The hydraulic
engineering department personnel. Such aux- motor of an electrohydraulic transmission is
iliary machinery includes steering gears and Similar in design to the pump, except that the
their remote control equipment, elevators, motor is usually of fixed displacement. Occa-
winches, capstans, windlasses, and catapults. sionally, to provide very wide speed variation,
Some of this machinery may be located within the motor may also be of the variable displace-
the engineering spaces of the ship; but many of ment type. A hydraulic motor for use in an
the units are located outside the engineering electrohydraulic transmission is shown infigure
spaces and are sometimes referred to as out- 21-1.
side machinery. The components, control equipment, and
piping system for an electrohydraulic trans-
ELECTROHYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION mission used to drive a winch are illustrated
in figure 21-2. The transmission illustrated is
Some shipboard auxiliary machinery must typical of those designed to deliver rotary
operate at variable speeds over a considerable motion to various types of shipboard auxiliary
range. In addition, there must be close control machinery.
of speed between minimum and maximum limits. The pump is driven at constant speed by an
Many auxiliary machines operate with a high electric motor. The hydraulic motor is driven
starting torque and must be capable of ac- by the fluid under pressure, and the auxiliary
celerating to maximum speed very quickly. To machine is driven by the mechanical output of
meet these requirements, the electrohydraulic the motor. By controlling the variable output of
transmission is used on naval ships. Since the the pump, the direction and speed of rotation of
electrohydraulic transmission is utilized in the motor can be controlled; therefore, the
more than one type of auxiliary machine, it is direction and speed of motion utilized in the
discussed first. operation of the auxiliary machine can be con-
Electrohydraulic transmissions are used for trolled.
driving or controlling machinery such as steer- The flow of fluid under pressure from the
ing gears, gun turrets, anchor windlasses, boat pump to the motor exerts force on the faces of
and airplane handling equipment, capstans, the pistons open to the valve port receiving the
hoists, and certain shipboard valves. Some fluid under pressure. This force on the piston
electrohydraulic transmissions are designed to results in a thrust component along the axis of
deliver rotary motion; others are designed to rotation of the socket ring and a turning com-
deliver reciprocating motion. ponent at right angles to the thrust component.
An electrohydraulic transmission designed
to deliver rotary motion to anauxiliary machine
consists basically of an electric motor, a hy-
draulic pump, a hydraulic motor, and piping to 1 Operating principles of variable displacement pumps
allow the flow of fluid from and to the pump are discussed in chapter 15 of this text.
Chapter 21. -OTHER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
SOCKET RING _-FIXED TILT

VALVE PLATE
OUTPUT
SHAFT
CYLINDER BARREL
PISTON ra
(ONE OF 9)
Ot ROM A-END
TO A-END
110.23
Figure 21-1.—Hydraulic motor for electrohydraulic transmission.
(See fig. 21-3.) the turning component rotates ELECTROMECHANICAL STEERING GEAR
the socket ring. The rotation of the socket ring
causes the cylinder barrel and output shaft of
Electric motors were first introduced as
the motor to rotate, and thereby provides the
prime movers of steering gears on combatant
rotary motion utilized to drive a machine.
ships to serve in case of failure of the steam
When reciprocating motion is required, as
steering engines, at one time the only prime
in the case of a steering gear (fig. 21-4), the
mover used. Electric motors were used later
motor of an electrohydraulic transmission is
as the primary source of power, with steam as
replaced by a piston or plunger. The com-
a reserve. Steam is no longer used as a prime
plete hydraulic assembly of which the plunger
mover for steering gears. The use of electro-
is a part is commonly called a ram. The
mechanical steering gear is now limitedtosmall
force of the hydraulic fluid from the pump
noncombatant vessels.
causes the movement of the piston or plunger.
The tilting box in the pump can be controlled The principles of operation are about the
either locally (as on the anchor windlass) or by same for all designs of electromechanical steer-
remote control (as on the steering gear). ing gear. Any differences that exist are chiefly
in the manner in which the driving motor is
connected to the tiller and the method by which
STEERING GEARS
the motor is controlled. The motor may drive
the tiller by means of gears and a quadrant, a
The steering gears installed on naval ships right- and left-hand screw assembly (fig. 21-5),
are of two types: electromechanical and electro- or by means of wire rope from a drum. In the
hydraulic. Most modern naval ships have steer- gear and quadrant type, the steering engine is
ing gears of the electrohydraulic type; however, located in the steering gear room; in the wire
electromechanical steering gears are also de- rope and drum type, it may be installed ina
scribed briefly. nearby machinery space.
PUSH BUTTON MASTER

(RESET &
EMERGENCY RUN
START
STeP) CONTROL —_EMERGENCY BRAKE
STAND CONTROL STAND
paviNG ouT |>%TOHOIST. “BA TO APPLY BRAKE BRAKE BRAKE
DEVICE ME TOLOWER 4 TO RELEASE BRAKE APPLIED RELEASED
INDIGATING
LIGHT Oo) 1
9 U
EXPANSION TANK
| EMERGENCY
DRUM BRAKE
DOUBLE}: IE Oo
LINE |/& P| Ph
SINGLEF'SWY “TPELEcTRIC
LINE Se BRAKER
? SWITCH
FOOT sens
FOR 1
OPERATING eee DOOR TYPE
ELECTRIC Le CUT-OUT
BRAKE f | SWITCH
SWITCH 1 x bl)
Tay Cy 2
Oo" :
>= ;
ZEA
RELIEF
VALVE
LD) ; S24
147,128
Figure 21-2.—Electrohydraulic transmission.
The steering motor control may be either of moved an amount proportional to the rotation of
the follow-up or the nonfollow-up type. In the of the steering wheel.
nonfollow-up type, the motor is controlled by a Most wire rope and drum type steering
master controller at the steering station. When gears utilize a follow-up control arrangement.
the master controller is brought to neutral, The follow-up motion is transmitted from the
dynamic braking action takes place toslow down steering gear to the steering stand by means
the motor; the motor is finally brought to rest of shafting, bevel gears, and flexible couplings.
and held by a magnetic brake. In most electromechanical installations, the
shafting connecting the steering engine to the
In the follow-up type of control, the follow-
wheel is utilized not only to provide follow-up
up feature is incorporated in a contact ring
control to the steering stand but also to provide
assembly in the steering stand. The rings make
a means for steering by hand from the pilot
contact with rollers which control the circuits to
house if power is lost.
contractors onthe control panel. Movement of the
steering wheel rotates the contact rollers inthe
proper direction to start the motor. Motion of the ELECTROHYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR
steering motor is transmitted through shaftingto
the contact ring assembly, which follows up the Steering gear installations on most modern
motion of the rollers. By this action the rudder is naval ships are of the electrohydraulic type.
522
Chapter 21. OTHER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
OUTPUT Typical cruiser steering gear installations

oo y include two rams Set fore and aft, one on either
side of the rudder stock. The rams operate the
~~ ~ SOCKET RING rudder through a double yoke tiller fitted with
Sliding blocks.
The gear illustrated in figure 21-6 istypical
of those installed on destroyers. The installation
includes a single ram set athwartship. The ram
operates the rudder through a Single yoke tiller
fitted with a Sliding block.
Some cruiser steering gear installations have
TURNING two rams set fore and aft but located forward
COMPONENT
THRUST "4 x from the rudder stock (fig. 21-4). The rams are
COMPONENT SS
connected to the tiller by connecting links and
CYLINDER BARREL iar pins. Some ships are equipped withtwin rudders
and an independent steering gear for each
83.82 rudder. Carriers and auxiliary ships may have
Figure 21-3.—Thrust and turning components any one of the above-mentioned steering gear
in hydraulic motor operation. arrangements.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION.—Regardless
of the type of equipment (double ram or single
ram, axial pump or radial pump) included in
electrohydraulic steering installations, the prin-
ciples of operation are basically the same. The
The development of this type of steering gear
discharge volume and direction of flow from the
was prompted primarily by the large momentary
variable displacement pumps are controlled by
electric power requirements for electromechan-
the operation of the tilting block in the pump.
ical steering gears—particularly for ships of
This control is accomplished mechanically by
large displacement and high speed, with at-
means of trick wheels in the steering gear
tendant increased rudder torques.
room, and by remote control from one or more
Electrohydraulic steering gears in uSe in- steering stations.
clude various types of equipment. Some ship- Any movement, right or left, of the control
board installations have double hydraulic rams from any of the various steering stations places
and cylinders; others have single-ram arrange- the hydraulic pump on stroke and causes the
ments. (See figs. 21-4 and 21-6.) pump to supply liquid under pressure to the
hydraulic rams, resulting in a corresponding
STEERING GEAR ARRANGEMENTS.—Only right or left movement of the rudder. This
the pump of the previously described electro- rudder movement actuates the follow-up gear
hydraulic transmission is used in electrohydrau- which in turn immediately acts to return the
lic steering gears. Axial-piston variable dis- pump control to neutral but does not accomplish
placement pumps are used in most installations; this until the assigned rudder position has been
radial-piston pumps are used in some. attained. The rudder is held in the assigned
position by a hydraulic lock until another move-
The pumps are connected by piping to the
ment is originated at the steering station.
ram cylinders of the steering gear. Two pipes
from each pump are united at a main transfer EMERGENCY STEERING SYSTEMS.—AII1
valve. The transfer valve is a multiported naval combatant and auxiliary ships equipped
valve which permits the ram cylinders to be with electrohydraulic steering gears are also
connected to either pump while the pipes from equipped with an auxiliary steering gear. This
the other pump are connected for bypassing. emergency steering system generally consists
Various methods are used for connecting the of a relief and shuttle valve, hand-operated
hydraulic rams to the tiller. The arrangements hydraulic pump, and the piping, valves, and
depend on the design and on the space available fittings necessary to complete the system. The
for the installation. Two common arrangements emergency equipment is installed in or near the
are shown in figures 21-4 and 21-6. steering gear compartment.
523
“CYLINDER
SIX WAY PUMP

TRANSFER COCK
STB -RAM
—
RACK AND
PINION
RUNNING
MOTOR
EA
Wig CONTROL SHAFT
ELECTRIC LEADS
FROM STEERING STAND
\
ON inna bea) SUPPLY
= RETURN
SELF SYNCHRONOUS
RECEIVER PLANETARY
DIFFERENTIAL GEAR
47,139X
Figure 21-4.—Arrangement of a double-ram electrohydraulic steering gear.
To prevent the pressure developed by the pilot motor and its controller or by a syn-
hand pump from causing motoring or leakage chronous transmission; (2) hydraulically by
through the main hydraulic units, the piping means of a telemotor system; or (3) mechan-
from the emergency pump to the main hy- ically by means of wire rope. (See subsequent
draulic system is so arranged that the high- section on remote control systems.)
pressure stop valves may be closed. The Only a few pilot motor control systems are
emergency pump is usually connected to the in use; the majority of naval ships utilize either
main hydraulic system in a manner whereby synchronous transmission or hydraulic tele-
all ram cylinders will be in use. Since it is motor systems.
necessary to block off the emergency system In control arrangements for electrohydraulic
under normal steering gear operation, the emer- steering gears, the trick wheel and the receiver
gency lines are usually connected to the drain of the control system, either synchronous re-
valves to eliminate the necessity of additional ceiver, hydraulic telemotor receiver, or pilot
high pressure valves. motor, are geared to and actuate the pump con-
Some ships are equipped with a dual emer- trol cam through one end of a differential to put
gency, submersible steering system. The pur- the pump on stroke. The follow-up acts through
pose of this system is to provide emergency the opposite end of the differential to reverse the
steering by means of either electric motor or movement of the cam and to take the pump off
hand power in event of failure of the main stroke. The differential control unit and cam are
system. This emergency gear, with driving so arranged that the control unit may lead the
motor integrally mounted, is located in the rudder by the full amount of rudder travel.
steering gear compartment of the ship. Hand
Operation is accomplished by use of a re- REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS
motely located crank stand connected to the FOR STEERING GEAR
unit by shafting.
REMOTE CONTROLS — Electrohydraulic Control of the steering gear from the steer-
steering gears may be controlled from remote ing wheel on the bridge may be accomplished
steering stations (1) electrically by either a by any of the following remote control systems.
524
BRAKE OPERATING ROD DRIVING NUT

PEDESTAL SECURED
T0
\hera —— —SE |
“Wl
=,ntutetntyted
SLEEVE
TRANSMISSION SHAFT
YOKE RUDDER STOCK FROM STEERING ENGINE
47,140X
Figure 21-5.—Right-and-left screw steering gear.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS.—Steering gear gearing to the wheels. A transmitter at one of

control systems of the electrical type are divided the remote stations is electrically connected to
into two general types—the direct current pilot a receiver in the steering room. Where more
motor type and the alternating current syn- than one remote steering station is provided,
chronous transmission type. The direct current as on cruisers and carriers, a switch is pro-
pilot motor type is no longer used on new vided for selecting the desired control station.
construction. Indicating lights are provided on the steering
The direct current pilot motor type of stands and at the selector switch to indicate the
remote control consists of a small reversible selected circuit and the power available.
direct current motor which is connected through The receiver is connectedtothe control shaft
the differential gear to the control shaft of a of the variable displacement hydraulic pump
variable displacement hydraulic pump. The con- through a differential. On large hydraulic units
trol of the pilot motor is effected by means of a where the torque required to stroke the pump is
magnetic contactor control panel located adja- greater than the torque that can be exerted by
cent to the motor andthrough master controllers the receiver, the stroke is controlled through an
located at remote control stations. The motor auxiliary hydraulic servosystem. In installations
is equipped with a magnetic brake which promptly involving the use of a servosystem, the syn-
stops and holds the motor when the master chronous receiver actuates a pilot valve which
controller is returned to the neutral position. controls the flow of oil, under pressure, to
The alternating current synchronous trans- and from a power cylinder. The direction and
mission type of remote control consists of amount of motion of the power piston controls
interchangeable receiving andtransmitting units the stroke of the main pump which actuates the
which are, in reality, small wound rotor in- rudder.
duction motors with interconnected three-phase Electrical control circuits from the trans-
rotor windings; their stator windings are con- mitter selector switch (from the pilot house
nected to the same alternating current supply. selector switch in the case of destroyers and
When the transmitter rotor is turned, the re- auxiliary vessels) to the steering gear com-
ceiver rotor turns at the same speed and in partment are installed in duplicate.,Drum-type
the same direction. selector switches, one in the steering room and
The transmitters are located in steering one located at the terminus of the duplicate run
stands at remote control stations such as the of control circuits, are provided for selecting
pilot house, conning tower, central station, the port or starboard cable. When independent
etc., and are mechanically connected through synchronous receivers are provided for each
525
STEERING WHEEL
AUTOMATIC BYPASS ON AFTER DECK HOUSE —= STEERING
ON BRIDGEWHEEL
~~”
VALVE
ELECTRIC CONTROL]
oe SYSTEM
TRANSMITTER UNIT TRANSMITTER UNIT
PORT
PORT
CYLINDER PORT OR STBD. CABLE
TRANSFER SWITCH
CRANK FOR HAND OPERATION
OF PORT PUMP
RUNNING PUMP x
Ef
STARBOARD
Anil CABLE
CROSSHEAD BD. TRANSFER SWITCH TRANSMITS
Dee CURRENT THROUGH EITHER
CABLE OR EITHER TRANSMITTER
aot Benovue TO RECEIVER AS SELECTED
aan TRICK WHEEL FOR
) HAND CONTROL
UNIVERSAL JOINT
STBD. WORM
CYLINDER IDLE PUMP IDLE ELECTRIC Smeal woM
MOTOR oH
STARBOARD pt
{1 suppty Mf
RETURN SPIRAL GEARS
H-H
AUTOMATIC BYPASS VALVE
27,83X
Figure 21-6.—Single-ram electrohydraulic steering gear.
steering gear, an additional switch is provided a pair of cylinders or a fixed-delivery piston-

in the steering room for selecting the proper type pump connected so that movement of the
receiver. steering wheel causes fluid to flow through the
system, resulting in a corresponding movement
HYDRAULIC TELEMOTOR SYSTEM.—Atele- of the plungers in the receiver unit. The
motor is a hydraulic device by means of which receiver unit is connected by suitable means to
the motion of the steering gear is controlled the pump control or valve operating mechanism
from the pilot house. In general, telemotor of the steering engine. The principal components
systems are employed for remote steering of a hydraulic telemotor control system are
control where it is impractical to provide an shown schematically in figure 21-7.
electrical synchronous transmission system
and where the length of runs of shafting or WIRE ROPE SYSTEM.—This type of remote
wire rope and the paths for such shafting or control is found in some small ships. The
ropes would make the use of these types of steering engine control mechanism is connected
mechanical controls impracticable. to the wheel by wire ropes. The system has the
The hydraulic telemotor system consists of disadvantages of requiring long leads involving
one or more transmitters located at remote large friction loads; of the ropes being vulnerable
steering stations connected by piping to a to gunfire above decks; of impairing watertight
receiver or receivers located in the steering integrity by passage of the cables through
engineroom. Each transmitter unit is either a bulkheads and decks; and of requiring a
526
PILOT HOUSE INDICATOR LIGHTS a TO PILOT HOUSE TOP

STEERING WHEEL U STEERING STATION
DISENGAGE CLUTCH WHEN HELM ANGLE INDICATOR

STEERING FROM PILOT
HOUSE TOP
DIMMER KNOB AND SWITCH]
ELECTRIC HELM ANGLE RECEIVER
ENGAGE CLUTCH WHEN STEERING

FROM PILOT HOUSE TOP
STEERING CONSOLE ELECTRIC CABLE TO HELM

ANGLE TRANSMITTER
(IN PILOT HOUSE)
FILLING CAP
REPLENISHING TANK
LIQUID LEVEL GAGE

(TRUE LOCATION ON OPPOSITE SIDE)
AIR COCK
BYPASS VALVE LEVER
Cs RELIEF VALVE
AUTO STEERING \
INTERLOCK SWITCH
BYPASS VALVE CHECK VALVE
HYDRAULIC PUMP(CUTAWAY TO SHOW

PISTONS, AND TILTED PLATE)
CROSSHEAD FOR PLUNGER

CONNECTION TO
STEERING GEAR
HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
ADJUSTABLE STOP
ELECTRIC
HELM ANGLE
TRANSMITTER
HELM ANGLE TRANSMITTER
RACK AND PINION
RECEIVER
ADJUSTABLE STOP
(IN STEERING GEAR COMPARTMENT)
FILLING OR CHARGING
» CONNECTION
47,142X
Figure 21-7.—Hydraulic telemotor control system.
527
comparatively great amount of time for main- the hoisting wire ropes are wound on drums
tenance. driven through reduction gears by the hydraulic
motor. Raising, lowering, or speed changes are
ELECTROHYDRAULIC ELEVATORS accomplished by varying the stroke of the
variable delivery pump through differential
Many naval ships are equipped with electro- gearing. Hydraulic accumulators are not used
hydraulic elevators which are used to handle with hydraulic bomb elevators,
airplanes, bombs, freight, mines, torpedoes,
ammunition, and other material. Electrohydrau- WINCHES
lic elevators may be divided into two general
types: the direct plunger lift and the plunger- A winch is a deck machine used for hoisting
actuated wire rope lift. or hauling loads. The main components of a
winch are a wire rope drum (or drums), a re-
DIRECT PLUNGER LIFT ELEVATORS.— duction gear train, and a power unit. Some
The platform of the direct plunger lift type winches are provided with one or two gypsy
elevator is raised and lowered by direct con- heads for handling manila or other fiber lines.
nection under the platform, with one or more Most ships constructed before World War II
vertical hydraulic rams. Oil from a high pres- were provided with steam-powered winches, a
sure tank is directed into the ram during the few of which remain in naval service. During
hoisting operation. Lowering is accomplished World War II, Auxiliary ships were provided
by the oil being discharged from the rams into with winches powered by either alternating or
a low pressure tank. Pressure is maintained direct-current electric motors. On modern
in the high pressure tank by means of two ships, a-c electric drive winches are used.
electrical variable displacement pumps, which Figure 21-8 shows an a-c electric motor drive
take suction from the low pressure tank. One winch.
of the pumps is capable of maintaining elevator Where. stepless speed control between zero
operation at reduced speed. Two electric sump and design maximum is required, a variable
pumps keep the volume of oil in the pressure speed hydraulic transmission is included be-
system within specified limits. tween the electric motor and the gear train on
Special control valves (operated by pilot the same bed frame. The variable speed hy-
valves or a motor) in the pressure and exhaust draulic transmission consists of a variable
lines regulate elevator speeds by varying the volume pump connected by high pressure tubing
amount of oil admitted to or discharged from to a hydraulic motor, which is usually of the
the rams. Positive stops and mechanical locks, fixed-displacement type. The fluid output from
interlocked with the elevator control system, the pump passes through the motor and returns
enable the platform to be stopped, locked, and to the pump in a closed circuit, andthe speed of
held in position at deck level. An equalizer the motor varies as the volume of fluidfrom the
system maintains the platform at uniform level pump varies. The speed and direction of rotation
under conditions of unequal loading. Automatic of the motors are obtained through a manually
quick-closing valves in the oil line prevent an operated lever control at the pump or at a remote
unrestricted fall of the elevator. station. Figure 21-9 shows a typical electro-
hydraulic winch.
PLUNGER-ACTUATED WIRE ROPE LIFT One type of steam-driven winch is illustrated
ELEVATORS.—The primary difference between in figure 21-10. The winch illustrated is equipped
the direct plunger lift elevator and the plunger- with two gypsy heads (1), one mounted at each
actuated wire rope lift elevator is that the end of the main drive shaft, and a single hoist-
latter type is raised by wire rope fastened to ing drum (10). The drum is provided with a
the platform at two or four symmetrically standard type of brake band (3) with a foot-oper-
located points. Most hydraulic airplane elevators ated control and ratchet lock. The winch is
are of the plunger-actuated wire rope lift type. driven by a two-cylinder, single-expansion,
The wire ropes in an airplane elevator, through double-acting reciprocating engine. The drive
a series of sheaves, are actuated by a horizontal is by means of a train of spur gears. A gear
hydraulic ram located beneath the hangar deck. shift is provided to give two drive speeds.
Hydraulic bomb elevators differ from The clutch mechanism consists of a sleeve
plunger-actuated wire rope lift elevators in that (11) which is keyed to the crankshaft (12) and
528
SPEED
CONTROL
BOX ELECTRIC
AC MOTOR BRAKE
GYPSY HEAD DRUM
80.149
Figure 21-8.—A-C electric motor drive winch.
provided with a shifter yoke which is operated engine speed, but with a decrease in the avail-
by a lever (7) located near the reverse valve able line pull.
(9). When this lever is moved to the left, the The speed and direction of rotation of the
position shown in part A of figure 21-10, the engine is controlled by a hand lever (14). With
pinion which is integral with it is engaged with the winch in compound gear, the drum turns to
the gear (2) on the intermediate shaft. This is lift a load when the hand lever is raised. With
the ‘‘compound gear’’ position and gives a slower the lever in this position, a spool type valve
drum speed with an increase in available line passes steam from the reverse valve (9) through
pull. When the shifter lever (7) is moved to the the two top horizontal pipe lines (5) to the
right, the driving sleeve is shifted to the right. cylinders where it drives the engine. The two
This disengages the pinion from the inter- lower pipes (4) are exhaust lines. When the lever
mediate shaft gear (2) and engages the square jaw is lowered below the horizontal position, the
clutch (13) and pinion which is always in mesh direction of steam flow is reversed and the
with the main drive gear. This gives a direct engine turns in the opposite direction, thus
drive from the crankshaft to the main shaft, and lowering the load. On some winches, the hand
is called the ‘‘single gear’’ position. The ‘‘single lever is provided with an automatic latch for
gear’’ gives a higher-drum speed for a given holding it in the horizontal, or neutral position.
529
ROPE DRUM
L.H. WORM DRIVE
BAND BRAKE
HAND LEVER
BAND BRAKE
HAND LEVER CONTROL MECHANISM
DOUBLE CLUTCH HYDRAULIC MOTOR

GYPSY HEAD SHIFTING HANOLE
HYDRAULIC
PUMP
AC ELECTRIC
MOTOR
47.145
Figure 21-9.—Typical electrohydraulic winch.
For all other positions, the lever must be held ANCHOR WINDLASSES
in position for the desired speed.
A windlass is a piece of deck machinery
used primarily for paying out and heaving in
CAPSTANS
an anchor chain. A wildcat (drum) may be
mounted vertically or horizontally at the end
A capstan is a spool-shaped, vertical re- of the windlass shaft for handling the anchor
volving drum used for heaving in on heavy chain. The wildcat is usually fitted with whelps
mooring lines. When a capstan is used to haul to engage the anchor chain. On the windlass
a load, as in mooring, several turns of mooring there may also be a capstan head or warping
line are placed around the capstan head. A head (concave drum) for handling lines. A
manpower strain is then taken on the free end vertical-shaft anchor windlass with capstan
of the line. Maintaining the strain causes the line head is shown in figure 21-11.
to bind on the capstan head, which in turn hauls
the load. All anchor windlasses were formerly
A capstan head may be a component part of powered by steam, and some windlasses on
an anchor windlass. Since the shaft for a capstan auxiliaries still use steam as the source of
head is vertical, a capstan is always free of the power. Small combatant ships have electrically
fair lead problem which is often present in powered windlasses; larger combatant ships
connection with gypsy heads which are mounted have vertical-shaft windlasses with electrohy-
on horizontal shafts. A line leads fair to a draulic transmission. Hand-operated windlasses
capstan from any horizontal direction. Capstans are in use, but they are found only on small
that are not components of anchor windlasses ships where the weight of the anchor gear is
are uSually electrically powered. small enough to be handled in a reasonable
530
Ef ED
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—\
=
.——\
—
ih\
r\
a=
Hl At
—\—
\
—\
=
=
47,144
Figure 21-10.—Steam-operated winch. (A) Plan view. (B) Side view. (C) Reversing throttle valve.
531
FRICTION ane
HANDWH
aircraft and the attendant higher launching
(WEATHER DECK) speeds continually necessitated the develop-
ANCHOR
ment of larger and heavier catapults. By 1950,
CHAIN the size and weight of the pneumatic-hydraulic
type catapult had increased to a point where
any further increase would be impracticable.
British investigation of steam as the source
of power for catapults attracted the attention
of U. S. Navy officials; the Navy’s powerful
steam catapult of. today is the result of basic
British research.“ The present discussion deals
WILDCAT LOCKING only with the steam catapult.
HANDWHEEL
FRICTION BRAKE The major components of a steam catapult
HANDWHEEL LOCKING PIN
(WINDLASS 800M) are shown schematically in figure 21-12.
ELECTRIC During the operational cycle of the steam
DRIVE catapult, the plane is first spotted astride the
MOTOR
CONTROLLED TORQUE --—--——7aREE, catapult slot slightly aft of the shuttle. The
UPLIN ;
airplane is coupled with the shuttle by means
LUBRICATION
of the bridle which slips over the shuttle hook
OIL RESERVOIR and over the hooks mounted on the underside
FLEXIBLE [BX of the airplane frame. The airplane is anchored
COUPLING 4 to the deck by means of the holdback device
which is released at the moment of launch.
The grab, attached to the shuttle, pushes for-
ward after the bridle is attached so that the
shuttle puts tension on the bridle.
When the airplane is ready to be launched,
REDUCTION MOTOR BRAKE with its engines running at full power, the
GEAR CASING
launching valves are opened and steam is ad-
mitted to the after side of each piston. The
3.224X resulting accelerating force combined with the
Figure 21-11.—Vertical-shaft anchor windlass. engine thrust causes a calibrated ‘‘breaking’’
link in the holdback to part and the grab re-
time and without excessive effort on the part leases the shuttle. The shuttle and airplane are
of operating personnel, free to be moved forward by the accelerating
force.
CARRIER CATAPULTS At the end of the launching run, the plane
is airborne and the bridle is automatically
The efficiency of an aircraft carrier depends released from the hook. The brake stops the
upon the speed of its airplane launching opera- piston-shuttle assembly. The grab, driven
tions. Therefore, a compact and efficient device by the retracting engine, now moves along the
for getting all airplanes into the air withina short track, hooks the shuttle, and returns it to the
time is needed, This requirement is met by the launching or battery position.
modern carrier catapult. The catapult permits
controlled application of a predetermined amount The principal component of the steam catapult
of power at any desired instant. Through the is a cylinder-piston assembly—two power cyl-
controlled power of the catapult, the plane on the inders and two pistons per catapult. The
catapult is safely accelerated from a standstill Spear-tipped pistons, which in the launching
to flying speed within the limited space available
on the flight deck of a carrier.
The type of catapults used during World War
II and through the Korean incident were of the
pneumatic-hydraulic type. Catapults of this type For greater detail on the history and operation of
adequately met launching requirements, but the the steam catapult, see The Steam Catapult, NavAer
gradual increase in the weight of newly designed 00-80T-69.
532
TOWING BRIDLE
POWER
STEAM
RECEIVERS
PISTONS SHUTTLE CYLINDERS BRAKE
ee CONNECTOR
47,146
Figure 21-12.—Major components of a steam catapult.
Operation are forced at high speed through which moves, during the launch, on tracks in-
the cylinders by steam pressure, are solidly stalled just under the flight deck. (See fig. 21-13.)
interconnected by means of a connector shaped Power to drive the shuttle and its airplane
like an inverted T. The vertical leg of the load comes from expanding steam piped to the
inverted T extends upward through a slot in catapult from the main boilers of the ship. This
the flight deck, and serves as the hook to steam is placed under pressure in large tanks—
which the aircraft towing bridle is connected. called accumulators or receivers—located un-
The piston connector is attached to the shuttle. der the launching engine on the hangar deck.
The shuttle is a small roller-mounted car From the receivers, the steam is transferred
PISTON
147,131
Figure 21-13.—Shuttle-connector-piston assembly for steam catapult.
533
at the moment of launch into the power cylin- essentially a spring-loaded latch mounted on a
ders. Steam pressure acts directly on the wheeled frame just aft of the shuttle. The grab
pistons and propels the piston-shuttle assembly is driven along the shuttle track througha system
through the cylinders. A sealing strip closes the of cables by hydraulic force. The hydraulic re-
slot in each cylinder as the pistons are driven traction engine consists of two cylinders. Inone
forward, thus preventing the escape of steam cylinder, hydraulic pressure is converted into
from the cylinder slots through which the con- the mechanical motion of a piston rod which is
nector moves. installed in this cylinder. The other cylinder is
an accumulator in which hydraulic liquid is
Prior to a launch, the engines of an airplane
stored under pressure. The motion of the piston
must be operating at full power. A holdback
rod is transmitted to a device called a crosshead
device is utilized to prevent the airplane from
to which the drive cables of the grab are at-
being moved forward by the thrust of its own
tached. (See fig. 21-15.)
engines, until the time of launch. The holdback Prior to a launch, the grab is moved forward
device hooks into a fitting in the flight deck. by a hydraulic cylinder-piston assembly. This
The piston-connector-shuttle assembly is assembly is located aft of the grab. (See fig.
stopped at the end ofits launching run by a water 21-16.) When liquid is introduced into the cyl-
brake. The brake consists of two cylinders of inder, the piston pushes the grab forward. The
water located co-axially with the power cylinders grab, in turn, exerts force on the shuttle so that
at the forward end of the catapult. The spear tips it moves forward enough to place tension on the
of the pistons ram into the water-filled cylinders. towing bridle which connects the shuttle to the
As the spear tips penetrate the water, pressure airplane, When the launch is made, the grabre-
builds up and stops the assembly. (See fig. 21-14.) leases the shuttle and it is driven through the
The principal unit in the shuttle retraction power cylinders of the catapult by steam pres-
and tensioning systems is the grab. This unit is sure. After the launch is made, the grab is
147,132
Figure 21-14.—Water brake of a steam catapult.
534
Chapter 21.-OTHER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
147,133
Figure 21-15.—Cables and crosshead of retraction System for steam catapult.
HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER-PISTON
ASSEMBLY
147.134
Figure 21-16.—Hydraulic assembly for moving the grab in the
tensioning process.
535
Steering Gear
aye oy Maintenance Requirement
AU ZZZESRO|75/4065 W| 1. Inspect all pins, couplings, and

shafts.
2. Inspect agreement of helm angle
indicator with mechanical rudder
indicators.
3. Inspect ram packing glands for
correct tightness.
4, Inspect system for excessive oil
leaks.
ZZZESRO|65 |A627| W] 1. Lubricate ram room machinery.

2. Lubricate pump room machinery.
3. Inspect oil levels.
ZZZESRO | 25 |2383| MJ] 1. Inspect rudder stock packing.

2. Clean packing gland.
ZZZESRO|65 |A628/ M} 1. Lubricate pump room machinery.
ZZZESRO|72|6669] Q] 1. Sound and tighten foundation bolts.
ZZZESRO|45 |9347| Q} 1. Drain hydraulic oil filter on fill

and drain pump.
ZZZESRO| 45/8150} Q] 1. Provide hydraulic oil sample for

chemical analysis.
ZZZESRF |65 |A629 Q| 1. Inspect oil level and lubricate

emergency steering gear.
2. Test operate unit.
ZZ1ECW4| 84/4915 S| .l. Lubricate flexible couplings.
ZZZESRO}65}A630 S} 1. Lubricate follow-up gears.
ZZZESRO|65|A631] S} 1. Filter oil in hydraulic system.
ZZZESRO|25|7756 Aj] 1. Renew oil in speed reducers.
ZZZESRF| 85|6368 A} 1. Inspect motor brake and lubricate

linkage.
ZZZESRO| 65/4919 A} 1. Conduct operational test of

steering gear.
(Page 1 of 2)
MAINTENANCE INDEX PAGE BUREAU PAGE CONTROL NUMBER - -
OPNAV FORM 4700-3 (4 64) BON58-e2
98.171
Figure 21-17.—Planned Maintenance Index Page, steering gear.
536
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SYSTEM COMPONENT M. R. NUMBER
Anchor Windlass
SUB-SYSTEM RELATED MR.
Winches, Capstans,
None
Cranes and Anchor
Handling
M R. DESCRIPTION
TOTAL MH
1. Inspect oil levels. 0.3
2. Test operate windlass. ELAPSED TIME:
0.3
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Observe standard safety precautions.

2. De-energize circuit and tag "Out Of Service."
3. Ensure wildcat is disengaged before starting windlass.
TOOLS, PARTS, MATERIALS, TEST EQUIPMENT
1. Oil, Symbol 2190 TEP 6. Funnel

2. Oil, Symbol 2135 H 7. 8" Adjustable wrench
3. Oil, Symbol 2110 H 8. Safety tag
4. Flashlight
5. Rags
PROCEOURE
Pre timinar
a. De-energize circuit and tag "Out Of Service."
1 Inspect Oil Levels.
a. Inspect oil level in main gearcase, power unit
gear reducer, and hydraulic system storage tank.
Proper oil level is at top mark on gauge rod.
Replenish gearcase and reducer with oil, Symbol
2190 TEP; replenish hydraulic system with oil,
Symbol 2135 H.
b. Inspect oil level in power brake storage tank.
Proper level is at center line on gauge. Replenish
with oil, Symbol 2110 H.
WARNING: Ensure wildcat is disengaged before starting
windlass.
2. Test Operate Windlass.
a. Remove safety tag and energize circuit.
b. Operate unit; inspect for proper operation.
SN
LOCATION DATE
1 July 1965
Figure 21-18. —Maintenance Requirement Cards—continued. 98.176
538
Chapter 21.—OTHER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
driven along the track by the retraction engine, inspections should be accomplished in accord-
hooks onto the shuttle, and returns it to the ance with the 3-M System (PMS Subsystem).
launching position. Figure 21-17 (Maintenance Index Page) shows
the minimum maintenance requirements for a
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT OPERATION, steering gear. Examples of maintenance re-
MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY quirements for two types of auxiliary equipment
are shown in figure 21-18. Note that the Main-
The operation and safety pertaining to aux- tenance Requirement Cards list safety precau-
iliary equipment should be in accordance with tions to be observed, the tools, parts, materials,
NavShips Technical Manual and/or the instruc- and test equipment required, and give the proce-
tions posted on or near each individual piece of dures to follow when performing the specified
equipment. All maintenance actions, tests, and maintenance.
539
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PART V—OTHER TYPES OF PROPULSION
PLANTS
Chapter 22 Diesel and Gasoline Engines
Chapter 23 Gas Turbines
Chapter 24 Nuclear Power Plants
Chapter 25 New Developments in Naval Engineering
The conventional steam turbine propulsion plant, although widely used,

is by no means the only propulsion plant in naval use. Chapter 22 deals
with internal combustion engines of the reciprocating type—diesel and
gasoline. Chapter 23 discusses the increasingly important gas turbine
engine. Chapter 24 takes up the nuclear power plant—a plant which utilizes
the steam turbineasa prime mover but which employs the nuclear reactor
rather than the conventional boiler as a source of heat for the generation
of steam. Chapter 25providesa brief survey of new developments in naval
engineering and indicates some of the areasin which future developments
may change the nature of our present shipboard engineering plants.
541
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—————— '
x
x ~~
ita he
tag
CHAPTER 22
DIESEL AND GASOLINE ENGINES
Much of the machinery and equipment dis- RECIPROCATING ENGINES

cussed in the preceding chapters utilizes steam
as the working fluid in the process of converting Most of the internal combustion engines
thermal energy to mechanical energy. This chap- in marine installations of the Navy are of the
ter deals with internal combustion engines, in reciprocating type. This classification is based
which air (or a mixture of air and fuel) serves on the fact that the cylinders in which the
as the working fluid. The internal combustion energy conversion takes place are fitted with
engines considered are those to which the pistons, which employ a reciprocating motion.
thermodynamic cycles of the open and heated- Internal combustion engines ofthe reciprocating
engine types” apply. In engines which operate type are commonly identified as diesel and gaso-
on these cycles, the working fluid is taken into line engines. The general trend in navy service
the engine, heat is added to the fluid, the is to install diesel engines rather than gasoline
energy available in the fluid is utilized, and engines unless special conditions favor the use
then the fluid is discarded. During the process, of the latter.
thermal energy is converted to mechanical Most of the information on reciprocating
energy. The purpose of this chapter is to pre- engines in this chapter applies to diesel and
sent the basic theory and the fundamental gasoline engines. These engines differ, how-
principles underlying the energy conversion ever, in some respects; the principal dif-
in internal combustion engines, and the functions ferences which exist are noted and discussed.
of the engine parts, accessories, and systems
essential for the conversion. No attempt is Basic Principles
made to describe design, construction, models,
etc., except as necessary to make the theory of The operation of an internal combustion
operation and the function of components readily engine of the reciprocating type involves the
understandable. admission of fuel and air into a combustion
Internal combustions engines are used ex- space and the compression and ignition of the
tensively in the Navy, serving as propulsion charge. The resulting combustion releases gases
units in a variety of installations such as ships, and increases the temperature within the space.
boats, airplanes, and automotive vehicles. En- As temperature increases, pressure increases
gines of the internal combustion type are also and forces the piston to move. This movement is
used as prime movers for auxiliary machinery. transmitted through a chain of parts to a shaft.
Internal combustion engines in a majority of The resulting rotary motion of the shaft is
the shipboard installations are of the recipro- utilized for work; thus, heat energy is trans-
cating type. In relatively recent years, engines formed into mechanical energy. In order for
of the gas turbine type have been placed in Navy the process to be continuous, the expanded
Service as power plants. Gas turbine engines are gases must be removed from the combustion
discussed in chapter 23 of this text. space, a new charge admitted, and then the
process repeated.
In the study of engine operating principles,
starting with the admission of air and fuel and
1 Thermodynamic cycles are discussed in chapter 8 of following through to the removal of the expanded
this text. gases, it will be noted that a series of events
543
takes place. The term cycle identifies the Mechanical Cycles

Sequence of events that takes place in the
cylinder of an engine for each power impulse In the preceding section, the events taking
transmitted to the crankshaft. These events place in a cycle of engine operation were
always occur in the same order each time the emphasized. Little was said about piston strokes
cycle is repeated. The number of events oc- except that a complete sequence of events would
curring in a cycle of operation will depend occur during a cycle regardless of the number of
upon the engine type—diesel or gasoline. The strokes made by the piston. The number of
difference in the events occurring in the cycle piston strokes occurring during any one series
of operation for these engines is shown in the of events is limited to either two or four, de-
following table. pending upon the design of the engine; thus, the
4-stroke cycle and the 2-stroke cycle. These
cycles are known as the mechanical cycles of
The events and their sequence in a cycle
operation.
operation for a:
Four- and Two-Stroke Cycles.—Both types
DIESEL ENGINE GASOLINE ENGINE of mechanical cycles are used in diesel and
gasoline engines. However, most large gaso-
line engines in Navy service operate on the
INTAKE of air INTAKE of fuel and air
4-stoke cycle; a greater number of diesel
COMPRESSION of air |COMPRESSION of fuel-
engines operate on the 2-stroke than on the
air mixture.
4-stroke cycle. The relationship of the events
INJECTION of fuel
and piston strokes occurring in a cycle of op-
IGNITION AND COM- IGNITION and COM-
eration involves some of the differences be-
BUSTION of charge BUSTION of charge
tween the 2-stroke cycle and the 4-stroke cycle.
RELATIONSHIP OF EVENTS ANDSTROKES

IN A CYCLE .—A piston stroke is the distance a
The principal difference, as shown in the
piston moves between limits of travel. The
table, in the cycles of-operation for diesel and
cycle of operation is an engine operating on the
gasoline engines involves the admission of
4-stroke cycle involves four piston strokes—in-
fuel and air to the cylinder. While this takes
take, compression, power, and exhaust. In the
place as one event in the operating cycle of a
case of the 2-stroke cycle, only two strokes
gasoline engine, it involves two events in
apply—power and compression,
diesel engines. Thus, insofar as events are
concerned, there are six main events taking
place in the diesel cycle of operation and five A check of the previous table listing the
in the cycle of a gasoline engine. Thisis pointed series of events which take place during the
out in order to emphasize the fact that the cycles of operation of diesel and gasoline en-
events which take place and the piston strokes gines will show that the strokes are named to
which occur during a cycle of operation are not correspond to some of the events. However,
identical. Even though the events of a cycle since six events are listed for diesel engines
are closely related to piston position and move- and five events for gasoline engines, it is evi-
ment, all of the events will take place during dent that more than one event takes place during
the cycle regardless of the number of piston some of the strokes, especially in the case of
strokes involved. The relationship of events the 2-stroke cycle. Even though this is the case,
and piston strokes is discussed later under a it is common practice to identify some of the
separate heading. events as strokes of the piston. This is because
The mechanics of engine operation is some- such events as intake, compression, power and
times referred to asthe mechanical or operating exhaust in a 4-stroke cycle involve at leasta
cycle of an engine; while the heat process which major portion of a stroke and, in some cases,
produces the forces that move engine parts may more than one stroke. The same is true of
be referred to as the combustion cycle. A cycle power and compression events and strokes in a
of each type is included in a cycle of engine op- 2-stroke cycle. Such association of events and
eration. strokes overlooks other events taking place
544
Chapter 22. -DIESEL AND GASOLINE ENGINES
during a cycle of operation. This oversight upstroke (compression) has been in process
sometimes leads to confusion when the op- since BDC. The injection and ignition events
erating principles of an engine are being con- overlap with the latter part of the compression
sidered. event, which ends at TDC. The burning of the
This discussion points out the relationship fuel continues a few degrees past TDC, The
of events to strokes by covering the number of power event or expansion of gases ends several
events occurring during a specific stroke, the degrees before the down (power) stroke ends
duration of an event with respect to a piston at BDC. The exhaust event starts when the power
stroke, and the cases where one event overlaps event ends and continues through the complete
another. The relationship of events to strokes upstroke (exhaust) and past TDC. Note the over-
can be shown best by making use of graphic rep- lap of the exhaust event with the intake event of
resentation of the changing situation occurring in the next cycle. The details on why certain
a cylinder during a cycle of operation. Figure events overlap and why some events are shorter
22-1 illustrates these changes for a 4-stroke or longer with respect to strokes will be covered
cycle diesel engine. later in this chapter.
The relationship of events to strokes is more From the preceding discussion, it can be
readily understood, if the movements ofa piston seen why the term ‘‘stroke’’ is sometimes used
and its crankshaft are considered first. npartA to identify an event which occurs in a cycle of
of figure 22-1, the reciprocating motion and operation. However, it is best to keep in mind
stroke of a piston are indicated and the rotary that a stoke involves 180° of crankshaft rotation
motion of the crank during two piston strokes is (or piston movement between dead centers) while
shown. The positions of the piston and crank at the corresponding event may take place duringa
the start and end of a stroke are marked ‘‘top’’ greater or lesser number of degrees of shaft
and ‘‘bottom, ’’ respectively. If these positions rotation.
and movements are marked on a circle (part B, The relationship of events to strokes in a
fig 22-1) the piston position, when at the top of 2-stroke cycle diesel engine is shown in figure
a stroke, is located at the top of a circle. When 22-2. Comparison of figures 22-1 and 22-2 re-
the piston is at the bottom of a stroke, the piston veals a number of differences between the two
position is located at the bottom center of the types of mechanical or operating cycles. These
circle. Note in parts A and B offigure 22-1 that differences are not too difficult to understand if
the top center and bottom center identify points one keeps in mind that four piston strokes and
where changes in direction of motion take place. 720° of crankshaft rotation are involved in the
In other words, when the piston is attop center, 4-stroke cycle while only half as many strokes
upward motion has stopped and downward motion and degrees are involved in a 2-stroke cycle.
is ready to start or, with respect to motion, Reference to the cross-sectional illustrations
the piston is ‘‘dead.’’ (fig. 22-2) will aid in associating the event with
The points which designate changes in di- the relative position of the piston. Even though
rection of motion for a. piston and crank are the two piston strokes are frequently referred
commonly called top dead center (TDC) and to as power and compression, they are identified
bottom dead center (BDC). as the ‘‘down stroke’ (TDC to BDC) and ’’up
If the circle illustrated in B is broken at stroke’’ (BDC to TDC) inthis discussion in order
various points and ‘‘spread out’’ (part C, fig. to avoid confusion when reference is made toan
22-1), the events of a cycle and their relation- event.
_ ship to the strokes and how some of the events Starting with the admission of air, (1) figure
of the cycle overlap can be shown. TDC and 22-2, we find that the piston is in the lower half
BDC should be kept in mind since they identify of the down stroke and that the exhaust event (6)
the start and end of a stroke and they are the is in process. The exhaust event started (6’) a
points from which the start and end of events number of degrees before intake, both starting
are established. several degrees before the piston reached BDC.
By following the strokes and events as illus- The overlap of these events is necessary in
trated, it can benotedthat the intake event starts order that the incoming air (1’) can aid in
before TDC, or before the actual down stroke clearing the cylinder of exhaust gases. Note that
(intake) starts, and continues on past BDC, or the exhaust event stops a few degrees before the
beyond the end of the stroke. The compression intake event stops, but several degrees after the
event starts when the intake event ends, but the upstroke of the piston has started. (The exhaust
545
TOP CENTER
i TOP
| |
STROKESOF
PISTON |
alBOTTOM +
CRANK REVOLVES ONE-

) HALF TURN PER PISTON
STROKE
X I /
BOTTOM
Toc
54.19A
Figure 22-1.—Relationship of events and strokes in a 4-stroke cycle diesel engine.
event in some 2-stroke cycle diesel engines ends ends varies with engines. Insome cases, it ends
a few degrees after the intake event ends.) When before TDC; in others, afew degrees after TDC.)
the scavenging event ends, the cylinder is The intense heat generated during the compres-
charged with the air which is to be compressed. sion of the air ignites the fuel-air mixture and
The compression event (2) and (2’) takes place the pressure resulting from combustion forces
during the major portion of the upstroke. The the piston down. The expansion (5 and 5’) of the
injection event (3) and (3’) and ignition and com- gases continues through a major portion of the
bustion (4) and (4’) occur during the latter part down stroke. After the force of the gases has
of the upstroke. (The point at whichthe injection been expended, the exhaust valve opens (6’) and
546
(5') EXPANSION
(3') INJECTION AND
(4') COMBUSTION pITIO :
COMBUSTION Aw
TD¢)
(BDC
apoio
To
(2') COMPRESSION
(6) EXHAUST
(1') SCAVENGING
54.20AX
Figure 22-2.—Strokes and events of a 2~stroke cycle diesel engine.
547
permits the burned gases to enter the exhaust details should be obtained from appropriate
manifold. As the piston moves downward, the in- technical manuals dealing with the specific en-
take ports are uncovered (1’) and the incoming gine in question.
air clears the cylinder of the remaining ex-
haust gases and fills the cylinder with a fresh Combustion Cycles
air charge (1); thus, the cycle of operation has
started again. To this point, the strokes of a piston and the
Now what is the difference between the 2- related events taking place during a cycle of
and 4-stroke cycles? From the standpoint of the operation have been given greater consideration
mechanics of operation, the principal difference than the heat process involved inthe cycle. How-
is in the number of piston strokes taking place ever, the mechanics of engine operation cannot
during the cycle of events. A more Significant be discussed without dealing with heat. Such
difference is the fact that a 2-stroke cycle terms as ignition, combustion, and expansion of
engine delivers twice aS many power impulses gases, all indicate that heat is essential to a
to the crankshaft for every 720° of shaft rotation. cycle of engine operation. So far, particular
(See fig. 22-3.) differences between diesel and gasoline engines
Diagrams showing the mechanical cycles of have not been pointed out, except the number of
operation in gasoline engines would be somewhat events occurring during the cycle of operation.
Similar to those described for diesel engines Whether a diesel engine or a gasoline engine,
except that there would be one less event taking the 2- or the 4-stroke cycle may apply. Then,
place during the gasoline engine cycle. Since air one of the principal differences between these
and fuel are admitted tothe cylinder ofa gasoline types of engines must involve the heat process
engine as a mixture during the intake event, the utilized to produce the forces which make the
injection event does not apply. engine operate. The heat processes are some-
The figures shown here representing the times called combustion or heat cycles.
cycles of operation are for illustrative purposes The three most common combustion cycles
only. The exact number of degrees before or associated with reciprocating internal combus-
after TDC or BDC that an event starts and ends tion engines are the Otto cycle, the true diesel
will vary between engines. Information on such cycle, and the modified diesel cycle.
FOUR STROKE CYCLE
DOWNSTROKE (POWER) UPSTROKE (EXHAUST) DOWNSTROKE (INTAKE) UPSTROKE (COMPRESSION)
WH); Yj W777
SY 7 WY
INTAKE OF AIR
4, AIR
OF IGNITION
INJECTION
COMPRESSION COMBUSTION
COMPRESSION COMPRESSION
sciScay pee
ee INJECT ION-IGNITION
-COMBUSTION
54.19:,.20X
Figure 22-3.—Comparison of the 2- and 4-stroke cycles.
548
Reference to combustion cycles suggests an- temperature are much greater than at the be-
other important difference between gasoline and ginning of compression. Note that pressure has
diesel engines—compression pressure. This gone from 0 to 470 psi and temperature has in-
factor is directly related to the combustion proc- creased from 70° to about 1000° F. These chang-
ess utilized in an engine. Diesel engines have a ing conditions indicate that mechanical energy,
much higher compression pressure than gasoline in the form of work done onthe piston, has been
engines. The higher compression pressure in transformed into heat energy in the compressed
diesels explains the difference in the methods of air. The temperature of the air has been raised
ignition used in gasoline and diesel engines. sufficiently to cause ignition of fuel injected into
Compressing the gases within a cylinder raises the cylinder.
the temperature of the confined gases. The Further changes take place after ignition.
greater the compression, the higher the temper- Since ignition occurs shortly before TDC, there
ature. In a gasoline engine, the compression is little change in volume until the piston passes
temperature is always lower than the point where TDC. However, there is a sharp increase in
the fuel would ignite spontaneously. Thus, the pressure and temperature shortly after ignition
heat required to ignite the fuel must come from takes place. The increased pressure forces the
an external source—spark ignition. Onthe other piston downward. As the piston moves down-
hand, the compression temperature in a diesel ward, the gases expand, or increase in volume,
engine is far above the ignition point of the fuel and pressure and temperature decrease rapidly.
oil; therefore, ignition takes place as a result The changes in volume, pressure, andtempera-
heat generated by compression of the air within ture, described and illustrated here, are rep-
the cylinder—compression ignition. resentative of the changing conditions withinthe
The difference inthe methods of ignition indi- cylinder of a modern diesel engine.
cates that there is abasic difference inthe com- The changes in volume and pressure in an
bustion cycles upon which diesel and gasoline engine cylinder can be illustrated by diagrams
engines operate. This difference involves the Similar to those shown in figure 22-5. Such
behavior of the combustion gases under varying diagrams are made by devices which measure
conditions of pressure, temperature, and vol- and record the pressures at various piston posi-
ume. Since this is the case, the relationship of tions during a cycle of engine operation. Dia-
these factors is considered before the combus- grams which showthe relationship between pres-
tion cycles. sures and corresponding piston positions are
called pressure-volume diagrams or indicator
RELATIONSHIP OF TEMPERATURE, PRES- cards. Examples of theoretical and actual pres-
SURE, AND VOLUME.—The relationship of these sure-volume diagrams are used in this chapter
three conditions as found in an engine can be with the description of combustion cycles.
illustrated by considering what takes place ina On diagrams which provide a graphic repre-
cylinder fitted with a reciprocating piston. (See sentation of cylinder pressure as relatedto vol-
fig. 22-4.) ume, the vertical line P on the diagram (fig.
Instruments are provided which indicate the 22-5) represents pressure and the horizontal
pressure within the cylinder and the tempera- line V represents volume. When a diagram is
ture inside and outside the cylinder. Consider used as an indicator card, the pressure line is
that the air in the cylinder is .at atmospheric marked off in units of pressure and the volume
pressure and that the temperatures, inside and line is marked off in inches. Thus, the volume
outside the cylinder, are about 70°F. (See fig. line could be used to show the length of the
22-44.) piston stroke which is proportional to volume.
If the cylinder is an airtight container and a The distance between adjacent letters on each
force pushes the piston toward the top of the of the diagrams represents an event of a com-
cylinder, the entrapped charge will be combustion cycle—that is, compression of air, burn-
pressed. As the compression progresses, the ing of the charge, expansion of gas, andremoval
volume of the air decreases, the pressure in- of gases.
creases, and the temperature rises (see B and The diagrams shown in figure 22-5 provide
C). These changing conditions continue as the a means by which the Otto and true diesel com-
piston moves and when the piston nears TDC bustion cycles can be compared. Reference to
(see D) we find that there has been a marked the diagrams during the following discussion of
decrease in volume and that both pressure and these combustion cycles will aid in identifying
549
a ;
) 500 :
LBS,PER SQ.IN. A 100 1
Bs. PER SQ.1 :
50 550
) soo
LBS. PEIR SQ. IN.
j 550
75.4
Figure 22-4.—Volume, temperature, and pressure relationships in a cylinder.
the principal differences existing between the indicator diagrams may be used in checking
cycles. The diagrams shown are theoretical engine performance.
pressure-volume diagrams. Diagrams repre-
senting conditions in operating engines are OTTO (CONSTANT-VOLUME) CYCLE.—In
given later. Information obtained from actual theory, this combustion cycle is one in which
550
compressed air, some of the fuel ignites, then

P P the rest of the charge burns. The expansion of
the gases keeps pace with the change in volume
C BOC caused by piston travel; thus combustion is said
to occur at constant pressure (represented by
line BC).
B D MODIFIED COMBUSTION CYCLES.—The

preceding discussion covers the theoretical
A combustion cycles which serve as the basis for
D
A modern engines. In actual operation, modern
V V engines operate on modifications of the theo-
OTTO CYCLE DIESEL CYCLE retical cycles. However, characteristics of the
true cycles are incorporated in the cycles of
Deo modern engines. This is pointed out in the follow-
Figure 22-5.—Pressure-volume diagrams ing discussion of examples representing the
for theoretical combustion cycles. actual cycles of operation in gasoline and diesel
engines.
combustion, induced by spark ignition, occurs
The following examples are based on the 4-
at constant volume. The Otto cycle and its prin-
stroke mechanical cycle since the majority of
ciples serve as the basis for modern gasoline
gasoline engines use this type of cycle; thus, a
engine designs.
means of comparing the cycles found in both
Compression (see line A-B, figure 22-5) of
gasoline and diesel engines is provided. Differ-
the charge in the cylinder is adiabatic. Spark
ences existing in diesel engines operating on the
ignition occurs at B, and, due to the volatility
2-stroke cycle are pointed out.
of the mixture, combustion practically amounts
The illustrations in figures 22-6 and 22-7
to an explosion. Combustion, represented by
represent the changing conditions in a cylinder
line BC, occurs (theoretically) just as the piston
during engine operation. Some of the events are
reaches TDC. During combustion, there is no
exaggerated in order to show more clearly the
piston travel; thus there is no change inthe vol-
change which takes place and, at the sametime,
ume of the gas in the cylinder. This accounts for
to show how the theoretical and actual cycles
the descriptive term, constant volume. During
differ.
combustion, there is a rapid rise of temperature
The compression ratio situation and a pres-
followed by a pressure increase which performs
sure-volume diagram for a 4-stroke Otto cycle
the work during the expansion phase, represented
is shown in figure 22-6. [Illustration A shows
by line CD. The removal of gases, represented by
the piston on BDC at the start of an upstroke.
line DA, is at constant volume.
(In a 4-stroke cycle engine, this stroke could
TRUE DIESEL (CONSTANT-PRESSURE) be either that identified as the compression
CYCLE.—This cycle may be defined as one in stroke or the exhaust stroke.) Notice that in
which combustion, induced by compression ig- moving from BDC to TDC (illustration B), the
nition, theoretically occurs at a constant pres- piston travels 5/6 of the total distance ab. In
sure. Adiabatic compression -(represented by other words, the volume has been decreased to
line AB, fig. 22-5) of the air increases its tem- 1/6 of the volume when the piston was at
perature to a point where ignition occurs auto- BDC. Thus, the compression ratio is 6 tol.
matically when the fuel is injected. Fuel injec- Illustration C shows the changes in volume
tion and combustion are so controlled as togive and pressure during one complete 4-stroke
constant-pressure combustion (represented by cycle. Note that the lines representing the com-
line BC). This is followed by adiabatic expansion bustion and exhaust phases are not straight as
(represented by line CD) and constant volume they were in the theoretical diagram. As in the
(represented by the line DA). diagram of the theoretical cycle, the vertical
In the true diesel cycle, the burning of the line at the left represents cylinder pressure in
mixture of fuel and compressed air isa relatively psi. Atmospheric pressure is represented by a
slow process when compared with the quick, ex- horizontal line called the atmospheric pressure
plosive-type combustion process of the Otto line. Pressures below this line are less than
cycle. The injected fuel penetrates the atmospheric pressures, while pressures above
551
TOTAL VOLUME
AT T.0.C. {
TOTAL VOLUME
AT B.D.C.
A-START OF UPSTROKE B-START OF DOWNSTROKE

(COMPRESSION OR EXHAUST) (POWER OR INTAKE)
PRESSURE
psi
INTAKE
STARTS
a EXHAUST ; ATMOSPHERIC
14.7 =~ = PRESSURE
Z LINE
S3~~EXHAUST ENDS
VOLUME
(OPPS a) =
DOWNSTROKE
ONE-HALF CRANKSHAFT REVOLUTION ————+>
TINE VOLE ES) AA
C-CYCLE DIAGRAM
54.19B
Figure 22-6.—Pressure-volume diagram, Otto 4-stroke cycle.
the line represent compression. The bottom distance from 1 to 6 corresponds to total piston
horizontal line provides a means of represent- travel and units of the distance may be used to
ing cylinder volume and piston movement. The identify changes in volume resulting from the
volume line has been divided into six parts reciprocating motion of the piston.
which correspend to the divisions of volume The curved lines of illustration C represent
shown in illustration A. Since piston movement the changes of both pressure and volume which
and volume are proportional, the distance be- take place during the four piston strokes of
tween O and 6 indicated the volume when the the cycle. To conform to the discussion on the
piston is at BDC, and the distance from O to 1 relationship of strokes and events (see fig.
the volume with the piston at TDC. Thus, the 22-1), the cycle of operation starts with intake.
552
ToC BDC
i
zi
°
be
u”
=)
a
=
fo)
oO
A
w
i
=|
”
”
ee
a c
INJECTION
¢ ATMOSPHERIC
lx PRESSURE
INTAKE PINE
|
+ + 4 + — + 4 4 ———t | Pod tt
Oa 2 eS «4 540 kG Jer ope (9) OP ays, 14) STS) 16
VOLUME
54.19C
Figure 22-7.—Pressure-volume diagram, diesel 4-stroke cycle.
In the case of Otto cycle, this event includes piston moves toward TDC, there is aslight drop
the admission of fuel and air. As indicated in pressure as the waste gases are discharged.
earlier, the intake event starts before TDC, The exhaust event continues a few degrees past
or at point a, illustration C. Note that pressure TDC to point g so that the incoming charge
is decreasing and after the piston reaches TDC aids in removing the remaining waste gases.
and starts down, a vacuum is created which The modified diesel combustion cycle is one
facilites the flow of the fuel-air mixture into in which the combustion phase, induced by com-
the cylinder. The intake event continues a few pression ignition, begins on a constant-volume
degrees past BDC, ending at point b. Since the basis and ends on a constant -pressure basis.
piston is now on an upstroke, compression takes In other words, the modified cycle is a combi-
place and continues until the piston reaches TDC. nation of the Otto and true diesel cycles. The
Note the increase in pressure (xtox’) and the de- modified cycle is used as the basis for the
crease in volume (f to x). Spark ignition atc design of practically all modern diesel engines.
starts combustion which takes place very rapid- An example of a pressure-volume diagram
ly. There is some change in volume since the for a modified 4-stroke cycle diesel engine is
phase starts before and ends after TDC. shown in figure 22-7. Note that the volume line
There is a Sharp increase in pressure dur- is divided into 16 units, indicating a 16 tol
ing the combustion phase. The relative amount compression ratio. The higher compression
is shown by the curve cd. The increase in ratio accounts for the increased temperature
pressure provides the force necessary to drive necessary to ignite the charge. By comparing
the piston down again. The gases continue to this illustration with illustration C of figure
expand as the piston moves toward BDC, and 22-6, it will be found that the phases of the
the pressure decreases as the volume increases, diesel cycle are relatively the same as those of
from d to e. The exhaust event starts a few the Otto cycle, except for the combustion phase.
degrees before BDC, ate, andthe pressure drops Fuel is injected at point c and combustion is
rapidly until the piston reaches BDC. As the represented by line cd. While combustion in the
553
Otto cycle is practically at constant-volume two separate and opposed pistons. The two
throughout the phase, combustion in the modified types of engines under this classification are
diesel cycle takes place with volume practically commonly referred to as single-acting and
constant for a short time, during which period Opposed-piston engines.
there is a sharp increase in pressure, until the
SINGLE-ACTING ENGINES.—Engines of this
piston reaches a point slightly past TDC. Then,
type are those which have one piston per cylinder
combustion continues at a relatively constant
and in which the pressure of combustion gases
pressure, dropping slightly as combustion ends
acts only on one surface of the piston. This is a
at d. For these reasons, the combustion cycle in
feature of design rather than principle, for the
modern diesel engines is sometimes referredto
basic principles of operation apply whether an
as the constant-volume constant-pressure cycle.
engine is single acting, opposed piston, or
Pressure-volume diagrams for gasoline and
double acting.
diesel engines operating on the 2-stroke cycle
The pistons in most single-acting engines
would be similar to those just discussed, except
are of the trunk type (length greater than
that separate exhaust and intake curves would
diameter). The barrel or wall of a piston of
not exist. They do not exist because intake and
this type has one end closed (crown) and one
exhaust occur during a relatively short interval
end open (skirt end). Only the crown of a trunk
of time near BDC anddonot involve full strokes
piston serves as part of the combustion space
of the piston as inthe case of the 4-stroke cycle.
surface. Therefore, the pressure of combustion
Thus, a pressure-volume diagram for a 2-stroke
can act only against the crown; thus, with respect
modified diesel cycle would be similar to adia-
to the surfaces of a piston, pressure is single
gram formed by f-b-c-d-e-f of figure 22-7. The
acting. Most modern gasoline engines as wellas
exhaust and intake phases would take place be-
many of the diesel engines used by the Navy are
tween e and b with some overlap of the events.
Single acting.
(See fig. 22-2.)
The preceding discussion has pointed out OPPOSED-PISTON ENGINES.—With respect
some of the main differences between engines to combustion-gas action, the term opposed
which operate on the Otto cycle and those which piston is used to identify those engines which have
operate on the modified diesel cycle. In brief, two pistons and one combustion space in each cyl-
these differences involve (1) the mixing of fuel inder. The pistons are arranged in ‘‘opposed’’
and air, (2) compression ratio, (3) ignition, and positions—that is, crown tocrown, withthecom-
(4) the combustion process. bustion space in between. (See fig. 22-8.) When
combustion takes place, the gases act against the
Action of Combustion Gases on Pistons crowns of both pistons, driving them in opposite
directions. Thus, the term ‘‘opposed’’ not only
Engines are classified in many ways. Mention signifies that, with respect to pressure and piston
has already been made of some classifications surfaces, the gases act in ‘‘opposite’’ direction,
such as those based on (1) the fuels used (diesel but also classifies piston arrangement within the
fuel and gasoline), (2) the ignition methods (spark cylinder.
and compression), (3) the combustion cycles In modern engines which have the opposed-
(Otto and diesel), and (4) the mechanical cycles piston arrangement, two crankshaft (upper and
(2-stroke and 4-stroke). Engines may also be lower) are required for transmission of power.
classified on the basis of cylinder arrangements Both shafts contribute to the power output of the
(V, in-line, opposed, etc.), the cooling media engine. They may be connected in one of two
(liquid and air), and the valve arrangements ways; chains as well as gears have been used
(L-head, valve-in head, etc.). The manner in for the connection between shafts. However,
which the pressure of combustion gases acts in most opposed-piston engines common to Navy
upon the piston to move it in the cylinder of service, the crankshafts are connected by a
an engine is also used as a method of classi- vertical gear drive. (See fig. 22-8.)
fying engines. The cylinders of opposed-piston engines have
The classification of engines according to Scavenging air ports located near the top. These
combustion-gas action is based upon a consider- ports are opened and closed by the upper piston.
ation of whether the pressure created by the Exhaust ports located near the bottom of the
combustion gases acts upon one or two surfaces cylinder are closed and opened by the lower
of a single piston or against single surfaces of piston.
554
Opposed-piston engines used by the Navy

operate on the 2-stroke cycle. In engines of the
UPPER UPPER opposed-piston type, as in 2-stroke cycle single-
CONNECTING CRANKSHAFT acting engines, there is an overlap of the various
ROD events occurring duringa cycle of operation. In-
jection and the burning of the fuel start during the
latter part of the compression event and extend
into the power phase. There is also an overlap of
the exhaust and scavenging periods. The events
in the cycle of operation of an opposed-piston,
2-stroke cycle diesel engine are shown infigure
22-10.
Modern engines of the opposed-piston design
have a number of advantages over single-acting
ba engines of comparable rating. Some of these

UPPER
PISTON advantages are: less weight per horsepower
VERTIC
AL
: developed; lack of cylinder heads and valve
GEAR DRIVE mechanisms (and the cooling and lubricating
om problems connected with them); and fewer
Bikcavencine moving parts.
|| AIR PORTS
INJECTOR Functions of Reciprocating
t-COMBUSTION Engine Components
‘ \| CHAMBER
LOWER The design of most internal combustion en-

PISTON gines of the reciprocating type follows much the
PORTS Same general pattern. Though engines are not
all exactly alike, there are certainfeatures com-
LOWER mon to all, and the principal components of most
LOWER ;
CONNECTING & CRANKSHAFT engines are Similarly arranged. Since the gener-
ROD al structure of gasoline engines is basically the
same as that of diesel engines, the following
discussion of the engine components applies
generally to both types of engines. However, dif-
ferences do exist and these will be pointed out
whereever applicable.
The principal components of an internal
combustion engine may be divided into two
principal groups—parts and systems. The main
parts of an internal combustion engine may be
further divided into structural parts and moving
75.8 parts. Structural parts, for the purpose of this
Figure 22-8.—Cylinder and related parts- discussion, include those which, with respect
opposed-piston engine. to engine operation, do not involve motion;
namely, the structural frame and its components
Movement of the opposed pistons is such that and related parts. The other group of engine
the crowns are closest together near the center parts includes those which involve motion. Many
of the cylinder. When at this position, the pistons of the principal parts which are mounted within
are not at the true piston dead centers. This is the main structure of an engine are moving parts.
because the lower crankshaft operates a few Moving parts are considered as those which con-
degrees in advance of the upper shaft. The vert the power developed by combustion in the
number of degrees that a crank on the lower cylinder to the mechanical energy that is avail-
shaft travels in advance of a corresponding able for useful work at the output shaft.
crank on the upper shaft is called lower crank The systems commonly associated with the
lead. This is illustrated in figure 22-9. engine proper are those necessary to make
555
OUTER DEAD CENTER
LEFT HAND ROTATION ete HAND ROTATION

ENGINE we ENGINE
SINNER DEAD CENTER
-UPPER PISTONS.
_L INLET PORTS
INJECTION NOZZLE
OPENING
COMBUSTION SPACE ~
_-EXHAUST PORTS,
INNER DEAD CENTER | | RIGHT HAND ROTATION LEFT HAND ROTATION

ae:—— ; ENGINE ~—~__ ENGINE
LEFT HAND -—— | RIGHT HAND

ROTATION ENGINE Sy 2h 124 ROTATION ENGINE
LOWER CRANK LEAD ————
75,.9X
Figure 22-9.—Lower crank lead, opposed-piston engine.
556
1 2—START 3-END 4—EXPANSION 5-—SCAVENGING 6—SUPERCHARGE

COMPRESSION
PS
INJECTION INJECTION eas oO a~ ai
or
75.10
Figure 22-10.—Events in operating cycle of an opposed-piston engine.
combustion possible, and those which minimize of this discussion, the latter meaning will be
and dissipate heat created by combustion and used. As the load-carrying part of the engine,
friction. Since combustion requires air, fuel, the frame of the modern engine may include
and heat (ignition), systems providing each may such parts as the cylinder block, crankcase,
be found on some engines. However, since a bedplate or base, sump or oil pan, and end
diesel engine generates its own heat for com- plates.
bustion within the cylinders, no Separate ignition The part of the engine frame which sup-
system is required for engines of this type. The ports the engine’s cylinder liners and head
problem of heat, created as a result of combus- or heads is generally referred to as the cyl-
tion and friction, istaken care of bytwo separate inder block. The blocks for most large engines
systems—cooling and lubrication. The functions are of the welded-steel type construction. Blocks
of the parts and systems of engines which operate of small high-speed engines may be of the en
on the principles already described are dis- bloc construction. In this type construction, the
cussed briefly in the following paragraphs. block is cast in one piece. Twotypes of cylinder
blocks coming to Navy service are shown in
MAIN STRUCTURAL PARTS.—The main pur- figures 22-11 and 22-12. The block shown in
pose of the structural parts of an engine is to figure 22-11 is representative of blocks designed
maintain the moving parts in their proper rela- for some large engines with in-line cylinder ar-
tive position. This is necessary if the gas pres- rangement. The block illustrated in figure 22-12
sure produced by combustion is to fulfill its is representative of blocks constructed for
function. some engines with V-type cylinder arrangement.
The term frame is sometimes used to identify The engine frame part which serves as a
a single part of an engine; in other cases, it housing for the crankshaft is commonly called
identifies several stationary parts fastened to- the crankcase. In some engines, the crankcase
gether to support most of the moving engine is an integral part of the cylinder block (see
parts and engine accessories. For the purpose fig. 22-11), requiring an oil pan, sump, or base
557
75.14X
Figure 22-11.—Cylinder block with in-line cylinder arrangement.
In large engines of early design, the sup-

port for the main bearings was provided by
SCAVENGING AIR E a bedplate. The bedplate was bolted to the
CHAMBERS Po ie __-—\, eRe
UPPER DECKPLATE crankcase and an oil pan was bolted to the
bedplate when a separate oil pan was used.
e
In some large engines of more modern design
\
a
4
the support for main bearings is provided by a
part called the base. Figure 22-13 illustrates
such a base, which is used with the block shown
in figure 22-11. This type base serves as a
combination bedplate and oil plan. This base
requires the engine block to complete the frame
CAMSHAFT POCKET for the main engine bearings. Some crankcases
» are designed so that the crankshaft andthe main
TRANSVERSE FRAME MEMBER “LOWER DECKPLATE bearings are mounted and secured completely
within the crankcase.
75.16 Since lubrication is essential for proper
Figure 22-12.—An example of a V-type engine operation, a reservoir for collecting and
cylinder block construction. holding the engine’s lubricating oil is anecessary
part of the engine structure. The reservoir may
to complete the housing. In others the crankcase be called a sump or an oil pan, depending upon
is a separate part and is bolted to the block. its design, and is usually attached directly to
558
UPPER BEARING SHELL BEARING CAP
LOWER BEARING SHELL
FRAME TO
BASE BOLT
LUBRICATING OIL
SUCTION OUTLET
BEARING
SADDLE
BASE SHIMS
LUBRICATING OIL
HEADER INLET
LUBRICATING OIL FILTRATION

BYPASS INLET SYSTEM INLET
75.20X
Figure 22-13.—Engine base.
the engine. However, in some engines, the oil and various other internal engine parts. Access
reservoir may be located at some point relatively doors (sometimes called covers or plates) for
remote from the engine; such engines may be re- the openings are usually secured with handwheel
ferred to as dry sump engines. or nut-operated clamps and are fitted with
In the engine base shown in figure 22-13, gaskets to keep dirt and foreign material out of
oil sump is anintegral part of the base or crank- the engine’s interior.
case, which has functions other than just being
The cylinder assembly completes the struc-
an oil reservoir. Many of the smaller engines do
tural framework of an engine. As one of the main
not have a separate base or crankcase; instead,
stationary parts of an engine, the cylinder as-
they have an oil pan, which is secured directly
sembly, along with various related working
to the bottom of the block. In most cases, an oil
parts, serves to confine and release the gases.
pan serves only as the lower portion of the crank-
For the purpose of this discussion, the cylinder
shaft housing and as the oil reservoir.
assembly will be considered as consisting of the
Some engines have flat steel plates attached
head, the liner, the studs, and the gasket. (See
to each end of the cylinder block. End _plates
fig. 22-14.)
add rigidity to the block and provide a surface
to which may be bolted housings for such parts The design of the parts of the cylinder as-
as gears, blowers, pumps, and generators. sembly varies considerably from one type of
Many engines, especially the larger ones, engine to another. Regardless of differences in
have access openings in some part of the engine design, however, the basic components of all
frame. (See fig. 22-11.) These openings permit cylinder assemblies function, along withrelated
access to the cylinder liners, main and con- moving parts, to provide a gas- and liquid-tight
necting rod bearings, injector control shafts, space.
559
CAMSHAFT
CYLINDER HEAD
HOLDDOWN NUT
CYLINDER HEAD
WATER SEAL RING

a =
CYLINDER
LINER STUD P| WATER FERRULE
Pet
ar
COPPER GASKET
BLOCK
CYLINDER LINER
SCAVENGING
AIR PORTS
COOLING WATER)
INLET
75.24X
Figure 22-14.—Principal stationary parts of a cylinder assembly.
The barrel or bore in which an engine Six cylinder liners of the replaceable type
piston moves back and forth may be an in- are shown in figure 22-15. These liners il-
tegral part of the cylinder block or it may be lustrate some of the differences in the design
a separate sleeve or liner. The first type, of liners and the relative size of the engines
common in gasoline engines, has the disad- represented,
vantage of not being replaceable. Practically The liners or bores of an internal combustion
all diesel engines are constructed with re- engine must be sealed tightly to form the com-
placeable cylinder liners. bustion chambers. In most Navy engines, except
560
ALCO_539 FM 38D81/8
75.25
Figure 22-15.—Cylinder liners of diesel engines.
for engines of the opposed-piston type, the studs and gaskets. The studs, or stud bolts,
space at the combustion end of a cylinder is secure the cylinder head to the cylinder block.
formed and sealed by a cylinder head which A gasket between the head and the block is
is a separate unit from the block. (See fig. compressed to form a seal when the head is
22-14.) properly tightened down. In some cases, gaskets
A number of engine parts which are es- are not used between the cylinder head and
sential to engine operation may be found in or block; the mating surfaces of the head and block
attached to the cylinder head. The cylinder head are accurately machined to form a seal between
may house intake and exhaust valves, valve guides the two parts.
and valve seats, or only exhaust valves and re-
lated parts. Rocker arm assemblies are frequen-
PRINCIPAL MOVING PARTS.—In order that
tly attached to the cylinder head. The fuel in-
the power developed by combustion can be con-
jection valve is almost universally in the cylinder
verted to mechanical energy, it isnecessary for
head or heads of a diesel engine, while the
reciprocating motion to be changed to rotating
spark plugs are always in the cylinder head of
motion. The moving parts included in the con-
gasoline engines. Cylinder heads of a diesel
version process, from combustion to energy
engine may also be fitted withair starting valves,
output, may be divided into the following three
indicator and blow down valves, and safety
major groups: (1) the parts which have only
valves.
reciprocating motion (pistons), (2) the parts
The number of cylinder heads found on
which have both reciprocating and rotating
engines varies considerably. Small engines of
motion (connecting rods), and (3) the parts
the in-line cylinder arrangement utilize one
which have only rotating motion (crankshafts
head for all cylinders. A single head serves
and camshafts).
for all cylinders in each bank of some V-type
engines. Large diesel engines generally have The first two major groups of moving parts
| one cylinder head for each cylinder. Some may be further grouped under the single heading
engines use one head for each pair of cylinders. of piston and rod assemblies. Such an assembly
In most cases, the seal between the cylinder may include a piston, piston rings, piston pin,
head and the block depends principally upon the connecting rod, and related bearings.
561
Ee
As one of the principal parts in the power transfer heat fromthe piston to the cylinder wall.
transmitting assembly, the piston must be so All rings on a piston perform the latter function,
designed and must be made of such materials but two general types of rings—compression and
that it can withstand the extreme heat and oil—are required to perform the first two func-
pressure of combustion. Pistons must also be tions. There are numerous types of rings in each
light enough to keep inertia loads on related of these groups, contructed in different ways
parts to a minimum, The piston aids in the for particular purposes. Some of the variations
sealing of the cylinder to prevent the escape in ring design are illustrated in figure 22-17.
of gas and transmits some of the heat through In trunk-type piston assemblies, the connec-
the piston rings to the cylinder wall. In ad- tion between the piston and the connecting rod is
dition to serving as the unit which transmits usually the piston pin (sometimes referred toas
the force of combustion to the connecting rod the wrist pin) and its bearings. These parts
and conducts the heat of combustion to the must be of especially strong construction be-
cylinder wall, a piston serves as a valve in cause the power developed in the cylinder is
opening and closing the ports of a two-stroke transmitted from the piston through the pin to
cycle engine. The nomenclature for the parts of the connecting rod. The pin is the pivot point
a typical trunk type piston is given in figure where the straight-line or reciprocating motion
22-16. of the piston changes to the reciprocating and
Piston rings are particularly vital to engine rotating motion of the connecting rod. Thus, the
operation in that they must effectively perform principal forces to which a pin is subjected are
three functions: seal the cylinder, distribute and the forces created by combustion and the side
control lubricating oil on the cylinder wall, and thrust created by the change in direction of
motion, (See fig. 22-18.)
The connecting link between the piston and
crankshaft or the crankshaft and the crosshead
ofan engine is the connecting rod. In order that
the forces created by combustion can be trans-
mitted to the crankshaft, the rod changes the
reciprocating motion of the piston tothe rotating
motion of the crankshaft.
COMPRESSION COOLING
RING GROOVES OIL Most marine engines in Navy service use the
AND LANDS CHAMBER trunk-type piston connected directly to the con-
necting rod.
The camshaft is a shaft with eccentric pro-
jection, called cams, designed to control the
COOLING FINS operation of valves, usually through various
AND RIBS intermediate parts as described later in this
chapter. Originally cams were made as separate
pieces and fastened to the camshaft. However,
in most modern engines the cams are forged or
OIL
GROOVES
cast as an integral part of the camshaft.
To reduce wear and to help them withstand
the shock action to which they are subjected,
camshafts are made of low-carbon alloy steel
with the cam and journal surfaces carburized
before the final grinding is done.
PISTON
PIN The cams are arranged on the shaft to
provide the proper firing order of the cylinders
served. The shape of the cam determines the
OIL RING
GROOVES PISTON HUB
point of opening and closing, the speed of open-
AND LANDS BUSHING ing and closing, and the amount of the valve
lift. If one cylinder is properly time, the
remaining cylinders are automatically in time.
75.47 All cylinders will be affected if there isa change
Figure 22-16.—Piston nomemclature. in timing.
562
A-DIAGONALLY-CUT COMPRESSION RING B-LAP-JOINT COMPRESSION RING
D- SLOTTED OIL RING
E-THREE PIECE OIL RING
75.51
Figure 22-17.—Types of piston rings.
The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft be identified by various terms; however, those
by various means, the most common being by shown in figure 22-19 are common in the tech-
gears or by a chain and sprocket. The camshaft nical manuals for most of the engines used by
for a 4-stroke cycle engine must turn at one- the Navy.
half of the crankshaft speed; while inthe 2-stroke The speed of rotation of the crankshaft in-
cycle engine, it turns at the same speed as the creases each time the shaft receives a power
crankshaft. impulse from one of the pistons; and it then
The location of the crankshaft in various gradually decreases until another power impulse
engines differs. Camshaft location depends on is received. These fluctuations in speed (their
the arrangement of the valve mechanism. The number depending upon the number of cylinders
location of a camshaft is shown in figure 22-14. firing in one crankshaft revolution) would result
One of the principal engine parts which has in an undesirable situation with respect to the
only rotating motion is the crankshaft. As one of driven mechanism as well as the engine;there-
the largest and most important moving parts in fore, some means must be provided to stabilize
an engine, the crankshaft changes the movement shaft rotation. In some engines this is accom-
of the piston and the connecting rod into the ro- plished by installing a flywheel on the crankshaft;
tating motion required to drive such items as in others, the motion of such engine parts as
reduction gears, propeller shafts, generators, the crankpins, webs, lower ends of connecting
pumps, etc. As a result of its function, the rods, and such driven units as the clutch,
crankshaft is subjected to all the forces de- generator, etc., serve the purpose. The need
veloped in an engine. for a flywheel decreases as the number of
While crankshafts of a few larger engines cylinders firing in one revolution of the crank-
are of the built-up type (forged in separate shaft and the mass of the moving parts attached
sections and flanged together), the crankshafts to the crankshaft increases.
of most modern engines are of the one-piece A flywheel stores up energy during the power
type construction. A shaft of this type is shown event and releases it during the remaining events
in figure 22-19. The parts of a crankshaft may of the operating cycle. In other words, when the
563
and the piston-pin bearings. However, the man-

ner in which main journal bearings are loaded
depends upon the type of engine in which they are
used.
In a 2-stroke cycle engine, a load is always
placed on the lower half of the main bearings and
the lower half of the piston pin bearings in the
connecting rod; meanwhile the load is placed upon
the upper half of the connecting rod bearings at
the crankshaft end of the rod. This is true
because the forces of combustion are greater
than the inertia forces created by the moving
parts.
In a 4-stroke cycle engine, the load is applied
first on one bearing shell and then on the other.
The reversal of pressure is the result of the
large forces of inertia imposed during the intake
and exhaust strokes. In other words, inertia
tends to lift the crankshaft in its bearings during
the intake and exhaust strokes.
There is a definite reversal of load appli-
cation on the main bearings of a double-acting
engine. In this case, the reversal is caused by
combustion taking place first on one end of the
piston and then on the other.
The bearings used in connection with piston
pins are of three types: the integral bearing, the
sleeve bearing or bushing, and the needle type
roller bearing. The bearings in the bosses (hubs)
09.07
of most pistons are of the sleeve bushing type.
Figure 22-18.—Side thrust of a trunk-type
However, ina few cases, the boss bearings are
piston, single-acting engine.
an integral part of the piston. In suchcases, the
bearing surface is precision bored directly in
speed of the shaft tends to increase, the flywheel
the bosses. Pistons fitted with stationary piston
absorbs energy, and when the speed tends to
pins require no bearing surfaces in the bosses.
decrease, the flywheel gives up energy to the
Even though the piston pins in most engines
shaft in an effort to keep shaft rotation uniform.
are equipped with bushing type bearings, some
In doing this, a flywheel (1) keeps variations in
have been fitted with bearings of the needle
speed within desired limits at all loads; (2) limits
roller type.
the increase or decrease in speed during sudden
The types of bearings used for main bearings
changes of load; (3) aids in forcing the piston
and in connection with piston-pin assemblies are
through the compression event whenanengineis
representative of those used at other points inan
running at low or idling speed; and (4) helps
engine where bearing surfaces are required.
bring the engine up to speed when it is being
All of the parts which make a complete
cranked,
engine have by no means been covered in the
An important group of engine parts consists
preceding section of this chapter. Since many
of the bearings. Some bearings remain stationary
engine parts and accessories are commonly
in performing their function while others move.
associated with the systems of an engine,
One principal group of stationary bearings inan
functions of some of the principal components
engine is that which supports the crankshaft.
not covered to this point are considered with
These bearings are generally called main engine
the applicable system which they affect.
bearings. (See fig. 22-13), Main bearings in most
engines are of the sliding contact, or plaintype, ENGINE AIR SYSTEMS.—Parts and acces-
consisting of two halves or shells. sories which supply the cylinders of an engine
Main bearings are subjected to a fluctuating with air for combustion, and remove the waste
load. This is also true of the crankpin bearings gases after combustion and the power events
564
|. MAIN BEARING JOURNAL

- FRONT 5. MAIN BEARING JOURNAL— REAR 10. DOWEL HOLE
2. COUNTERWEIGHT 6. BOLTING FLANGE -TIMING GEAR 11. PULLER SCREW HOLE
3. MAIN BEARING JOURNAL — 7. DOWEL - FLYWHEEL 12. FLYWHEEL
INTERMEDIATE 8. RING GEAR 13. LUBRICATING OIL HOLES
4. CONNECTING ROD JOURNAL—NO. 3 9. RETAINING BOLT HOLE
75.81X
Figure 22-19.—One-piece six-throw crankshaft with flywheel.
are finished, are commonly referred to as the of the intake and exhaust systems. These terms—
intake and exhaust systems. These systems are Scavenging and supercharging—and the proc-
closely related and, in some cases, are referred esses they identify are common to many modern
to as the air systems of an engine. A cross- diesel engines.
sectional view of the air systems of one type In the intake systems of all modern 2-stroke
of high-speed diesel engine is shown in figure cycle engines and some 4-stroke cycle engines,
22-20. a device, usually a blower, is installed to in-
The following information on air systems crease the flow of air into the cylinders. This
deals primarily with the systems of diesel en- is accomplished by the blower compressing the
gines; nevertheless, much of the information air and forcing it into an air box or manifold
dealing with the parts of diesel engine air sys- (reservoir) which surrounds or is attached to
tems is also applicable to most of the parts the cylinders of an engine. Thus, an increased
in similar systems of gasoline engines. How- amount of air under constant pressure is avail-
ever, the intake event in the cycle of operation able as required during the cycle of operation.
of a gasoline engine includes the admission of The increased amount of air available as a
air and fuel as a mixture to the cylinder. For result of blower action is used to fill the cylin-
this reason, the intake system of a gasoline der with a fresh charge of air and, during the
engine differs, in some respects, from that of process, aids in clearing the cylinder of the
a diesel engine. (See subsequent section on fuel gases of combustion. This process is called
systems.) Scavenging. Thus, the intake system of some
A discussion of the air systems of deisel engines, especially those operating on the 2-
engines frequently involves the use oftwoterms stroke cycle, is sometimes called the scaveng-
which identify processes related tothe functions ing system. The air forced into the cylinder
565
SEA WATER INLET

N wx
y
/| ba)
SE EXHAUST AND
FLEXIBLE EXHAUST ti SEA WATER
PI PE SILENCER OUTLET
EXHAUST
dl WATER LINE
~m
-OVERBOARD
WATER \ DISCHARGE
JACKET a Na
. |
~~
bl
canst
EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
AIR INTAKE
PORTS
INTAKE
iw SILENCER
BLOWER
AIR BOX
AIR SCREEN
75,151X
Figure 22-20.—Air systems of a 2-stroke cycle engine.
air and the in 2- and 4-stroke cycle engines. Ina

is called scavenge (or scavenging) differs
ports through which it enters are called scavenge 2-stroke cycle engine, the process takes place
ports. during the later part of the downstroke (expan-
The process of scavenging must be accom- sion) and the early part of the upstroke (com-
plished in a relatively short portion of the oper- pression). Ina4-stroke cycle engine, scavenging
place when the piston is nearing and
ating cycle; however, the duration of the process takes
566
passing TDC during the latter part of an upstroke scavenging air (in 2-stroke cycle engines) is
(exhaust and the early part of a downstroke (in- called supercharging.
take), The intake and exhaust openings are both In some 2-stroke cycle diesel engines, the
open during this interval of time. The overlap cylinders are supercharged during the air in-
of intake and exhaust permits the air from the take simply by increasing the amount and pres-
blower to pass through the cylinder into the sure of scavenge air. The same blower is used
exhaust manifold, cleaning out the exhaust gases for supercharging and scavenging. Whereas
from the cylinder and, at the same time, cool- Scavenging is accomplished by admitting air
ing the hot engine parts. under low pressure into the cylinder while the
Scavenging air must be so directed, when it exhaust valves or ports are open, supercharging
enters the cylinder of an engine, that the waste is done with the exhaust ports or valves closed.
gases are removed from the remote parts of This latter arrangement enables the blower to
the cylinder. The two principal methods by force air under pressure into the cylinder and
which this is accomplished are sometimes re- thereby increase the amount of air available
ferred to as port scavenging and valve scaveng- for combustion. The increase in pressure re-
ing. Port scavenging may be of the direct (or sulting from the compressing action of the
cross-flow) loop (or return), or uniflow type. blower will depend upon the engine involved,
(See fig. 22-21.) but it is usually low, ranging from 1 to 5 psi.
An increase in air flow into cylinders of an With this increase in pressure, and the amount
engine can be used to increase power output, of air available for combustion, there is a cor-
in addition to being used for scavenging. Since responding increase in the air-fuel ratio and in
the power of an engine is developed by the burn- combustion efficiency within the cylinder. In
ing of fuel, an increase of power requires more other words, a given size engine which is super-
fuel; the increased fuel, in turn, requires more charged can develop more power than the same
air, since each pound of fuel requires a certain size engine which is not supercharged.
amount of air for combustion. Supplying more air Supercharging a 4-stroke cycle diesel engine
to the combustion spaces that can be supplied requires the addition of a blower to the intake
through the action of atmospheric pressure and system since the operations of exhaust and in-
piston action (in 4-stroke cycle engines) or take in an unsupercharged engine are performed
PORT DIRECT SCAVENGING VALVE UNIFLOW SCAVENGING UNIFLOW PORT SCAVENGING
75.152
Figure 22-21.—Methods of scavenging—diesel engines.
by the action of the piston. The timing of the

valves in a supercharged 4-stroke cycle engine
is also different from that in a similar engine
which is not supercharged. In the supercharged
engine the intake-valve opening is advanced and
the exhaust-valve closing is retarded so that
there is considerable overlap of the intake and
exhaust events. This overlap increases power,
the amount of the increase depending upon the
Supercharging pressure. The increased over-
lap of the valve openings in a supercharged 4-
stroke cycle engine also permits the air pres-
sure created by the blower to be used in removing
gases from the cylinder during the exhaust
event. How the opening and the closing of the
intake and exhaust valves or ports affect both
Scavenging and supercharging, and the differ-
ences in these processes as they occur in
supercharged 2- and 4-stroke cycle engines,
can be seen by studying the diagrams in figure
22-22.
As in the case of the diagrams used in con-
nection with the discussion of engine operating
principles, the circular pattern in figure 22-22
represents crankshaft rotation. Some of the
events occurring in the cycles are shown in
terms of degrees of shaft rotation. However,
the numbers (of degrees) shown onthe diagrams
are for purposes of illustration and comparison
only. When these diagrams are being studied,
it must be kept in mind that the crankshaft of a
4-stroke cycle engine makes two complete revo- gouvHouadns
lutions in one cycle of operation while the shaft
in a 2-stroke cycle engine makes only one revo-
lution per cycle. It should also be remembered
that the exhaust and intake events in a 2-stroke
cycle engine do not involve complete piston B.D.C.
strokes as they do in a 4-stroke cycle engine.
Even though the primary purpose of a diesel 54.19:.20B
engine intake system is to supply the air re- Figure 22-22.—Scavenging and supercharging in
quired for combustion, the system generally diesel engines.
has to perform one or more additional functions.
In most cases, the system cleans the air and
reduces the noise created by the air asit enters The system which functions primarilyto con-
the engine. In order to accomplish the functions vey gases away from the cylinders of an engine
of intake, an intake system may include an air is called the exhaust system. In addition to this
silencer, an air cleaner and screen, an air box principal function, an exhaust system may be
or header, intake valves or ports, a blower, an designed to perform one or more of the follow-
air heater, and an air cooler. All of these parts ing functions: muffle exhaust noise, quench
are not common to every intake system. An sparks, remove solid material from exhaust
intake system in which only asilencer, ascreen, gases, and furnish energy to a turbine-driven
a blower, an air box, and intake ports provide supercharger. The principal parts which may
a clean supply of air, with minimum noise, to be used in combination to accomplish the func-
the combustion spaces is shown in figure 22- tions of an engine exhaust system are shown in
20. figures 22-20 and 22-23.
568
EXHAUST
PIPE
INTAKE
MANIFOLD
TURBOCHARGER
EXHAUST OUTLET
EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
EXHAUST
GASES
75.167X
Figure 22-23.—Intake and exhaust systems.
OPERATING MECHANISMS FOR SYSTEM reference has been made to the operation of
PARTS AND ACCESSORIES.—Tothis point, con- some of the engine parts. For example, it has
sideration has been given only to the main en- been pointed out that the valves open and close
gine parts—stationary and moving—and to two at the proper time in the operating cycle and
of the systems common to internal combustion that the impellers or lobes of a blower ro-
engines. At various points in this chapter, tate to compress intake air. However, little
569
eS i ise ca eT eras ee renee
consideration has been given to the source of transmit power for the operation of engine valves
power or to the mechanisms which cause these is generally called the camshaft drive or timing
parts to operate. mechanism.
In many cases, the mechanism which trans- The camshaft drive, as the name implies,
mits power for the operation of the engine valves transmits power to the camshaft of the engine.
and blower may also transmit power to parts The shaft, in turn, transmits the power through
and accessories which are components of vari- a combination of parts which causes the engine
ous engine systems. For example, such items valves to operate. Since the valves of an en-
as the governor; fuel, lubricating, and water gine must open and close at the proper moment
pumps; and overspeed trips, are, in some en- (with respect to the position of the piston) and
gines, Operated by the same mechanism. Since remain in the open and closed positions for
mechanisms which transmit power to operate definite periods of time, a fixed relationship
specific parts and accessories may be related must be maintained between the rotational speeds
to more than one engine system, such operating of the crankshaft and the camshaft. Camshaft
mechanisms are considered here before the drives are designed to maintain the proper
remaining engine systems are discussed. relationship between the speeds of the two shafts.
The parts which make up the operating mech- In maintaining this relationship, the drive causes
anisms of an engine may be divided into two the camshaft to rotate at crankshaft speed ina
groups: the group which forms the drive mech- 2-stroke cycle engine; and at one-half crank-
anisms and the group which forms the actuating shaft speed in a 4-stroke cycle engine.
mechanisms. The source of power for the oper- The term actuating mechanism, as used in
ating mechanisms of an engine is the crank- this chapter, identifies that combination of parts
shaft. which receives power from the drive mechanism
As used in this chapter, the term drive and transmits the power to the engine valves.
mechanism identifies the group of parts which In order for the valves (intake, exhaust, fuel
takes power from the crankshaft and transmits injection, air starter) to operate, there must be
that power to various engine parts and acces- a change in the type of motion. In other words,
sories. In engines, the drive mechanisms the rotary motion of the crankshaft and drive
does not change the type of motion, but it may mechanism must be changed to a reciprocating
change the direction of motion. For example, motion. The group of parts which, by changing
the impellers or lobes of a blower are driven the type of motion, causes the valves of an en-
or Operated as a result of rotary motion which gine to operate is generally referred to as the
is taken from the crankshaft and transmitted to valve actuating mechanism. A valve-actuating
the impellers or lobes by the drive mechanism, mechanism may include the cams, cam fol-
an arrangement of gears and shafts. While the lowers, push rods, rocker arms, and valve
type of motion (rotary) remains the same, the springs. In some engines, the camshaft is so
direction of motion of one impeller or lobe is located that the need for push rods is eliminated.
Opposite to that of the other impeller or lobe In such cases, the cam follower is a part of the
as a result of the gear arrangements within rocker arm. (Some actuating mechanisms are
the drive mechanism, designed to transform reciprocating motion into
A drive mechanism may be of the gear, rotary motion, but in internal combustion en-
chain or belt type. Of these, the gear type is gines most actuating mechanisms change rotary
the most common; however, some engines are motion into reciprocating motion.)
equipped with chain assemblies. A combination There is considerable variation inthe design
of gears and chains is used as the driving and arrangement of the parts of operating mech-
mechanism in some engines. anisms found in different engines. The size of
Some engines have a Single drive mechanism an engine, the cycle of operation, the cylinder
which transmits power for the operation of en- arrangement, and other factors govern the de-
gine parts andaccessories. In other cases, there Sign and arrangement of the components as
may be two or more separate mechanisms. well as the design and arrangement of the mech-
When separate assemblies are used, the one anisms. Three types of operating mechanisms
which transmits power for the operation of the are shown in figures 22-24, 22-25, and 22-26.
accessories is called the accessory drive. Some The mechanisms which supply power for the
engines have more than one accessory drive. operation of the valves and accessories of gaso-
A separate drive mechanism which is used to line engines are basically the same as those
570
COUNTER-WEIGHTED
CAMSHAFT AND
BALANCE SHAFT
DRIVE GEARS
BLOWER
DRIVE
GEAR
SPACER
FLYWHEEL
PILOTS
CRANKSHAFT GEAR
75,.98X
Figure 22-24.—Camshaft and accessory drive.
found in diesel engines. Some manufacturers is mixed with air outside the cylinder and the
utilize mechanisms consisting primarily of chain mixture is then drawn into the cylinder and com-
assemblies, while others use gears as the pri- pressed. On the other hand, fuel for diesel
mary means of transmitting power to engine engines is injected or sprayed into the combus-
parts. Combination gear-chain drive assemblies tion space after the air is already compressed.
are used on some gasoline engines. The equipment which supplies fuel to the cylin-
ders of a gasoline engine would necessarily be
ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS.—The method of different from that of a diesel engine.
getting fuel into the cylinder is one ofthe major There are several types of fuel injection
differences between gasoline and diesel engines. systems in use. The function of each type is,
As pointed out earlier, fuel for gasoline engines however, the same. The primary function of a
571
EXHAUST VALVE ROCKER ARMS
Be INJECTOR ROCKER ARM
HARDENED BALL STUD & SEAT e
st Ga] ‘a4
2 Bs > ~_ i
= (
1
$__] PUSH RODS
—
em &
“lag @
BRACKET
BOLT
| ROCKER ARM
SHAFT BRACKET
NJ}
PUSH ROD
CLEVIS
LOCK WIRE
SPRING RETAINER
PUSH ROD
RETAINER SPRING
CAM FOLLOWER
LOWER SPRING SEAT CAM ROLLER
75.101X
Figure 22-25.—Valve-actuating mechanism.
572
1. ENGINE CONTROL GOVERNOR 1]. PUMP DRIVE GEAR

2. PINION 12. KNEE SPROCKET
3. OVERSPEED GOVERNOR’ 13. WATER PUMP GEAR
4. GOVERNOR GEAR . 14. DRIVING CHAIN
5. GOVERNOR DRIVE GEAR 15. CRANKSHAFT SPROCKET
a 6. TACHOMETER GENERATOR 16. CLAMP RING
7. CAMSHAFT SPROCKET 17. CHAIN TIGHTENER
8. CAMSHAFT DRIVE GEAR 18. IDLER SPROCKET
(ENGINE SPEED) 19. TACHOMETER GEAR
- GOVERNOR DRIVE GEAR
- CAMSHAFT GEAR
75.111X
Figure 2-26.—Camshaft and accessory drive mechanism,
573
fuel injection system is to deliver fuel to the is influenced in part, by ‘‘atomization’’ and
cylinders, under specified conditions. The con- ‘‘nenetration’’ of the fuel. As used in connec-
ditions must be in accordance with the power tion with fuel injection, atomization means the
requirements of the engine. breaking up of the fuel, as it enters the cylinder,
The first condition to be met is that of the into small particles which form a mist-like
injection equipment. The quantity of fuel in- spray. Penetration is the distance through which
jected determines the amount of energy avail- the fuel particles are carried by the kinetic
able, through combustion, to the engine. Smooth energy imparted to them as they leave the in-
engine operation and even distribution of the jector or nozzle.
load between the cylinders depend upon the Atomization is obtained when the liquid fuel,
same volume of fuel being admittedtoa particu- under high pressure, passes through the small
lar cylinder each time it fires, and upon equal opening or openings in the injector or nozzle.
volumes of fuel being delivered to all cylinders As the fuel enters the combustion space, high
of the engine. The measuring device of a fuel velocity is developed because the pressure in
injection system must also be designed to vary the cylinder is lower than the fuel pressure.
the amount of fuel being delivered as changes The friction created as the fuel passes through
in load and speed vary. the air at high velocity causes the fuel to break
In addition to measuring the amount of fuel up into small particles. Penetration of the fuel
injected, the system must properly time injec- particles depends chiefly upon the viscosity of
tion to ensure efficient combustion, so maxi- the fuel, the fuel-injection pressure, and the
mum energy can be obtained from the fuel. size of the opening through which the fuel enters
Early injection tends to develop excessive cyl- the cylinder.
inder pressures; and extremely early injection Fuel must be atomized into particles suf-
will cause knocking. Late injection tends to ficiently small so as to produce a Satisfactory
decrease power output; and, if extremely late, ignition delay period. However, if the atomiza-
it will cause incomplete combustion. In many tion process reduces the size of the fuel particles
engines, fuel injection equipment is designed to too much, they will lack penetration; the smaller
vary the time of injection, as speed or load the particles the less the penetration. Lack of
varies. sufficient penetration results in the small par-
A fuel system must also control the rate of ticles of fuel igniting before they have been
injection. The rate at which fuel is injected de- properly distributed. Since penetration and
termines the rate of combustion. The rate of atomization tend to oppose each other, a com-
injection at the start should be low enough that promise in the degree of each is necessary in
excessive fuel does not accumulate in the cylin- the design of fuel injection equipment if uniform
der during the initial ignition delay (before com- fuel distribution is to be obtained. The pres-
bustion begins). Injection should proceed at sure required for efficient injection, and, in
such a rate that the rise in combustion pressure turn, proper distribution, is dependent upon the
is not excessive, yet the rate of injection must compression pressure in the cylinder, the size
be such that fuel is introduced as rapidly as is of the opening through which the fuel enters the
permissible in order to obtain complete com- combustion space, the shape of the combustion
bustion. An incorrect rate of injection will space, and the amount of turbulence created in
affect engine operation in the same way as the combustion space.
improper timing. If the rate of injection is too The fuel system ofa gasoline engine is basic-
high, the results will be similar to those caused ally similar to that of a diesel engine, except
by an excessively early injection; if the rate that a carburetor is used instead of injection
is too low, the results will be similar to those equipment. While injection equipment handles
caused by an excessively late injection. fuel only, the carburetor handles both air and
A fuel injection system must increase the fuel. The carburetor must meet requirements
pressure of the fuel sufficiently to overcome similar to those of an injection system except
compression pressures and to ensure proper that in the carburetor air is also involved. In
distribution of the fuel injected into the com- brief, the carburetor must accurately meter
bustion space. Proper distribution is essential fuel and air, and in varying percentages, ac-
if the fuel is to mix thoroughly with the air and cording to engine requirements. The carburetor
burn efficiently. While pressure is a prime also functions to vaporize the fuel charge and
contributing factor, the distribution of the fuel then mix it with the air, in the proper ratio.
574
The amount of fuel mixed with the air must be engine is produced when electricity is forced
carefully regulated, and must change with the across a gap formed by two electrodes in the
engine’s different speeds and loads. The amount combustion chamber. The electrical ignition
of fuel required by an engine which is warming- system furnishes the spark periodically to each
up is different from the amount required by an cylinder, at a predetermined position of piston
engine which has reached operating tempera- travel. In order to accomplish this function, an
ture. Special fuel adjustment is needed for rapid electrical ignition system must have, first of
acceleration. All of these varying requirements all, either a source of electrical energy or a
are met automatically by the modern carburetor. means of developing electrical energy. In some
cases, a storage battery is usedas the source of
Engine Ignition Systems.—The methods by energy; in other cases, a magneto generates
which the fuel mixture is ignited inthe cylinders electricity for the ignition system. The voltage
of diesel and gasoline engines differ as muchas from either a battery or a magneto is not suf-
the methods of obtaining a combustible mixture ficiently high enough to overcome the resistance
in the cylinders of the two engines. An ignition created by pressure in the combustion chamber
system, as such, is not commonly associated with and to cause the proper spark in the gap formed
diesel engines. There is no one group of parts in by the two electrodes in the combustive cham-
a diesel engine which functions only to cause ig- ber. Therefore, it is essential that an ignition
nition, as there is ina gasoline engine. However, system include a device which increases the
a diesel engine does have an ‘‘ignition system’’; voltage of the electricity supplied to the system
otherwise, combustion would not take place in sufficiently to cause a ‘‘hot’’ spark in the gap
the cylinders. of the spark plug. The device which performs
In a diesel engine, the parts which may be this function is generally called an ignition coil
considered as forming the ignition system are or induction coil.
the piston, the cylinder liner, and the cylinder Since a spark must occur momentarily in
head. These parts are not commonly thought of each cylinder at a specific time, an ignition
as forming an ignition system since they are system must include a device whichcontrols the
generally associated with other functions suchas timing of the flow of electricity to each cylinder.
forming the combustion space and transmitting This control is accomplished by interrupting the
power. Nevertheless, ignition in a diesel engine flow of electricity from the source tothe voltage-
depends upon the piston, the cylinder, and the increasing device (ignition coil), The interrup-
head. These parts not only form the space where tion of the flow of electricity also plays an im-
combustion takes place but also provide the portant part in the process of increasing voltage.
means by which the air is compressed to gen- The interrupting device is generally called the
erate the heat necessary for self-ignition of the breaker assembly. A device which will dis-
combustible mixture. In other words, both the tribute electricity to the different cylinders in
source (air) of ignition heat and its generation the proper firing order is also necessary. The
(compression) are wholly within a diesel engine. part which performs this function is called the
This is not true of a gasoline engine because distributing mechanism. Spark plugs to provide
the combustion cycles of the twotypes of engines the gaps and wiring and switches to connect the
are different. In a gasoline engine, even though parts of the system are essential to completean
the piston, the cylinder, and the head form the ignition system.
combustion space, as in a diesel engine, the heat All ignition systems are basically the same,
necessary for ignition is caused by energy from except for the source of electrical energy. The
a source external to the combustion space. The source of energy is frequently used as a basis
completion of the ignition process, involving the for classifying ignition systems; thus the bat-
transformation of mechanical energy into elec- tery-ignition system and the magneto-ignition
trical energy and then into heat energy, requires system.
several parts, each performing a specific func-
tion. The parts which make the transformation Engine Cooling Systems.—A great amount
of energy and the system which they form are of heat is generated within an engine during
commonly thought of when reference is made to operation. Combustion produces the greater
an ignition system. portion of this heat; however, compression of
The spark which causes the ignition of the gases within the cylinders and friction between
explosive mixture in the cylinders of a gasoline moving parts add to the total amount of heat
575
PRINCIPLE OF NAVAL ENGINEERING
developed within an engine. Since the tempera- In the closed system, fresh water (or an anti-
ture of combustion alone is about twice that at freeze solution) is circulated through
the engine.
which iron melts, it is apparent that, without The fresh water is then cooled by salt water.
some means of dissipating heat, an engine would In marine installations, the closed system is
operate for only a very limited time. Without the type commonly used; however, some older
proper temperature control, the lubricating-oil marine installations use a system of the open
film between moving parts would be destroyed, type. The cooling systems of diesel and gasoline
proper clearance between parts could not be engines are Similar mechanically and in func-
maintained, and metals would tend to fail. tion performed.
Of the total heat supplied to the cylinder of The cooling system of an engine may include
an engine by the burning fuel, only one-third, such parts as pumps, coolers, engine passages,
approximately, is transformed into useful work; water manifolds, valves, expansion tank, piping,
an equal amount is lost to the exhaust gases. strainers, connections, and instruments. The
This leaves approximately 30 to 35 percent of schematic diagrams in figure 22-27 and 22-28
the heat of combustion which must be removed show the parts and the path of water flow in the
in order to prevent damage to engine parts. The fresh- and sea-water circuits of one arrange-
greater portion of the heat which may produce ment of a closed cooling system.
harmful results is transferred from the engine Even though there are many types and models
through the medium of water; lubricating oil, air, of engines used by the Navy, the cooling systems
and fuel are also utilized to aid inthe cooling of of most of these engines include the same basic
an engine. All methods of heat transfer are uti- parts. Design and location of parts, however,
lized in keeping engine parts and fluids (air, may differ considerably from one engine to
water, fuel, and lubricating oil)atsafe operating another.
temperatures.
In a marine engine, the cooling system may ENGINE LUBRICATING SYSTEMS.—It is
be of the open or closed type. In the open sys- essential to the operation of an engine that the
tem, the engine is cooled directly by salt water. contacting surfaces of all moving parts of an
EXHAUST MANIFOLD EXTENSION

FRESH WATER PUMP—~[ = ATMOSPHERIC VENT
() TEMPERATURE } | 1
INDICATOR b ENGINE JACKET
kelSand]
via
DUPLEX PRESSURE | -RESTRICTION
GAGE l
EXPANSION. TANK
SUPERCHARGER
CONNECTION
LUBE OIL HEAT | ADAPTER

EXCHANGER
UPPER nl EXHAUST
THERMOMETER EXHAUST MANIFOLD
MANIFOLD
FRESH WATER HEAT a araees —— RESTRICTION
EXCHANGER o
aes)u EXHAUST MANIFOLD EXTENSION
Ww ENGINE JACKET NOZZLE
Ty BOX
FRESH WATER PUMP TEMPERATURE INDICATOR THERMOSTAT COUPLING
75.208XK
Figure 22-27,—Fresh water circuit of a closed cooling system,
576
OVERBOARD DISCHARGE
FRESH WATER
HEAT EXCHANGER
i
RESTRICTION REVERSE-REDUCTION
GEAR LUBE OIL
HEAT EXCHANGER
SEA WATER STRAINER

PRESSURE SEA COCK
GAGE
SEA WATER INTAKE THRU

HULL FITTING AND STRAINER
75.209X
Figure 22-28.—Salt water circuit of a closed cooling system.
engine be kept free from abrasion and that there proper temperature, and free of impurities. In
be a minimum of friction and wear. If sliding order to meet these requirements, the lubri-
contact is made by two dry metal surfaces cating systems of many engines include, external
under pressure, excessive friction, heat, and to the engine, such parts as tanks and sumps,
wear result. Friction, heat, and wear can be pumps, coolers, strainers and filters, and puri-
greatly reduced if metal-to-metal contact is fiers. These parts and their relative location
prevented by keeping a clean film of lubricant for one type of engine are Shown infigure 22-29.
between the metal surfaces. The engine system which supplies the oil
Lubrication and the system which supplies required to perform the functions of lubrication
lubricating oil to engine parts that involve slid- is of the pressure type in practically all modern
ing or rolling contact are as important to suc- internal combustion engines. Even though many
cessful engine operation as air, fuel, and heat variations exist in the details of engine lubri-
are to combustion. It is important not only that cating systems, the parts of such a system and
the proper type of lubricant be used, but also its operation are basically the same, whether
that the lubricant be supplied to the engine parts the system is in a diesel or a gasoline engine.
in the proper quantities, at the proper tempera- Any variance between the systems of the two
ture, and that provisions be made to remove types of engines is generally due to differences
any impurities which enter the system. The in engine design and in opinions of manufacturers
engine lubricating oil system is designed to as to the best location of the component parts of
fulfill the above requirements. the system. In many cases, similar types of
The lubricating system of an engine may be components are used in the systems of diesel
thought of as consisting of two main divisions, and gasoline engines.
that external to the engine and that within the
engine. The internal division, or engine part, TRANSMISSION OF ENGINE POWER
of the system consists principally of passages
and piping; the external part of the system The fundamental characteristics of an in-
includes several components which aid in sup- ternal combustion engine make it necessary,
plying the oil in the proper quantity, at the in many cases, for the drive mechanism to
577
HAND
TRANSFER
GLOBE VALVE LUBE OIL COOLER

GLOBE VALVES STRAINER
CHECK VALVE cre = = WA
4..| = oa To
rae Th ———
GLOBE VALVE
= GLOBE VALVE
FROM TRANSFER] a
LUBRICATING ——_>
OIL PUMP GLOBE VALVE
=
WBE To TRANSFER
75.198X
Figure 22-29.—Sump-type lubricating oil filtering system.
change both the speed and the direction of shaft used to increase or decrease torque. Ifthe right
rotation in the driven mechanism, There are combination of gears is installed between the
various methods by which required changes of engine and the driven unit, the torque or ‘‘twist’’
speed and directions may be made during the will be sufficient to operate the driven unit.
transmission of power from the driving unit
to the driven unit. In most installations the job If maximum efficiency is to be obtained, an
is accomplished by a drive mechanism consist- engine must operate at a certain speed. Inorder
ing principally of gears and shafts. to obtain efficient engine operation, it might be
The process of transmitting engine power to necessary in some installations for the engine
a point where it can be used in performing to operate at a higher speed than that required
useful work involves a number of factors. Two for efficient operation of the driven unit. In
of these factors are torque and speed. other cases the speed of the engine may have
The force which tends to cause a rotational to be lower than the speed of the driven unit.
movement of an object is called torque or Through a combination of gears, the speed of
“‘twist’’. The crankshaft of an engine supplies the driven unit can be increased or decreased
a twisting force to the gears and shafts which so that the proper speed ratio exists between
transmit power to the driven unit. Gears are the units,
578
Types of Drive Mechanisms disconnecting the engine from the propeller

shaft. Devices used for this purpose are called
The term indirect drive describes a drive clutches and couplings.
mechanism which changes speed and torque. The arrangement of the components in an
Drives of this type are common to many marine indirect drive varies, depending upon the type
engine installations. Where the speed and the and size of the installation. In some small in-
torque of an engine need not be changed in order stallations, the clutch or coupling, the reverse
to drive a machine satisfactorily, the mecha- gear, and the reduction gear may be combined
nism used is a direct drive. Drives of this in a Single unit; in other installations, the clutch
type are commonly used where the engine or coupling and the reverse gear may be in one
furnishes power for the operation of auxiliaries housing and the reduction gear in a separate
such as generators and pumps. housing attached to the reverse-gear housing.
Drive mechanisms arranged in either manner
INDIRECT DRIVES.—The drive mechanism are usually called transmissions. The arrange-
of most engine-powered ships and many boats ment of the components in two different types of
are of the indirect type. With indirect drive, transmissions are shown in figures 22-30 and
the power developed by the engine(s) is trans- 22-31.
mitted to the propeller(s) indirectly, through an In the transmission shown in figure 22-30
intermediate mechanism whichreduces the shaft the housing is divided into two sections by the
speed. Speed reduction may be accomplished bearing carrier. The clutch or coupling assem-
mechanically (by a combination of gears) or by bly is in the forward section, and the gear as-
electrical means. sembly is in the after section of the housing.
Mechanical drives include devices which In the transmission shown in figure 22-31, note
reduce the shaft speed of the driven unit, pro- that the clutch assembly and the reverse gear
vide a means for reversing the direction of shaft assembly are in one housing, while the reduction
rotation in the driven unit, and permit quick- gear unit is in a separate housing (attached to
disconnect of the driving unit from the driven the clutch and the reverse gear housing).
unit. In large engine installations, the clutch or
The combination of gears which effects the coupling and the reverse gear may be combined;
speed reduction is called a reduction gear. In or they may be Separate units, located between
most diesel engine installations, the reduction the engine and a separate reduction gear; or
ratio does not exceed 3 to 1; there are some the clutch or coupling may be separate and the
units, however, which have reductions as high reverse gear andthe reduction gear may be com-
as 6 to 1. bined. An assembly of the last type is shown in
The propelling equipment of a boat or a ship figure 22-32.
must be capable of providing backing-down power In most geared-drive, multiple-propeller
as well as forward motive power. There are a ships, the propulsion units are independent of
few ships and boats in which backing down is ac- each other. An example of this type of arrange-
complished by reversing the pitch of the pro- ment is illustrated in figure 22-33,
peller; in most ships, however, backing down is In some installations, the drive mechanism
accomplished by reversing the direction of rota- is arranged so that two or more engines drive
tion of the propeller shaft. Inmechanical drives, a single propeller. This is accomplished by
reversing the direction of rotation of the pro- having the driving gear which is on, or con-
peller shaft may be accomplished in one of two nected to, the crankshaft of each engine trans-
ways: by reversing the direction of engine rota- mit power to the driven gear on the propeller
tion, or by the use of reverse gears. Of these shaft. In one type of installation, each of two
two methods, the use of reverse gears iS more propellers is driven by four diesel engines.
commonly employed in modern installations. The arrangement of the engines, the location of
More than reducing speed and reversing the the reduction gear, and the direction of rotation
direction of shaft rotation is required of the of the crankshaft and the propeller shaft in one
drive mechanism of a ship or a boat. It is type of ‘‘quad’’ power unit are illustrated in
frequently necessary to allow an engine to oper- figure 22-34.
ate without power being transmitted to the The drive mechanism illustrated includes
propeller. For this reason, the drive mecha- four clutch assemblies (one mounted to each
nism of a ship or boat must include a means of engine flywheel) and one gear box. The box
579
CAMSHAFT GEAR
FORWARD _ DISK } PLUNGER

SPRING - LOADED
REVERSE DISK MECHANISM
SLIDING SLEEVE
THROWOUT FORK
FORWARD SLEEVE
REVERSE SHAFT
2S CRE LSS
THROWOUT BEARING
FLOATING PLATE FRONT PLATE
75,245
Figure 22-30.—Transmission with independent oil system.
OPERATING LEVER
— DRUM BRAKE BAND
REDUCTION
INTERNAL GEAR SHAFT
cea EXTERNAL \, —-»§-«S P(N al — ts WA TN

PROPELLER GEAR
SHAFT
REDUCTION GEAR UNIT CLUTGH AND CRANKSHAFT GEAR

REVERSE GEAR
HOUSING
75.246
Figure 22-31.—Clutch and reverse gear assembly with attached reduction gear unit.
580
FORWARD DRIVE
SHAFT
FORWARD CLUTCH
any time. An increase or decrease in genera-
tor voltage is used as a means of controlling
FORWARD DRUM
the speed of the propeller. Changes in genera-
tor voltage may be brought about by electrical
means, by changes in engine speed, and by a
combination of these methods. The controls of
an electric drive may be in a location remote
from the engine, such as the pilot house.
In an electric drive, reversing the direction
~ “FORWARD PINION of rotation of the propeller is not accomplished
REVERSE STEP-UP GEAR by the use of a reverse gear. The electrical
REVERSE
DRUM REVERSE
system is arranged so that the flow of current
CLYTCH
through the motor can be reversed. This re-
versal of current flow causes the motor to
— REVERSE
ay SHAFT revolve in the opposite direction. Thus, the
direction of rotation of the motor and of the
propeller can be controlled by manipulating the
electrical controls.
DIRECT DRIVES.—In some marine engine

ASTERN
installations, power from the engine is trans-
REVERSE STEP-UP PINION
mitted to the driven unit without a change in
shaft speed; that is, by a direct drive. Ina
75.247 direct drive, the connection between the engine
Figure 22-32.—Clutch and reverse reduction and the driven unit may consist of a ‘‘solid’’
gear assembly. coupling, a flexible coupling, or a combination
of both. A clutch may or may not be included
contains two drive pinions and the main drive in a direct drive, depending upon the type of
gear. Each pinion is driven by the clutch or installation. In some installations, a reverse
coupling shafts of two engines, through splines gear is included.
in the pinion hubs. The pinions drive the single Solid couplings vary considerably in design.
main gear, which is connected to the propeller Some solid couplings consist of two flanges
shaft. bolted solidly together. In other direct drives,
Electric drives are used in the propulsion the driven unit is attached directly to the en-
plants of some diesel-driven ships. With elec- gine crankshaft by a nut.
tric drive, there is no mechanical connection Solid couplings offer a positive means of
between the engine(s) and the propeller(s). In transmitting torque from the crankshaft of an
such plants, the diesel engines are connected engine; however, a solid connection does not
directly to generators. The electricity produced allow for any misalignment nor does it absorb
by such an engine-driven generator is trans- any of the torsional vibrations transmitted from
mitted, through cables, to a motor. The motor the engine crankshaft or shaft vibrations.
is connected to the propeller shaft directly, or Since solid coupling will not absorb vibra-
indirectly through a reduction gear. When a tion and will not permit any misalignment, most
reduction gear is included in a diesel-electric direct drives consist of a flange-type coupling
drive, the gear is located between the motor which is used in connection with a flexible
and the propeller. coupling. Connections of the flexible type are
The generator and the motor of a diesel— common to the drives of many auxiliaries, such
electric drive may be of the alternating current as engine-generator sets. Flexible couplings
(a-c) type or of the direct current (d-c) type; are also used in indirect drives to connect the
almost all diesel-electric drives in the Navy, engine to the drive mechanism.
however, are of the direct current type. Since The two solid halves of a flexible coupling
the speed of a d-c motor varies directly with are joined by a flexible element. The flexible
the voltage furnished by the generator, the con- element is made of rubber, neoprene, or steel
trol system of an electric drive is so arranged springs. Two views of one type of flexible
that the generator voltage can be changed at coupling are shown in figure 22-35.
581
LUBRICATING
LUBRICATING OIL FRESH WATER
SERVICE PUMPS HEAT EXCHANGER Olt COOLER Sa TaNNG
BS FUEL b OIL STRAINER 100 KW DIESEL
GENERATOR SET
. 3 ou gE AIR STRAINER
@ BRESSURE Z AND REDUCING VALVE Pe ne oereel)
TAN LUBRICATING O° al e=--9 at
REDUCTION EAR Oo, OIL FILTER p> AIR TANKS \ Le
COOLING ones
ert ? a)
FUEL OIL |
Os PUMP 4 GAGE 60 KW DIESEL = \—---3
FUEL OIL ee
as BOARD GENERATOR
ocr
DRIP etleee CHA SS ae eekeesessen
FRESH WATER ? ee FRESH WATER
= i] EXPANSION TANK { — EXPANSION TANK
(35 GALLONS) ee ee I (35 GALLONS)
STARBOARD SIDE FUEL OIL
DIESEL ENGINE DAY TANK
FORWARD (300 GALLONS)
———— eee
lee FORISIDE
CEB DIESEL ENGINE Forman
=j be-=--~ vie ae
ee ——— PRESSURE TANK
cig Ea ri AFT ©
| SPECIAL SERVICE DIESEL ‘i FUEL OIL OIL HAND PUMP
! GENERATOR SET vil DAY TANK
Measlt Wel mises eee as (300 GALLONS) I}
REDUCTION [7] [+] [>]
GEAR
= UO = all FUEL OIL Le
———
ot iS © a DRIP TANK
L.. = Oh Oo
Wee ire.. a eats
FUEL OIL HAND PUMP ax
60 KW DIESEL
GENERATOR SET LUBRICATING OIL
OO) .
SERVICE 'S
orctage: er: qth $3
Ke
ae
REDUCTION GEAR A
COOLING CIRCULATING PUMP
FRESH WATER LUBRICATING LUBRICATING ae

HEAT EXCHANGER OIL COOLER OIL STRAINER
LUBRICATING AIR STRAINER
OlL FILTER AND REDUCING
75,.248X
Figure 22-33.—Example of independent propulsion units.
The coupling illustrated has radial spring bearing bore of the crankshaft gear through the
packs as the flexible element. The power from pilot bearing.
the engine is transmitted from the inner ring,
or spring holder, of the coupling, through a num- CLUTCHES, REVERSE GEARS, AND
ber of spring packs to the outer spring holder, REDUCTION GEARS
or driven member. A large driving disk con-
nects the outer spring holder to the flange on Clutches may be used on direct-driven pro-
the driven shaft. The pilot on the end of the pulsion Navy engines to provide a means of
crankshaft fits into a bronze, bushed bearing on disconnecting the engine from the propeller
the outer driving disk to center the driven shaft. Shaft. In small engines, clutches are usually
The ring gear of the jacking mechanism is combined with reverse gears and used for
pressed onto the rim of the outer spring holder. maneuvering the ship. In large engines, special
The inner driving disk, through which the types of clutches are used to obtain special
camshaft gear train is driven, is fastened tothe coupling or control characteristics, and to pre-
outer spring holder. A splined ring gear is vent torsional vibration.
bolted to the inner driving disk. This helical, Reverse gears are used on marine engines
internal gear fits on the outer part of the crank- to reverse the direction of rotation of the pro-
shaft gear and forms an elastic drive, through peller shaft, when maneuvering the ship, without
the crankshaft gear which rides on the crank- changing the direction of rotation of the engine.
shaft. The splined ring gear is split andthe two They are used principally on relatively small
parts are bolted together with a spacer block at engines. If a high-output engine has a reverse
each split-joint. gear, the gear is used for low-speed operation
The parts of the coupling shown in figure only, and does not have full-load and full-speed
22-35 are lubricated by oil flowing from the capacity. For maneuvering ships with large
: REDUCTION GEAR
Eg
Fi {iat aie
ro et
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af QO © [rc hee Oe iLApOw.© fyi
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SS
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CLUTCHES
75,249X
Figure 22-34.—Four engines (quad unit) arranged to drive one propeller.
direct-propulsion engines, the engines are re- types, depending upon whether the friction sur-
versed, faces operate with or without a lubricant. The
Reduction gears are used to obtain low designs of both types are similar, except that
propeller-shaft speed with a high engine speed. the wet clutches require a large friction area
When accomplishing this, the gears correlate because of the reduced friction coefficient be-
two conflicting requirements of a marine engine tween the lubricated surfaces. The advantages
installation. These opposing requirements are: of wet clutches are smoother operation andless
(1) for minimum weight and size for a given wear of the friction surfaces. Wear results
power output, engines must have a relatively from slippage between the surfaces not only
high rotative speed; and (2) for maximum ef- during engagement and disengagement, but also,
ficiency, propellers must rotate at a relatively to a certain extent, during the operation of the
low speed, particularly where high thrust capa- mechanism. Some wet-type clutches are filled
city is desired, with oil periodically; in other clutches the oil,
being a part of the engine-lubricating system,
is circulated continuously. Sucha friction clutch
Friction Clutches and Gear Assemblies
incorporates provisions which will prevent
worn-off particles from being carried by the
Friction clutches are commonly used with circulating lubricating oil to the bearings, gears,
smaller, high-speed engines, up to 500 hp. etc.
However, certain friction clutches, in com- The friction surfaces are generally construc-
bination with a jaw-type clutch, are used with ted of different materials, one being of cast iron
engines up to 1400 hp; and pneumatic clutches, or steel; the other is lined with some asbestos-
with a cylindrical friction surface, with engines base composition, or sintered iron or bronze
up to 2000 hp. for dry clutches, and bronze, cast iron, or steel
Friction clutches are of two general styles; for wet clutches. Cast-iron surfaces are pre-
the disk and the band styles. In addition, fric- ferred because of their better bearing qualities
tion clutches can be classified into dry and wet and greater resistance to scoring or scuffing.
583
OUTER
SPRING HOLDER
INNER
SPRING HOLDER
OIL SLINGER
oe --.
DRIVEN FLANGE
DRIVE SPRING
PACKS
TAP BOLT
; % ‘4 i. 3
VA a
che \
PILOT BUSHING ¥
DOWEL
, CRANKSHAFT GEAR
OUTER DRIVING iz > INNER

oem aay iiG
DISK
DRIVE SPRING INNER SPRING HOLDER

TURNING RING ao
= PACK ATTACHING BOLTS
GEAR
75,251X
Figure 22-35.—Flexible coupling.
Sintered blocks are made of finely powdered iron the housing nearest the engine. It is a dry-type,
or bronze particles, molded in forms to the de- twin-disk clutch with two driving disks. Each
sired shape, under high temperature and pres- disk is connected, through shafting, to a sepa-
sure. rate reduction gear train in the after part of the
As far as engagement of the friction clutches housing. One disk and reduction train is for
is concerned, the application of force-producing reverse rotation of the shaft and propeller, the
friction can be obtained either by mechanically other disk and reduction train for forward ro-
jamming the friction surfaces together by some tation. The forward and reverse gear trains
toggle-action linkage, or through stiff springs for Gray Marine engines are illustrated in
(coil, leaf, or flat-disk type). Air pressure is figure 22-36. In figures 22-30 and 22-36, it will
also used to engage friction clutches. be observed that the gear trains are different in
the two illustrations; however, the operation of
TWIN-DISK CLUTCH AND GEAR MECHA- the mechanisms shown is basically the same.
NISM.—One of the several types of transmis- Since the gears for forward and reverse
sions used by the Navy is the twin disk trans- rotation of the twin-disk clutch and gear mech-
mission mechanism, shown in figure 22-30. Gray anism remain in mesh at all times, there is no
Marine high-speed diesel engines are generally shifting of gears. In shifting the mechanism,
equipped with a combination clutch, andreverse only the floating plate, located between the for-
and reduction gear unit—all contained ina single ward and reverse disks is shifted. The shifting
housing, at the after end of the engine. A sec- mechanism is a Sliding sleeve, which does not
tional view of this mechanism is shown in figure rotate, but has a loose sliding fit around the
22-30. hollow forward shaft. A throwout fork (yoke)
The clutch assembly of the twin disk trans- engages a pair of shifter blocks pinned on either
mission mechanism is contained in the part of side of the sliding sleeve.
584
so that it rotates freely between the two

disks.)
The reversing gear unit is lubricated sepa-
rately from the engine by its ownsplash system.
FORWARD ROTATION The oil level of the gear housing should never
be kept over the high mark because too much
oil will cause overheating of the gear unit. The
oil is cooled by air which is blown through the
baffled top cover by the rotating clutch. Grease
-—
fittings are installed for bearings not lubricated
=e
=
by the oil.
q
pe JOE’S DOUBLE CLUTCH REVERSE GEAR.—
SPRING-LOADED MECHANISM — lw A gear mechanism found on many power boats
is Joe’s double clutch reverse gear. The in-
SLIDING SLEEVE Stallation of a typical Joe’s reverse gear and
clutch assembly for the Navy type DC engine
REVERSE ROTATION is shown in figure 22-37. The drive from the
engine crankshaft is taken into the clutch and
reverse gear housing by an extension of the
crankshaft drive gear. The crankshaft rotation
is transmitted to the reduction gear shaft through
the clutch and the reverse gear unit.
If one could open the clutch and reverse gear
housing and watch the reverse gear drum and
the reduction gear shaft while the engine is run-
ning, the following operation would be observed:
When the operating lever is thrown forward,
the drum and reduction gear shaft rotate in the
75.252 Same direction as the engine crankshaft. This
Figure 22-36.—Forward and reverse gear trains causes forward rotation of the propeller.
for Gray Marine engines. In the intermediate position of the operating
lever, the drum rotates but the reduction gear
The clutch operating lever moves the throw- shaft remains stationary. This is the neutral
out fork, which in turn shifts the sliding sleeve Setting.
lengthwise along the forward shaft. When the Forward rotation is obtained by dual clutch
operating lever is placed forward, the sliding action while reverse rotation is obtained through
sleeve is forced backward. In this position the the operation of the planetary gears. The unit
linkages of the spring-loaded mechanism pull consists of a housing enclosing a split conical
the floating pressure plate against the forward clutch and a multi-plate friction clutch and
disk, and cause forward rotation. When the op- gearing. Additional components include the col-
erating lever is pulled back as ‘far as it can go, lar and yoke and an outer brake band with an
the sliding sleeve is pushed forward. In this Operating toggle mechanism. Movement of the
position, the floating pressure plate engages the sliding collar selects the direction of rotation.
reverse disk and back plate for reverse rota- When the operating lever is placed in the
tion, forward position, the linkage between the lever
The clutch has a positive neutral which is and the collar and yoke assembly slides the
set by placing the operating lever in a middle collar lengthwise to the left along the reduction
position, Then the sliding sleeve is also in a gear shaft. This motion operates the toggle
middle position, and the floating plate rotates assembly which, in turn, drives the three
freely between the two clutch disks. (The only plungers to the right, pressing them hard against
control that the operator has is to cause the the disk clutch.
floating plate to bear heavily against either the When the plungers are driven hard against
forward disk or the reverse disk, or to put the the disk clutch, the disks are locked together
floating plate in the positive neutral position by friction. This locks the drum housing to the
585
PLUNGER DISK CLUTC BEARING CAGE
CONE CLUTCH
TOGGLE ASSEMBLY.
ENGINE SHAFT
COLLAR AND
YOKE
REDUCTION
GEAR SHAFT BRAKE BAND
ENGINE SLEEVE
PROPELLER
DRIVE SLEEVE
DRUM
PINION GEAR (LONG) PINION GEAR (SHORT)
75.254
Figure 22-37.—Cutaway view of Joe’s clutch and reverse gear.
propeller drive sleeve. In addition, the force of and both clutches are disengaged. At the
the plungers on the disk clutch is transmitted Same time the brake band is tightened around
to the bearing cage, which is a cylinder con- the drum, holding the drum stationary. The
taining the reverse gear pinions. The bearing bearing cage is locked to the drum. The cone
cage, in turn, is pressed against the cone clutch, clutch rotates freely out of contact withthe front
Thus, the cone clutch is forced against its seat cover. Then the motion from the engine shaft to
in the front cover of the gear box, clamping the the reduction gear shaft is transmitted through
clutch to the front cover by friction. Since the the inner gear assembly.
cone clutch is in mesh on its inner surface with
the engine sleeve, which is in turn keyed to the The reverse gear pinions are held in the
engine shaft, the front cover is now locked to bearing cage, which is stationary for reverse
the engine shaft. The front cover must rotate rotation. There are three short pinions, each
with the engine shaft, in the same direction. in mesh with the small inner gear of the engine
Now, Since the front cover is bolted to the sleeve. The three short pinions mesh with the
drum housing, which is locked to the propeller three long pinions, each of which also meshes
drive sleeve by the disk clutch, there is a com- with the propeller drive sleeve gear. Engine
plete lock from the engine shaft to the reduc- rotation is transmitted from the engine sleeve
tion gear shaft. The entire assembly rotates to the short pinions, to the long pinions, and to
as a unit in the same direction as the engine the propeller drive sleeve. These pinions (gear
shaft; this motion gives the propeller a forward train) cause the reduction gear shaft to rotate
rotation, opposite to the engine rotation (see arrows in
When the operating lever is thrown into the fig. 22-37), and give the propeller a reverse
reverse position, the plungers are withdrawn, rotation.
586
Note that in figure 22-38, which shows the below the engine, returns to the sump by means
mechanism more clearly, the gears are set for of a scavenging pump.
reverse rotation, and the brake band is clamped Airflex Clutch and Gear Assembly.—On the
to the drum. The parts whichare Shadedare held larger diesel-propelled ships, the clutch, re-
stationary by the brake band, and the remaining verse and reduction gear unit has totransmit an
internal parts, whichare not shaded, rotate. (The enormous amount of power. To maintain the
rotation of the engine shaft and engine sleeve is weight and size of the mechanism as low as
transmitted directly to the cone clutch and the possible, special clutches have been designed
short pinions. The cone clutch rotates freely out for large diesel installations. One of these is
of contact with the stationary front cover. The the airflex clutch and gear assembly used with
short pinions drive the long pinions, which drive some General Motors engines on LST’s.
the propeller drive sleeve. The latter unit is A typical airflex clutch and gear assembly,
keyed to and drives the reduction gear shaft, for ahead and astern rotation, is shown infigure
which rotates opposite to the engine shaft.) 22-32. There are two clutches, one for forward
The reduction gear unit is bolted to the rotation and one for reverse rotation. The
reverse gear housing, as shown in figure 22- clutches are bolted to the engine flywheel by
31. It consists merely of an external gear, means of a steel spacer, so that they both rotate
mounted on the reduction gear shaft, and in mesh with the engine at all times, andat engine speed.
with a larger internal gear, mounted onthe pro- Each clutch has a flexible tire (or gland) on the
peller shaft. Power is transferred, at areduced inner side of a steel shell. Before the tires are
speed, from the smaller drive gear tothe larger inflated, they will rotate out of contact with the
internal gear. drums, which are keyed to the forward and
Lubrication of the clutch and reverse gear reverse drive shafts. When air under pressure
mechanism is accomplished by means of a (100 psi) is sent into one of the tires, the inside
drilled passage in the crankshaft which supplies diameter of the clutch decreases. This causes
oil, as a spray, to the gears and other moving the friction blocks on the inner tire surface to
parts. This oil returns to the engine sump by come in contact with the clutch drum, locking
gravity. the drive shaft with the engine.
Lubrication of the reduction gear unit is The parts of the airflex clutch which give
accomplished by an external line from the the propeller ahead rotation are illustrated in
engine’s main oil gallery. Oil is sprayed over the upper view of figure 22-32. The clutch tire
the gears and moving parts to lubricate and nearest the engine (forward clutch) is inflated
cool them. Excess oil either drains back to the to contact and drive the forward drum with the
engine Sump by gravity, or, where the unit is engine. The forward drum is keyed to the forward
TOGGLE PLUNGER BRAKE MECHANISM

ASSEMBLY BRAKE BAND
p LONG PINION
DRUM
SHORT PINION
PIVOT
POINTS
1 F;
{ ee ; FRONT
= WV COVER
DISK CLUTCH BEARING CAGE CONE

CLUTCH
ae REDUCTION
AND LLYOKE GEAR SHAFT PROPELLER ENGINE SLEEVE
ORIVE SLEEVE ENGINE SHAFT
75.255
Figure 22-38.—Schematic diagram of Joe’s reverse gear assembly.
587
drive shaft, which carries the double helical the small air orifice. The purpose of the re-
forward pinion at the after end of the gear box. stricted orifice is to delay the inflation of the
The forward pinion is in constant mesh with the clutch to be engaged, when shifting from one
double helical main gear, which is keyed on the direction of rotation to the other. The delay is
propeller shaft. By following through the gear necessary to allow the other clutch to be fully
train, you can See that, for ahead motion, the deflated and out of contact with its drum before
propeller rotates in a direction opposite to the the inflating clutch can make contact with its
engine’s rotation. drum.
The supply air goes to the rotary air joint
The parts of the airflex clutch which give in which a hollow carbon cylinder is held to
the propeller astern rotation are illustrated in the valve shaft by spring tension. This pre-
the lower view of figure 22-32. The reverse vents leakage between the stationary carbon
clutch is inflated to engage the reverse drum, seal and the rotating air valve shaft. The air
which is then driven by the engine. The reverse goes from the rotary joint to the four-way air
drum is keyed to the short reverse shaft, which valve. The sliding-sleeve assembly of the four-
surrounds the forward drive shaft. A large way valve can be shifted endwise along the valve
reverse step-up pinion transmits the motion to shaft by operating the control lever.
the large reverse step-up gear on the upper When the shifter arm on the control lever
shaft. The upper shaft rotation is opposite to Slides the valve assembly away fromthe engine,
the engine’s rotation. The main reverse pinion air is directed to the forward clutch. The four-
on the upper shaft is in constant mesh with the way valve makes the connection between the air
main gear. By tracing through the gear train, supply and the forward clutch, as follows: there
it may be seen that, for reverse rotation, the are eight neutral ports which connect the cen-
propeller rotates in the same direction as the tral air supply passage in the valve shaft with
engine. the sealed air chamber in the sliding member.
In the neutral position of the four-way valve, as
The diameter of the main gear of the airflex shown in figure 22-39, the air chamber is a
clutch is approximately 2 1/2 times as great dead end for the supply air. In the forward
as that of the forwardand reverse pinions. Thus, position of the valve, the sliding member un-
there is a speed reduction of 2 1/2 to 1 from covers eight forward ports, which connect with
either pinion to the propeller shaft. the forward passages conducting the air to the
Since the forward and main reverse pinions forward clutch. The air now flows through the
are in constant mesh with the main gear, the neutral ports, air chamber, forward ports, and
set that is not clutched in will rotate as idlers forward passages to inflate the forward clutch
driven from the main gear. The idling gears gland. As long as the valve is in the forward
rotate in a direction opposite to their rotation position, the forward clutch will remain inflated
when carrying the load. For example, with the and the entire forward air system will remain
forward clutch engaged, the mainreverse pinion at a pressure of 100 psi.
rotates in a direction opposite to its rotation for
LUBRICATION.—On most large gear units,
astern motion (note the dotted arrow inthe upper
a separate lubrication system is used. One
view of figure 22-32. Since the drums rotate in
lubrication system is shown in figure 22-40.
opposite directions, a control mechanism is in-
Oil is picked up from the gear boxby an electric-
stalled toprevent the engagement of both clutches
driven gear-type lubricating oil pump and is
simultaneously.
sent through a strainer and cooler. After being
The airflex clutch is controlled by an oper-
cleaned and cooled, the oil is returned to the
ating lever which works the air control housing,
gear box to cool and lubricate the gears. In
located at the after end of the forward pinion
twin installations, such as shown in figure 22-
shaft. The control mechanism, shown with the
40 a separate pump is used for each unit and a
airflex clutches in figure 22-39, directs the high
standby pump is interconnected for emergency
pressure air into the proper paths to inflate
use.
the clutch glands (tires). The air shaft, which
connects the control mechanism to the clutches,
Hydraulic Clutches or Couplings
passes through the forward drive shaft.
The supply air enters the control housing The fluid clutch (coupling) is widely used
through the air check valve and must pass through on Navy ships. The use of hydraulic coupling
588
FORWARD CLUTCH
FRICTION BLOCKS
SHIFTER ARM SLIDING

MEMBER
CONTROL gente
NEUTRAL PORTS
FORWARD
ROTARY AIR
JOINT
SPRING
CARBON CYLINDER
FORWARD = N
AIR SEALS’
FOUR-WAY VALVE SHAFT
EMERGENCY FITTING
eesSe CLUTCH
AIR ORIFICE
Al
pee
VALVE REVERSE PASSAGE
75.257
Figure 22-39.—Airflex clutches and control valves.
eliminates the need for a mechanical connection loads which may occur as a result of piston
between the engine and the reduction gears. seizure or fouling of the propeller. The power
Couplings of this type. operate with a minimum is transmitted entirely by the circulation of a
of slippage. driving fluid (oil) between radial passages ina
Some slippage is necessary for operation of pair of rotors. In addition, the assembly of the
the hydraulic coupling, since torque is trans- hydraulic coupling will absorb or allow for
mitted because of the principle of relative mo- slight misalignment.
tion between the two rotors. The power loss The two rotors and the oil-sealing cover of
resulting from the small amount of slippage is a typical hydraulic coupling are shown in figure
transformed into heat which is absorbed by the 22-41. The primary rotor (impeller) is attached
oil in the system. to the engine crankshaft. The secondary rotor
Compared with mechanical clutches, hydrau- (runner) is attached to the reduction gear pinion
lic clutches have a number of advantages. There shaft. The cover is bolted to the secondary
is no mechanical connection between the driving rotor and surrounds the primary rotor. Each
and driven elements of the hydraulic coupling. rotor is shaped like a half-doughnut with radial
Power is transmitted through the coupling very partitions. A shallow trough is welded into the
efficiently (97 percent) without transmitting partitions around the inner surface of the rotor.
torsional vibrations, or load shocks, from the The radial passages tunnel under this trough
engine to the reduction gears. This protects the (as indicated by the white arrows in fig. 22-
engine, the gears, and the shafting from sudden 41).
589
REDUCTION GEAR OIL COOLER REDUCTION GEAR OIL COOLER
20 PSI (2)
RELIEF VALVES
(CLOSED) (CLOSED)
l aE
GEAR OIL
STRAINER
(CLOSED) (CLOSED)
PORT REDUCTION GEAR. STARBOARD REDUCTION GEAR
75.258
Figure 22-40.—Schematic diagram of reverse gear lubrication system.
When the coupling is assembled, the two joint with the driving shaft. A ring valve,
rotors are placed facing each other to complete going entirely around the rotor housing, can be
the doughnut (fig. 22-42). The rotors donot quite operated by the ring valve mechanism to open
touch each other, the clearance between them or close a series of emptying holes (fig. 22-42)
being 1/4 to 5/8 inch, depending on the size of housing. When the ring valve is opened, the oil
the coupling. The curved radial passages of the will fly out from the rotor housing into the
two rotors are opposite each other, so that the coupling housing, draining the coupling com-
outer passages combine to make a circular pletely in two or three seconds. Even when the
passage except for the small gaps between the ring valve is closed, some oil leaks out into
rotors. the coupling housing, and additional oil enters
In the hydraulic coupling assembly, shown in through the inlet. From the coupling housing,
figure 22-42, the driving shaft is secured to the the oil is drawn by a pump to a cooler, then
engine crankshaft and the driven shaft goes to sent back to the coupling.
the reduction gear box. The oil inlet admits oil Another coupling assembly used on several
directly to the rotor cavities, which become Navy ships is the hydraulic coupling with piston-
completely filled. The rotor housing is bolted type quick-dumping valves, shown in figure 22-
to the secondary rotor and has an oil-sealed 43. In this coupling, in which the operation is
590
RING VALVE
MECHANISM
SECONDARY ROTOR RING

(RUNNER) VALVE
SECONDARY
ROTOR
OIL
INLET
RADIAL
PASSAGE
PRIMARY ROTOR
(IMPELLER)
y
i COUPLING
. HOUSING
.
COVER OR _-,
ROTOR HOUSING
RING VALVE
75.260
9.33 Figure 22-42,.—Hydraulic coupling assembly.
Figure 22-41.—Runner, impeller, and cover of
hydraulic coupling.
The scoop tubes are operated from the con-
Similar to the one described above, a series trol stand through a system of linkages. As
of piston valves, around the periphery of the one tube moves outward from the shaft center-
rotor housing, are normally held in the closed line and into the oil annulus, the other is being
position by springs. By means of air oil pres- retracted.
sure admitted to the valves, as shown in figure Four spring-loaded centrifugal valves are
22-43, the pistons are moved axially so as to mounted on the primary rotor. These valves
uncover drain ports, allowing the coupling to are arranged to open progressively as the speed
empty. Where extremely rapid declutching is of the primary rotor decreases. The arrange-
not required, the piston-valve coupling offers ment provides the necessary oil flow for cool-
the advantages of greater simplicity and lower ing as it is required. Quick-emptying piston
cost than the ring-valve coupling. valves are provided to give rapid emptying of
Another type of self-contained unit for cer- the circuit when the scoop tube is withdrawn
tain diesel engine drives is the scoop control from contact with the rotating oil annulus.
coupling, shown in figure 22-44. In couplings Under normal circulating conditions, oil fed
of this type, the oil is picked up by one of two into the collector ring passes into the piston
scoop tubes (one tube for each direction of valve control tubes. These tubes and connecting
rotation), mounted on the external manifold. passages conduct oil to the outer end of the
Each scoop tube contains two passages: a pistons. The centrifugal force of the oil in the
smaller one (outermost) handles the normal control tube holds the piston against the valve
flow of oil for cooling and lubrication, and a port, thus sealing off the circuit. When the
larger one which rapidly transfers oil from the scoop tube is withdrawn from the oil annulus
reservior directly to the working circuit. in the reservoir, the circulation of oil will be
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4 CENTRIFUGAL VALVES
ROTATING RESERVOIR
PRIMARY ROTOR (IMPELLER)
COLLECTOR RING
SCOOP TUBE OPERATING LEVER
SECONDARY ROTOR (RUNNER)

GEAR BOX END LUBE OIL FROM ENGINE 3 GPM « 10 PSI
ENGINE END
OIL FROM SCOOP TUBE —™—_
LUB OIL RETURN TO ENGINE
OIL TO FLUID DRIVE CIRCUIT —= — (GRAVITY)
LABYRINTH OVERFLOW
DRAIN
LABYRINTH SEAL
DRAIN CONNECTION
TO SUMP
BASE
SCOOP TUBE
PISTON VALVE CONTROL TUBE
4 QUICK-EMPTYING PISTON VALVES
75.262
Figure 22-44.—Scoop control hydraulic coupling.
interrupted and the oil in the control tubes will drag on the secondary shaft. Therefore, the
be discharged through the orifice in the outer centrifugal force of the oil in the primary rotor
end of the piston housing. This releases the will always be greater than that of the oil in the
pressure on the piston and allows it to move secondary rotor. This causes a constant flow
outward, thus opening the port for rapid dis- from the primary rotor to the secondary rotor
charge of oil. Resumption of oil flow from the at the outer ends of the radial passages, and
scoop tube will fill the control tubes; and the from the secondary rotor to the primary rotor
pressure will move the piston to the closed at the inner ends.
position. The power loss in the hydraulic clutch is
When the engine is started and the coupling small (3 percent) and is caused by friction in
is filled with oil, the primary rotor turns with the fluid itself. This means that approximately
the engine crankshaft. As the primary rotor 97 percent of the power delivered to the pri-
turns, the oil in its radial passages flows out- mary rotor is transmitted to the reduction gear.
ward, under centrifugal force. (See arrows in The loss power is transformed into heat that is
fig. 22-42.) This forces oil across the gap at absorbed by the oil—which is the reason for
the outer edge of the rotor and into the radial sending part of the oil through a cooler at all
passages of the secondary rotor, where the oil times.
flows inward. The oil in the primary rotor is
not only flowing outward, but is also rotating.
MAINTENANCE
As the oil flows over and into the secondary
rotor, it strikes the radial blades in the rotor.
The secondary rotor soon begins to rotate Keeping an internal combustion engine (diesel
and pick up speed, but it will always rotate or gasoline) in good operating condition demands
more slowly than the primary rotor because of a well-planned procedure of periodic inspection,
593
adjustments, maintenance, and repair. [If in- SYSTEM COMPONENT M.R. NUMBER
Propulsion Diesel
Spections are made regularly, many maladjust- Propulsion
13 = 14
ments can be detected and corrected before a FICANT NO.
serious casualty results. A planned mainte- SUB-SYSTFM RELATED M.R.
Propulsion Units
nance program will help to prevent major R-5
casualties and the occurrence of many operat-
ing troubles. 1.
DESCRIPTION AFTER 750 HOURS OF OPERATION:
Inspect cap screws on cylinder retainers TOTAL M/H:
for tightness. 6.0
There may be times when service require- 2. Inspect valve tappets for proper clearance. ELAPSED TIME:
ments interfere with a planned maintenance 2.0
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
program. In this event, routine maintenance 1. Air starting valve wired shut and tagged, "DO NOT OPEN".
must be performed as soon as possible after 2. Injection pump must be in stop position when jacking engine
by hand.
the specified interval of time has elapsed.
Necessary corrective measures should be ac- TOOLS, PARTS, MATERIALS, TEST EQUIPMENT
1. Cover gasket H-75 PAM 10866 6. Jacking bar

complished as soon as possible; if repair jobs 2. Torque wrench 7. Wire and tag
are allowed to accumulate, the result may be 3. Socket set 8. NAVSHIPS 341-3393
4. Feeler gauge
hurried and incomplete work. 5. Blowdown valve wrench
Since the Navy uses so many models of PROCEDURE
NOTE: To be done when engine is hot.

internal combustion engines, it is impossible
to specify any detailed overhaul procedure that a. Remove valve cover.
b, Remove vibration damper cover plate.
is adaptable to all models. However, there are c . Install barring socket plate.
several general rules which apply toall engines. d - Open blow down valves.
e. Using torque wrench and special torqueing tool, in-
They are: spect cap screws in cylinder retainer for tightness (216
inch pounds torque).
f, Continue checking and adjusting torque until a com-
plete round is made with no movement of the screws.
1. Detailed repair procedures are listed in NOTE: Working clockwise, check cap screw tightness in
following order 1, 5, 9, 7, 4, 2, 6, 10, 8, 3.
manufacturers’ instruction manuals and mainte-
2. a. With barring socket in place, jack engine as needed
nance pamphlets. Study the appropriate manuals to measure each valve tappet clearance.
and pamphlets before attempting any repair Maximum clearance 0.15 Minimum clearance .007
b. Remove barring socket plate and re-install the cap
work. Pay particular attention to tolerances, screws in vibration damper.
limits, and adjustments. c. Reinstall vibration damper cover plate.
d. Start engine and observe for diesel oil leak. (cont)
2. The highest degree of cleanliness must LOCATION
be observed in handling engine parts during

overhaul.
75.262
3. Before starting repair work, be sure that Figure 22-45.—Maintenance requirement card.
all required tools and replacements for known
defective parts are available.
4. Detailed records of repairs should be Requirement Cards (MRCs), and schedules for
kept. Such records should include the measure- the accomplishment of planned maintenance
ments of parts, hours in use, and new parts actions. An MRC Card is shown in figure 22-
installed. An analysis of such records will 45.
indicate the hours of operation that may be
expected from the various engine parts. This It should be noted that the PMS does not
knowledge is helpful as an aid in determining cover certain operating checks and inspections
when a part should be renewed in order to that are required as a normal part of the regu-
avoid a failure. lar watchstanding routine. For example, you
will not find such things as hourly pressure
5. Detailed information on preventive main- and temperature checks or routine oil level
tenance is contained in the PMS Manual for the checks listed as maintenance requirements
engineering department. All preventive main- under the PMS. Even though these routine
tenance should be accomplished in accordance operating checks are not listed as PMS require-
with the (3-M System) Planned Maintenance ments, you must of course still perform them
Subsystem which is based upon the proper in accordance with all applicable watchstander’s
utilization of the PMS manuals, Maintenance instructions.
594
CHAPTER 23
GAS TURBINES
The gas turbine engine, long regarded as cating internal combustion engine” has an gpen,
a promising but experimental prime mover, heated-engine cycle and the steam turbine™ has
has in recent years been developed to the point a closed, unheated-engine cycle. Incontrast, the
where it is entirely practicable for ship pro- gas turbine has an open, unheated-engine cycle—
pulsion and for a number of auxiliary applica- a combination we have not previously encoun-
tions. Gas turbine engines are currently in- tered in our study of naval machinery. The gas
stalled as prime movers on minesweepers, turbine cycle is open because it includes the
landing craft, PT boats, air-sea rescue boats, atmosphere; it is an unheated-engine cycle be-
hydrofoils, hydroskimmers, and other craft. In cause the working substance is heated in a de-
addition, the gas turbine engine is finding in- vice which is separate from the engine.
creasing application as the driving unit for Another way in which the three types of
ship’s service generators, pumps, and other engines differ is in the working substance. The
auxiliary units. working fluid in a steam turbine installation is
Although the gas turbine engine as a type steam. In both the reciprocating internal com-
need no longer be regarded as experimental, bustion engine and the gas turbine engine, the
many specific models of gas turbine engines are working fluid may be considered as being the
still at least partially experimental and subject hot gases of combustion that result from the
to further change and development. The discus- burning of fuel in air. However, there are very
sion in this chapter therefore deals primarily important differences in the way the working
with the general principles of gas turbine fluid is used in the reciprocating internal com-
engines rather than with specific models. De- bustion engine and in the gas turbine engine.
tailed information on any specific model may be Still other differences in the three types of
obtained from the manufacturer’s technical man- engines become apparent when we consider the
ual furnished with the equipment. arrangement and relationship of component parts
and the processes that occur during the cycle.
From our study of previous chapters of this
BASIC PRINCIPLES text, we are already familiar with the functional
arrangement of parts in steam turbine installa-
The gas turbine engine bears some reSem- tions and in reciprocating internal combustion
blance to an internal combustion engine of the engines. Now let us look at the relationship of
reciprocating type and some resemblance toa the major components in a basic gas turbine
steam turbine. However, a brief consideration engine, as illustrated schematically in figure
of the basic principles of a gas turbine engine 23-1.
reveals several ways in which the gas turbine In the steam turbine installation, the proc-
engine is quite unlike either the reciprocating esses of combustion and steam generation take
internal combustion engine or the steam turbine.
Let us look first at the thermodynamic
cycles’ of the three engine types. The recipro-
2 Internal combustion engines are discussedin chapter
22.
1 thermodynamic cycles are discussed in chapter 8 of 3steam turbines are discussed in chapter 12 and in
this text. chapter 16.
595
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
PROPULSION
POWER
STARTER COUPLING
|_| COMPRESSOR TURBINE ma
Oo
EXHAUST TO
ATMOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERIC
AIR INTAKE
147.135
Figure 23-1.—Schematic diagram showing relationship of parts in single-shaft gas turbine engine.
place in the boiler, while the process by which producing section, or gas generator, and the
the thermal energy ofthe steam is converted into power turbine section. The gas-generator sec-
mechanical work takes place in the turbine. In tion, in which a stream of expanding gases is
the reciprocating internal combustion engine, created as a result of continuous combustion,
three processes—the compression of atmos- includes the compressor, the combustion cham-
pheric air, the combustion ofa fuel-air mixture, ber (or chambers), and the gas-generator tur-
and the conversion of heat to work—all take bine. The power turbine section consists of a
place in one unit, the cylinder. The gas turbine power turbine and the power output shaft. Inthis
engine is similar to the reciprocating internal type of gas turbine engine, there is no mechani-
combustion engine in that the same three proc- cal connection between the gas-generator tur-
esses—compression, combustion, and conver- bine and the power turbine. When the engine is
sion of heat to work—occur; but it is unlike the operating, the two turbines produce basically the
reciprocating internal combustion engine inthat same effect as that produced by a hydraulic
these three processes take place in three sepa- torque converter. The split shaft gas turbine |
rate units rather than in one unit. In the gas engine is well suited for use as a propulsion
turbine engine, the compression of atmospheric unit where loads vary, since the gas-generator
air is accomplished inthe compressor; the com- section can be operated at a steady and con-
bustion of fuel is accomplished in the combus- tinuous speed while the power turbine section
tion chamber; and the conversion of heat to work is free to vary with the load. Starting effort
is accomplished in the turbine. required for a split-shaft gas turbine engine
is far less than that required for a single-shaft
Many different types and models of gas
gas turbine engine connected to the reduction
turbine engines are in use. The gas turbine
gear, propulsion shaft, and propeller.
engine shown in figure 23-1 is called a single-
In the twin-spool gas turbine engine (fig.
shaft type because one shaft from the turbine
23-3) the air compressor is split into two
rotor drives the compressor and an extension
sections or stages and each stage is driven
of this same shaft drives the load.
by a separate turbine element.
The lowpressure
The gas turbine engine shown in figure 23-2 turbine element drives the low pressure com-
is called a split-shaft type. This engine is con- pressor element and the high pressure turbine
sidered to be split into two sections: the gas- element drives the high pressure compressor
596
Chapter 23. -GAS TURBINE
GAS -GENERATOR SECTION POWER TURBINE SECTION
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
STARTER
GAS~GENERATOR POWER PROPULSION
COMPRESSOR SHAFT TURBINE TURBINE POWER
COUPLING
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
147,136
Figure 23-2.—Schematic diagram showing relationship of parts in split-shaft gas turbine engine.
element. Like the split-shaft type, the twin- various modifications of the simple open cycle.
spool gas turbine engine is usually divided into In one such modification, known as the regen-
a gas-generator section and a power turbine erated open cycle, the hot exhaust gases from the
section. However, some twin-spool gas turbine turbine are passed through a heat exchanger in
engines are so arranged that the low pressure which they give up some heat to the air between
turbine element drives the low pressure com- the compressor discharge and the inlet to the
pressor element and the power output shaft. combustion chamber. The utilization ofthis heat
The basic cycle of the gas turbine engine decreases the amount of fuel required and there-
is one of isentropic compression, constant- by increases the efficiency of the cycle.
pressure heat addition, isentropic expansion,
and constant-pressure heat rejection. As the FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS
hot combustion gases are expanded through the
turbine, converting thermal energy into mechan- As we have seen, the three major compo-
ical work, some of the turbine work is used to nents of a gas turbine engine are the compres-
drive the compressor and the remainderis used sor, the combustion chamber, and the turbine.
to drive the load. The power output from the In addition, the engine requires a number of other
turbine is steady and continuous and, after the components, accessories, and systems in order
initial start, self-sustaining. to operate as a complete unit. The functions of
Although this chapter deals only with gas the gas turbine engine components are described
turbine engines which operate on the simple in the following sections.
open cycle, it should be mentioned that other
cycles are also of interest to designers of gas Compressor
turbine engines. Among the cycles that have
been considered (and to some extent used) are The compressor takes in atmospheric air
the closed cycle, the semi-open cycle, and and compresses it to a pressure of several
597
GAS-GENERATOR SECTION POWER TURBINE

SECTION
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
PROPULSION
POWER
SHAFT-L.P ELEMENT
COUPLING
POWER
TURBINE |
SHAFT-H.P ELEMENT
H.P ELEMENT
L.P ELEMENT
ee
ELEMENT
147.137
Figure 23-3.—Schematic diagram showing relationship of
parts in twin-spool gas turbine engine.
atmospheres. Part of the compressed air, called be of the single-spool type, previously illustrated
primary air, enters directly intothe combustion in figures 23-1 and 23-2, or of the twin-spool
chamber where it is mixed with the atomized type, as shown in figure 23-3. The gas turbine
fuel sothat the mixture can be ignited and burned. engine shown in figure 23-4 has an axial-flow
The remainder of the air, called secondary air, compressor of the single-spool type. Figure
is mixed with the gases of combustion.
The pur- 23-5 shows an axial-flow single-spool com-
pose of the secondary air is to cool the combus- pressor removed from its engine. Where twin-
tion gases down to the desired turbine inlet spool axial-flow compressors are used, asepa-
temperature. rate turbine drives each spool, as shown in
Both axial-flow compressors and centrifugal figure 23-3.
(radial-flow) compressors are currently used The centrifugal (radial-flow) compressor
in gas turbine engines. There are several pos- picks up the entering air and accelerates it
sible configurations of these basic types, some outward by means of centrifugal force. The
of which are in use and some of which are in centrifugal compressor (fig. 23-6) may achieve
experimental phases of development. efficiencies of 80 to 84 percent at pressure
In the axial-flow compressor the air is com- ratios of 2.5 to 4 and efficiencies of 76 to 81
pressed as it flows axially along the shaft. percent at pressure ratios of 4 to 10.
An axial-flow compressor of good design may The advantages of the axial-flow compressor
achieve efficiencies in the range of 82 to 88 include high peak efficiencies; a relatively small
percent at compressor pressure ratios up to frontal area for any given air flow; and only
8:1, At higher pressure ratios, the efficiency negligible losses between stages, even when
tends to decrease. Axial flow compressors may a large number of stages are used. The
598
GAS PRODUCING SECTION POWER TURBINE SECTION
GAS
COMPRESSOR COMBUSTION PRODUCING
CHAMBER TURBINE
————
|
COMBUSTION
|
CHAMBER |
ACCESSORY
DRIVE ACCESSORY
LINER |
GROUP |
|
|
147.138
Figure 23-4.—Gas turbine engine with single-spool axial-flow compressor.
disadvantages of the axial-flow compressor The advantages of the centrifugal compressor

include difficulty of manufacture, high initial include ahighpressure rise per stage, simplicity
cost, and relatively great weight. of manufacture, low initial cost, and relatively
tight weight. The disadvantages of the centrifugal
compressor include the need for a relatively
large frontal area for a given air flow and the
difficulty of using two or more stages because
of losses that would occur between the stages.
Combustion Chamber
The combustion chamber is the component

in which the fuel-air mixture is burned. The
combustion chamber consists of a casing, aper-
forated inner shell, a fuel nozzle, and a device
for initial ignition. The number of combustion
chambers used in a gas turbine engine varies
widely; as few as one and as many as sixteen
combustion chambers have been used in one gas
turbine engine.
The combustion chamber is the most efficient
component of a gas turbine engine. Efficiencies
between 95 and 98 percent can be obtained over a
: 147,139 wide operating range. To produce such efficien-
Figure 23-5.—Single-spool axial-flow cies, combustion chambers are designed to oper-
compressor. ate with low pressure losses, high combustion
599
147,140
Figure 23-6.—Centrifugal (radial-flow) compressor.
efficiency, and good flame stability. Additional

requirements for the combustion chamber in-
clude low rates of carbon formation, light
weight, reliability, reasonable length of life,
and the ability to mix cold air withthe hot com-
bustion gases in such a way as to give uniform
temperature distribution to the turbine blades.
Only a small part (perhaps one-fourth) of
the air which enters the combustion chamber
area is burned with the fuel. The remainder of
the air is used to keep the temperature of the
combustion gases low enough so that the turbine
nozzles and blades will not be overheated and
thereby damaged.
The basic types of combustion chambers in COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
current use are the tubular or can-type chamber, aneHARGE EXHAUST
the annular chamber, the can-annular chamber,
and the elbow chamber.
The tubular or can-type chamber, shown in
figures 23-7 and 23-8, is used with both axial-
flow and centrifugal compressors. The can-type
combustion chamber consists of an outer case
or housing within which is a perforated, stain-
less steel, highly heat resistant combustion
chamber liner. The combustion chamber housing
is divided to facilitate liner replacement. Each
can-type chamber has its own individual air
inlet duct. 147,141
Interconnector tubes (flame tubes) are anec- Figure 23-7.—Tubular or can-type combustion
essary part of can-type combustion chambers. chamber.
600
COMBUSTION COMBUSTION COMBUSTION COMBUSTION

CHAMBER CHAMBER CHAMBER CHAMBER
HOUSING LINER COVER INLET DUCT
147,142
Figure 23-8.—Elements of tubular or can-type combustion chamber.
Since each of the combustion chambers has its shaft housing. Figure 23-9 shows the arrange-
Own separate burner, each one operating inde- ment of can-annular combustion chambers.
pendently of the others, there must be some way The can-annular combustion chambers are
to spread the flames during starting. This re- enclosed by a removable steel shroud which
quirement is met by interconnecting all the covers the entire burner section. This feature
chambers so that, as the flame is started by the makes the burners readily accessible for any
spark ignition plugs in the lower chambers, the required maintenance.
flame passes through the interconnector tubes The can-annular combustion chambers are
and ignites the combustible mixture in the ad- interconnected by means of projecting flame
jacent chambers. Once ignition is obtained, the tubes. These flame tubes facilitate starting,
spark igniters are automatically cut off. as previously described in connection with the
The annular combustion chamber is more can-type combustion chamber.
efficient than the can-type chamber. Although Each of the can-annular combustion cham-
details of design may vary, the annular com- bers contains a central, bullet-shaped, perfo-
bustion chamber consists essentially of asingle rated liner. The size and shape of the holes are
chamber which completely surrounds the engine. designed to admit the correct quantity of air
Fuel enters the combustion chamber through a at the required velocity and angle. Cutouts are
series of nozzles which are mounted equidistant provided in two of the bottom chambers for the
from each other on a ring at the front end of the installation of the spark igniters.
combustion chamber; because of this arrange- Each can-annular combustion chamber re-
ment, the flame is distributed evenly aroundthe ceives fuel through duplex nozzles installed at
entire circumference of the combustion cham- the forward end of the chamber. Guide vanes
ber. Diffusion of air and an efficient flame around the fuel nozzles direct the primary air
pattern are maintained by means of rows of and cause it to enter the combustion chamber
holes which are punched in the outer liner or with a swirling motion which mixes the fuel
basket of the combustion chamber. and air and thus leads to even and complete
The can-annular combustion chamber com- combustion.
bines features of both the can-type chamber
and the annular chamber. The can-annular Turbine
chamber allows an annular discharge from the
compressors, from which the air flows to indi- In theory, design, and operating character-
vidual burners where the fuel is injected and istics, the turbines used in gas turbine engines
burned.. The can-annular combustion chambers are quite similar to the turbines used in a
are arranged radially around the axis of the steam plant. The gas turbine differs from the
engine—the axis in this instance being the rotor steam turbine chiefly in the type of blading
601
147.143
Figure 23-9.—Can-annular combustion chamber.
material used, the means provided for cooling velocity may be equated with the decrease in
the bearings and highly stressed parts, and the thermal energy. The vanes of the stator element
higher ratio of blade length to wheel diameter direct the flow of gas to the rotor blades at the
which is required to accommodate the large required angle while the turbine wheel is rotat-
gas flow. ing.
The turbine section of a gas turbine engine The rotor element of the turbine consists
is located directly behind the combustion cham- of a shaft and a bladed wheel or disk. The wheel
ber outlet. The turbine consists of two basic is attached to the main power transmitting shaft
elements, the stator and the rotor. Part of a of the gas turbine engine. The jets of combus-
stator element is shown in figure 23-10; arotor tion gas leaving the vanes of the stator element
element is shown in figure 23-11. act upon the turbine blades and cause the turbine
The stator element is referred to by various wheel to rotate at a very high rate of speed.
names, including turbine nozzle vanes and tur- The high rotational speed imposes severe cen-
bine guide vanes. The vanes of the stator ele- trifugal loads on the turbine wheel, and at the |
ment serve the Same purpose as the nozzles same time the very high temperatures result in
in an impulse steam turbine or the stationary a lowering of the strength of the material.
blading in a reaction steam turbine—that is, Consequently, the engine speed and temperature
they convert thermal energy into mechanical must be controlled to keep turbine operation
kinetic energy. The vanes of the stator element within safe limits. Even so, the operating life
are contoured and set at such an angle that of the turbine blading is accepted as the govern-
they form a number of small nozzles which ing factor in determining the life of the gas
discharge the gas as extremely high speed jets. turbine engine.
As in the case of the nozzles (or stationary The turbine may be of the single-rotor type
blading) of steam turbines, the increase in or of the multiple-rotor type. Either single-rotor
602
147,145
Figure 23-11.—Rotor element of turbine
assembly.
compressor, the turbine, and the engine shaft.

The number and position of main bearings re-
quired for proper support vary according to
the length and stiffness of the shaft, with both
length and stiffness being affected by the type
of compressor uSed in the engine. In general,
a gas turbine engine requires at least three
main bearings and may require six or even
more.
Several types of main bearings are used
: 147,144 in gas turbine engines. Ball and roller bearings
Figure 23-10.—Stator element of turbine have been quite commonly used in the past, and
assembly, they are still used in many aircraft gas turbine
engines. Sleeve bearings, split-sleeve bearings,
or multiple-rotor turbines: may be used with floating-sleeve bearings, and slipper bearings
either centrifugal or axial-flow compressors. are commonly used in gas turbine engines de-
In the single-rotor type of turbine, the power signed for marine propulsion.
is developed by one rotor and all engine-driven The slipper or pivoted-shoe type of bearing
parts are driven by this single wheel. In the has recently attracted considerable attention and
multiple-rotor type, the power is developed by is being used increasingly for main bearings on
two or more rotors. It is possible for one or gas turbine engines and other high speed en-
more rotors to drive the compressor and the gines. This type of bearing is designed with
accessories, while one or more other rotors relatively large radial clearances. Since a
are used for the power output. rotating object tends to rotate about its true
balance center when it is not restrained by
Main Bearings
bearings or supports, the large radial clear-
The main bearings in a gas turbine engine ances in the slipper bearings allow a kind of
serve the critical function of supporting the self-balancing action or automatic compensation
603
OIL SLINGER RADIAL COMPRESSOR BEARING SLIPPER BEARING THRUST SLEEVE

BEARING RETAINER
147,146
Figure 23-12.—Slipper bearing.
for balance errors to take place when the engine

is operating.
One type of slipper bearing is shown in figure
23-12. In this type of bearing, the slipper con-
sists of four pivoted-shoe segments, similar to
the pivoted shoes used in Kingsbury bearings.
The segments are held together loosely by a
wire spring.
Another type of slipper bearing is shown in
figure 23-13. In this type of bearing, the slipper
consists of six segments which are fastened in
place by dowel pins. This type of bearing is
sometimes called a fixed-pivot slipper bearing.
Accessory Drives
Because the turbine and the compressor are

on the same rotating shaft, a popular miscon-
ception is that the gas turbine engine has only
one moving part. This is not the case, however.
A gas turbine engine requires a starting device
(which is usually a moving part), some kind of
control mechanism, and power take-offs.
The accessory drive section of the gas
turbine engine takes care of these various
accessory functions. The primary purpose of
the accessory drive section is to provide space
for the mounting of the accessories required
for the operation and control of the engine. 147.147
Secondary purposes include acting as an oil Figure 23-13.—Slipper bearing
reservoir and/or oil sump and providing for (fixed-pivot type).
604
and housing accessory drive gears and reduction The reduction gearing within the case provides
gears. The accessory drive section of a gas suitable drive speeds for each engine accessory
turbine engine is shown in figure 23-14. or component. Because the operating rpm ofthe
The gear train is driven by the engine rotor rotor is so high, the accessory reduction gear
through an accessory drive shaft gear coupling. ratios are relatively high. The accessory drives
ACCESSORY DRIVE
ACCESSORY DRIVE GEAR AND DRIVE
IDLER SHAFT SHA FT
ACCESSORY DRIVE
IDLER GEAR
STARTER-
GENERATOR
DRIVE
SHAFT
PINION SHAFT
BEARING
STARTER ares
GEAR
OUTPUT INPUT BEVEL
GEAR PINION AND
DRIVE SHAFT
STARTER
DRIVE
GEAR
ACCESSORY
DRIVE
PINION
OlL PUMP
DRIVE GEAR
UPPER
HOUSING
OIL PUMP
MAIN ACCESSORY
DRIVE SHAFT
OIL SUMP
147,148
Figure 23-14.—Cutaway view of accessory drive section.
605
are supported by ball bearings assembled inthe Engine Systems

mounting bores of the accessory case.
Accessories always provided in the acces-
The major systems of a gas turbine engine
sory drive section include the fuel control, with
are those which supply fuel, lubricating oil, and
its governing device; the high pressure fuel oil
electricity.
pump or pumps; the oil sump; the oil pressure
and scavenging pump or pumps; the auxiliary
fuel pump; and a starter. Additional acces- FUEL SYSTEM.—The fuel system supplies
sories which may be included in the accessory the specified fuel for combustion. The compo-
drive section or which may be provided else- nents of a fuel system depend to some extent
where include a starting fuel pump, a hydraulic upon the type of gas turbine engine; however,
oil pump, a generator, and a tachometer. Some the basic fuel oil system shown in figure 23-15
gas turbine engines are equipped with magnetos may be regarded as typical of a simple fuel
for ignition and these magnetos are drivenfrom system. The engine-driven pump receives fil-
the accessory drive. Most of these accessories tered fuel from a motor-driven supply pump at
are essential for the operation and control of a constant pressure. The engine-driven fuel
any gas turbine engine; however, the particular pump increases the pressure and forces the fuel
combination and arrangement of engine-driven through the high pressure filter to the fuel con-
accessories depends upon the use for which the trol governor in the fuel control assembly. The
gas turbine engine is designed. fuel control governor provides fuel to the
= 4s
FUEL PRESSURE
GAGE NOZZLE SHUTOFF 2
= R
ie ees fe)
F 42e Z
fea ee Zz
| it
F ADS
E
>
= S
eS “e=
a ip =z
SES
FUEL SUPPLY
LINE a
pecs
STARTING FUEL
STARTING FUEL BYPASS VALVE
BLEED ORIFICE
FUEL
MANIFOLD
— — — GOVERNOR OUTLET LINE

------- ENGINE-DRIVEN FUEL PUMP PRESSURE LINE
SUP PLY —-—-—- EXCESS FUEL RETURN LINE
PUMP
+ + +-++ STARTING FUEL BLEED LINE
Pad MANUAL SHU TOFF VALVES
147.149
Figure 23-15.— Fuel flow diagram for gas turbine engine.
606
nozzles at the pressure and volume required to over twice the range of that provided by the
maintain the desired engine performance.At the simplex nozzle.
same time, the fuel control governor limits fuel The fuel control assembly is the unit which
flow to maintain operating conditions within safe regulates the turbine rpm by adjusting fuel flow
limits. from the high pressure engine-driven pump to
The fuel nozzles serve to introduce the fuel the fuel nozzle. The major parts of the fuel
into the combustion chamber. The fuel is sprayed control assembly are shown in figure 23-17.
into the combustion chamber under pressure, Fuel enters the fuel control assembly and is
through small orifices in the nozzles. Various pumped through a filter. High pressure fuel is
kinds of fuel nozzles are in use. Figure 23-16 routed to the differential relief valve, then to
shows a Simplex nozzle and a duplex nozzle. the fuel shutoff valve, and finally to the fuel
The simplex nozzle was used on some older nozzles.
gas turbine engines. Most recent gas turbine The speed setting lever on the outboard end
engines use some kind of duplex nozzle. A duplex of the governor is connected to a speed control
nozzle requires a dual manifold just ahead of device on the control console either by a cable
the nozzles and a flow divider (before the mani- or by an electric servomotor.~ At the fuel con-
fold) to divide the fuel into primary and sec- trol end, the lever is keyed to a pinion. This
ondary streams. The duplex type of nozzle pro- pinion positions a rack which in turn controls
vides a desirable spray pattern for combustion the governor flyweight spring. The mechanism
regulates gas producer speed according to the
position of the control lever. With the control
lever in any particular position, variations from
the preset speed are sensed by the governor
flyweights and a compensating movement of the
fuel control valve results. An externally adjust-
able needle valve provides a constant minimum
fuel flow during deceleration, when the governor
valve is closed, to prevent loss of combustion.
An acceleration limiter, consisting of a needle
valve positioned by a shaft, arm, and bellows,
is actuated by compressor discharge pressure.
During acceleration, this mechanism controls
fuel flow to the point at which the governor fly-
weight mechanism and its fuel control valve
take over.
PRIMARY SECONDARY
LUBRICATING SYSTEM.—Because of the
high operating rpm and the high operating tem-
peratures encountered in gas turbine engines,
proper lubrication is of vital importance. The
lubricating system is designed to supply bear-
ings and gears with clean lubricating oil at the
desired pressures and temperatures. In some
AAN AN ae installations, the lubricating system also fur-
nishes oil to various hydraulic systems. Heat
absorbed by the lubricating oil is transferred
to the cooling medium in a lube oil cooler.
The lubricating system shown in figure 23-
18 has a combined hydraulic system—in this
case, the hydraulic system is for the operation
of a hydraulic clutch in a gas turbine propulsion
147,150
Figure 23-16.—Fuel nozzles. Servomechanisms are discussed in chapter 20 ofthis
A. Simplex. B. Duplex. text.
607
ACCELERATION ———__—> HOLE U EI

LIMITER SHUTOFF VALVE
BELLOWS AND NOZZLES
COMPRESSOR
VENT TO DISCHARGE
ATMOS PHERE PRESSURE
MINIMUM
FLOW VALVE
GOVERNOR
VALVE
DIFFERENTIAL
ACCELERATION
RELIEF VALVE FLOW
ADJUSTING SCREW
ACCELERATION
LIMITER NEEDLE
ULTIMATE VALVE
RELIEF VALVE
FROM BOOSTER __,

PUMP
GOVERNOR
FUEL PUMP FILTER FLY WEIGHTS SPEED SETTING LEVER
147.151
Figure 23-17.—Schematic diagram of fuel control assembly.
system. The lubricating system illustrated is of engine. Electrical circuits which incorporate
the dry-sump type, with a common oil supply speed and pressure sensing switches control the
from an externally mounted oil tank. The system starting and ignition sequence by opening and
includes the oil tank, the lubricating oil pump, closing various valves inthe fuel system. Engine
the hydraulic oil pump, the air inlet scavenging operating conditions are reported by speed,
pump, the oil temperature switch, the oil cooler, pressure, and temperature operated switches
oil filters, the pressure regulating valve, the and temperature bulbs.
diverter valve, and a low pressure switch. The electrical system usually includes a
All bearings and gears in the engine, acces- starter, an ignition circuit, a control battery,
sory drives, reduction gears, and reverse gear and relays. In addition, it includes electrical ac-
are lubricated and cooled by the lubricating cessories and control components such as the
system. Also, as may be observed in figure starting and ignition control switches and relays;
23-18, the system illustrated here supplies oil the panel-mounted instruments and indicator
for the lubrication of the fuel control governor. lights for oil temperature, oil pressure, and en-
gine rpm; and engine-mounted reporting devices
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM.—In the gas turbine such as fuel pressure switches, oil temperature
engine, the electrical system (fig. 23-19) is the switches, oil pressure switches, and thermo-
principal means of automatic control of the couples,
608
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TO RELAY PANEL TERMINALS
TO EXHAUST
83 90 58 59 60 22 47 49 23 21 51 24 25 53 27 ENGINE NO. 4 TEMP ERATURE
INDICATOR
60 89 55 56 57 16 46 48 182050191752 26 ENGINE NO. 3
79 G2 34 35 36 12 38 40 13 11 42 14 15 44 5 ENGINE NO. 2
a ENGINE NO. 1
NGINE ELECTRICAL
DISCONNECT PLUG
FUEL NOZZLE
SHUTOFF VALVE
¢@P\ EXHAUST
— x ( J THERMO-
~—- COUPLE
TACHOMETER
EXHAUST
(TURBINE RPM)
THERMO:
Wee OVER-
SPEED
SWITCH PRESSURE
SWITCH
is STARTER
ELAY
ENGINE ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAM
FUEL PUMP START

EMERGENCY STOP it
FUEL PUMP STOP FUEL SUPPLY PUMP
OIL oiL EXHAUST !

sae PRESSURE TEMPERATURE! OVERSPEED TEMPERATURE | 0
ae = = = + > FUEL PUMP
EMERGENCY FUEL PUMP RELAY FBROT TCE
er RUNNING
ke FUEL NOZZLE
OIL TEMP. OVERSPEED EXHAUST TEMP. MOE keOe SHUT CRE ARE
RELAY
TO CIRCUITS
FOR OTHER
POWER PACKAGE LOCKED
FROM SAFETY
OIL PRESSURE CIRCUITS OF
SWITCH SEALING OTHER
TACHOMETER EXHAUST TEMP.
= |RELAY ENGINES
INDICATOR INDICATOR
STARTER ALARM HORN

SWITCH
TO CIRCUITS
FOR OTHER TO OTHER ENGINE
ENGINE
q
STARTING FUEL &
BYPASS VALVE &
TACHOMETER EXHAUST
GENERATOR THERMOCOUPLE
24 VOLT
IGNITION BATTERY
BOOST -—:
IGNITION
TEST SWITCH
NOTES
GROUND SYMBOLS INDICATE
A COMMON RETURN WIRE
EXCEPT POINTS ©) WHICH
ARE ACTUALLY GROUNDED
TO TURBINE.
CIRCUITS SHOWN WITH EN-
GINE NOT RUNNING.
15.275
Figure 23-19.—Electrical system for gas turbine engine.
610
The starting and ignition circuits receive speed and increase torque. This is true in
power from storage batteries. The warning and both types of installations. In the case of the
safety circuits receive power from the ship’s geared drive installation, the gears are used
power supply panel. Power for the indicating between the gas turbine engine and the propel-
circuits is self generated by thermocouples ler shaft. In the case of the turboelectric drive,
and other units in the circuits. the gears are usually used between the gas
turbine engine and the generator shaft, to reduce
Engine Starters the rpm of the generator to a practicable oper-
ating value.
Of the various methods used for starting gas The propelling equipment of a boat or ship
turbine engines, the three most commondevices must be capable of providing reversing power
are the air turbine, the hydraulic starting de- as well as forward power. In a few ships and
vice, and the electric starter-generator. boats, reversing is accomplished by the use of
The air turbine starter isaturbine-air motor controllable pitch propellers.” In most vessels,
with a radial inward-flow turbine wheel assem- however, reversing is accomplished by the use
bly and an engaging and disengaging mechanism. of reversing gears.
Compressed air is supplied to the air turbine Reducing the speed of rotation and reversing
from an external source. the direction of shaft rotation are not the only
The hydraulic motor starter consists of a requirements of the drive mechanism of a ship
motor-driven hydraulic pump mounted sepa- or boat. It is also necessary to make some pro-
rately. It supplies high pressure hydraulic oil vision for the fact that the engine must be able
to the hydraulic motor starter, whichis mounted to operate at times without transmitting power
on the accessory pad along with its engaging to the propeller shaft. In the electric drive,
and disengaging mechanism. The hydraulic this is no problem because the transmission
motor starter is quite similar to the airturbine of power is controlled electrically. With the
starter; however, the hydraulic motor starter gear type of drive, however, it is necessary to
is usually used for larger and higher horsepower include a means of disconnecting the engine
gas turbine engines. from the propeller shaft. Devices used for this
The electric starter-generator is a shunt- purpose are called clutches.
wound d-c generator with compensating windings The arrangement of components ina gear-
and a series winding, using a 24-volt battery type drive varies, depending upon the type and
power source. The generator is usually mounted size of the installation. In some of the small
on the accessory drive pad. The generator isso installations, the clutch, the reversing gear,
designed and controlled that it can beusedas an and the reduction gear may be combined in a
engine starter. When the designed engine speed single unit. This type of arrangement is shown
is reached, the starter-generator is automati- in figure 23-20. In other installations, the clutch
cally switched from a starter to a generator. and the reversing gear may be in one housing and
the reduction gear ina Separate housing attached
TRANSMISSION OF ENGINE POWER to the reversing gear housing. Drive mechan-
isms arranged in either manner are called
The two main types of gas turbine engine transmissions.
installations used for ship propulsion are (1)
the geared drive, and (2) the turboelectric GAS TURBINE ENGINES AND
drive. JET PROPULSION
The fundamental characteristics of the gas
turbine engine make it necessary for the drive Thus far, we have considered the gas turbine
mechanism to change both the speed and the engine as a prime mover which delivers power
direction of shaft rotation in the driven mechan- in the form of torque on an output shaft. In con-
ism. The process of transmitting engine power cluding this chapter, it should be noted that
to a point where it can be used in performing the gas turbine engine also serves as the prime
useful work involves a number of factors, two
of which are torque and speed. The gas turbine
engine does not produce high torque, but it does
produce high speed. Therefore, a gear train is Controllable pitch propellers are discussed in chap-
used with most gas turbine engines to lower ter 5 of this text.
611
SELECTOR VALVE
DRIVEN PLATES (FIXED TO GEAR)
DRIVING PLATES
FIRST STAGE il OUTPUT GEAR
REDUCTION DRIVE
= SECOND STAGE
F—) REDUCTION DRIVE
Z a XX
WIZ
ope 5 aad
WAV
ieaeens |
— i
i} LI 4
A uuu
CLUTCH sar eae: re
SEENON. 5
2 C
[| S
uu
ete
: INPUT GEAR
FORWARD DRIVE : PISTON COMPRESSES
: CLUTCH DRUM CLUTCH PLATES AND i
FROM — — OUTPUT GEAR IS DRIVEN —
SCAVENGE PUMP TO COOLER ACTIVE
INACTIV IN SAME
rane DIRECTION
a eae AS
DIVERSION
VALVE
[ra
eat COUNTERSHAFT
IDLER GEAR
Jct
= wy
VAVA
44
XPS
=a
REVERSE DRIVE
len] PISTON COMPRESSES CLUTCH PLATES =
AND OUTPUT GEAR IS DRIVEN BY
COUNTERSHAFT IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION
LEGEND TO CLU TCH SHAFT
OIL AT PRESSURE
— — NON-ACTIVE OIL
Peo ereereeeereses COO LING OIL
147.153
Figure 23-20.—Clutch, reduction gear, and reverse gear arrangement.
612
mover in the power plants of many military nozzle the accelerated air mass which the other
aircraft. When so adapted, the gas turbine components of the engine deliver to the cone.
engine develops power by converting thermal As the accelerated air mass flows through the
energy into mechanical kinetic energy in a high convergent nozzle, its velocity is greatly in-
velocity gas stream. The highly accelerated gas creased and thrust is created within the engine.
stream creates thrust which propels the air-
craft. This method of creating thrust is called the MAINTENANCE
direct reaction or jet propulsion method.
The concept of thrust is basic to an under- The maintenance of gas turbines is the
standing of jet propulsion. The concept of thrust normal function of operating activities. Cleanli-
is based on Newton’s third law of motion, which ness is one of the most important basic essen-
may be stated asfollows: For every acting force tials in operation and maintenance of gas tur-
there is an equal and opposite reacting force. bines. Particular care should be exercised in
In the case of aircraft in flight, the acting force keeping fuel, air, coolants, lubricants, rotating
is the force the engine exerts on the air mass elements, and combustion chambers clean. Peri-
as it flows through the engine. The reacting force odic inspection procedures should be followed
(thrust) is the force which the air mass exerts in order to detect maladjustments, possible
on the components of the engine as the heated failures, and excessive clearances of moving
air mass is discharged from the jet nozzle at parts. All inspection and maintenance require-
the rear of the airplane. In other words, thrust ments should be accomplished in accordance
is not produced by the ejected air mass reacting with the 3-M System (PMS Subsystem).
against the atmosphere; rather, thrust is cre- CAUTION: Never use lead pencils for mark-
ated within the engine as the air mass flowing ing gas turbine hot parts, because the carbon
through the engine is accelerated and dis- content of the pencil lead will cause stainless
charged. steel to become brittle, causing a possible fail-
Engines which include the gas turbine and ure of the parts that were marked. A grease
which create thrust by the direct reaction pencil should be used in marking gas turbine
method are commonly identified as turbojet parts. Do not use steel wool to clean gas tur-
engines. Except for a diffuser and a different bine parts, unless the wool is stainless steel.
fype exhaust system in engines of the turbojet Overhaul periods and procedures are set
type, the basic components ofthe turbojet engine up by the Naval Ship Systems Command. These
are similar in design and function to the com- periods and procedures are reported to the
ponents of any open-cycle gas turbine engine. Fleet through NavShips Technical Manuals and/
The function of the diffuser is to decrease the or direct correspondence. Accurate operating
velocity of the inlet air and to increase its logs should be kept on eachengine sothe number
pressure before the air enters the compressor. of hours and operational history on each engine
The exhaust system of a turbojet engine consists is readily known. These records aid in devel-
basically of a cone and a convergent nozzle. oping measures which improve engine reli-
The exhaust cone is designed to exhaust to the ability.
613
CHAPTER 24
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
Nuclear reactors release nuclear energy by being refueled. In 1963, Operation Sea Orbit, a
the fission process and transform this energy 30,000-mile cruise around the world in 65 days,
into thermal energy. While we are learning more completely without logistic support of any kind,
daily about the phenomena which occur in nuclear proved conclusively the strategic and tactical
reactions, the knowledge already gained has been flexibility of a nuclear-powered task force.
put to use in both the submarine andthe surface There are other (and perhaps less obvious)
fleets. The Navy is now in the second decade of advantages of nuclear power for aircraft car-
the utilization of nuclear energy for ship pro- riers. For one thing, tanks that would otherwise
pulsion. be used to store boiler fuels can be used on
Nuclear engineering is a field that is in the nuclear-powered carriers to store additional
stage of rapid development at the present time; aircraft fuels, thus giving the ship a greater
therefore the discussion inthis chapter is limited striking potential. Another advantage is the lack
to the basic concepts to reactor principles. The of stacks; since there are no stack gases to
discussion of nuclear physics is limited to the cause turbulence in the flight deck atmosphere,
fission process, since all power reactors in the operation of aircraft is less hazardous than
operation at this time use the fissioning of a on conventionally powered ships.
heavy element to release nuclear energy. The fact that a nuclear-powered ship requires
no outside source of oxygen from the earth’s
ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER atmosphere means that the ship can be com-
pletely closed off, thereby reducing the hazards
A major advantage of nuclear power for any of any nuclear attack. This greatly increases
naval ship is that less logistic support is re- the potential of the submarine fleet by giving
quired. On ships using conventional petroleum it the capability of staying submerged for ex-
fuels as an energy source, the cruising range tended periods of time. In 1960 the nuclear-
and strategic value are limited by the amount powered submarine USS Triton completed a
of fuel which can be stored in their hulls. A submerged circumnavigation of the world, trav-
ship of this type must either return to port to eling a distance of 35,979 miles in 83 days and
take on fuel or refuel for a tanker at sea—an 10 hours.
operation which is time consuming and hazar-
dous. NUCLEAR FUNDAMENTALS
Nuclear -powered ships have virtually un-
limited cruising range, since the refueling is At the present time there are 103 known
done routinely as part of a regular scheduled elements of which the smallest particle that
overhaul. On her first nuclear fuel load, the can be separated by chemical means is the
USS Nautilus steamed 62,562 miles, more than atom. The Rutherford-Bohr theory of atomic
half of this distance fully submerged. The USS structure (fig. 24-1) describes the atom as
Enterprise steamed over 200,000 miles before being similar to our solar system, At the
center of every atom is a nucleus which is
comparable with the sun; moving in orbits
around the nucleus are a number of parti-
1 : ? : cles called electrons. The electrons have a
For a discussion of nuclear fusion, see John F.
Hogerton, The Atomic Energy Deskbook (New York: negative charge and are held in orbit by the
Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1963), p. 196. attraction of the positively charged nucleus.
614
Chapter 24. -NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
r<— 10°? cm ——_>

'
' ELECTRON (e)
'
' ' 1
'
'
'
Pe) 1017cM it Particle Charge | Mass (amu)
'
' '
2 PROTONS
\
1 PROTON 2 NEUTRONS Proton: 4. Ate: 98) 4-262 see +1 1. 00758
INCUtrOne =. .- See ee aE: eee 0 1. 00894
Bilectron =< 325 2 33 Aa See —1 0. 00055
HYDROGEN
147,154
Figure 24-2.—Characteristics of elementary
atomic particles.
nucleus, with a corresponding increase in the

3 PROTONS
4 NEUTRONS Le number of planetary electrons. The planetary
electrons are arranged in orbits or shells of
definite energy levels outside the nucleus.
ce,
The characteristics of the elementary atomic
particles are compiled in figure 24-2. Note
that the mass of a proton is much greater than
LITHIUM OXYGEN that of an electron; it takes about 1847 electrons
to weigh as much as one hydrogen proton.
Cc D It is possible for atoms of the same element
41.2 to have different numbers of neutrons, and
Figure 24-1.—Rutherford-Bohr models therefore different masses. Atoms which have
of simple atoms. the same atomic number (number of protons in
the atom) but different masses are called
Two elementary particles, protons and neu-
isotopes. Different isotopes of the same element
trons, often referred toas nucleons, compose the
are identified by the atomic mass number,
atomic nucleus. The positive charge of atomic
which is the total number of neutrons and
nuclei is attributed to the protons. A proton has
protons contained within the nucleus of the
an electrical charge equal and opposite to that of
atom.
an electron, A neutron has no charge.
The element hydrogen has three known
The number of electrons in an atom and
isotopes, as shown in figure 24-3. The simplest
their relative orbital positions predict how an
and most common known form of hydrogen
element will react chemically, whereas the
consists of 1 proton, which is the nucleus,
number of protons in an atom determines which
and 1 orbital electron. Another form of hydro-
element it is. An atom which is not ionized
gen, deuterium, consists of 1 proton and 1
contains an equal number of protons and elec-
neutron forming the nucleus. The _ third
trons; thus it is said to be neutral, since the
form, tritium, consists of 1 proton and 2
total atomic charge is zero.
neutrons forming the nucleus and 1 orbital
As shown in part A of figure 24-1, the
electron.
hydrogen atom has a single proton inthe nucleus
In scientific notation, the three isotopes
and a single orbital electron. Hydrogen, the
of hydrogen are written as follows:
lightest element, is said to have a mass of
approximately one. The next heavier atom, Common Mhydrogentyicm. sieuen om ale iH
Oe c:
that of helium (part B of fig. 24-1), had a mass
of four relative to hydrogen and was expected DCUtCER TUM 6,0) ote) ce see fe ciist oleloon AS
to contain four protons. It was found that the ie
helium atom has only two protons instead of the Abahskiben sa. Seok OmD OrorQ ORONO © Onc 1
four expected; the remainder of its mass is
attributed to two neutrons located in the nucleus In this notation, the subscript preceding
of the helium atom. The more complex atoms the symbol of the element indicates the atomic
contain more protons and neutrons in the number ofthe element. The superscript following
615
(~) @ (-) ©
O@® ©©
A COMMON HYDROGEN B DEUTERIUM C TRITIUM
5.40(147A)
Figure 24-3.—Isotopes of hydrogen.
the symbol of the element is the atomic mass alpha particle or a beta particle. One or
number; thus the superscript indicates which more gamma rays may also be emitted with
isotope of the element is being referred to. the alpha or beta particle.
The geneal symbol for any atom is thus An alpha particle (symbol) is composed
Z of two protons and twg neutrons. It is the
x nucleus of a helium (gHe*/ atom, has an elec-
A
trical charge of +2, and is very stable. In
where
the decay process to a more stable element,
X symbol of the element
Z atomic number (number of protons)
A atomic mass number (sum of the number
of protons and the number of neutrons)
Atomic
Of the known 103 elements, there are ap- Element Symbol No. or | No. of | No. of
No. of |electrons|/neutrons
proximately 1000 isotopes, most of which are protons
radioactive.“ Figure 24-4 gives the nuclear
compositon of various isotopes. Hy drogen= eee Se 1H! 1 1
Hy. drogen-s4964- 22s. 5— :H? 1 1
(Deuterium)
RADIOACTIVITY
Hiydrogent asa. see ,H3 1 1
(Tritium)
Heliumes = sees eses oo 2He} 2 2 1
All isotopes with atomic number Z greater Helium = So eae 2He! 2 2 B
than 83 are naturally radioactive and many more DeWANDVethoe ye oe SeSe ee 2Hed 2 2 8
isotopes can be made artifically radioactive by Helium _- 15 2eee.
S82 2Heé 2 2 4
bombarding with neutrons which upset the Beryliume_222o-- eee sBe® 4 4 5
neutron-proton ratio of the normally stable Cadmium.-22eb. 26% agCd!13 48 48 65
nucleus. Polonium== 4) sats ee Se gaP0710 84 84 126
Naturally radioactive isotopes undergo ra- Radium ssh - ses se gg ha226 88 88 138
dioactive decomposition, thereby forming lighter Uranium! S48 =25. 48 92 U234 92 92 142
Uranitimiss4—-22se 92 U235 92 92 143
and more stable nuclei. Radioactive decom-
Uranium’ jee ee ee: ee 92 U238 92 92 146
position occurs through the emission of an
(Uraninimis =e ee ee 92 U239 92 92 147
Neptuniume == 2 2=——= = 93 Np?8° 93 93 146
BGO nium eee a ee a4 Pu23? 94 94 145
2For a detailed discussion of nuclear stability, see

Francis W. Sears and Mark W. Zemansky, University 5.36
Physics (3d ed.; Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Figure 24-4.—Nuclear composition
Publishing Company, Inc., 1964), p. 997. of various isotopes.
616
4
many unstable nuclei emit an alpha particle. high energy, and a short wave length. Gamma
The results of alpha emission can be seen rays are Similar to X-rays in that the prop-
from the following equation: erties are the same. The distinguishing factor
between the two is the fact that gamma rays
238 4
Ceeae 5 a+ go tb 234 are originated in the nucleus of an atom,
whereas the X-ray originates from the orbital
electrons. In general it can be said that a
In the aa 7288) tee the parent isotope gamma ray is of higher energy, higher fre-
of uranium is a naturally occurring, quency, and shorter wave length than an X-
radioactive (Oe ope which decays by alpha ray.
emission. Since the A and Z numbers must
balance in a nuclear equation, and since an Frequently an isotope which emits an alpha
alpha particle contains two protons, we see or beta particle in the decay process will
that the uranium has changed to an entirely emit one or more gamma rays at the same
new element. time, as in the case of 97Co”*, an isotope
that decays by beta emission and at the same
LEGradioactive isotope of thorium time emits two gamma rays of different energy
) produced in the above reaction further levels. Some radioactive isotopes reacha stable
(goTh™ by the emission of a beta particle sym- state by the emission of gamma rays only. In
bolg) as indicated in the following equation: the latter case, since gamma rays have neither
mass nor electrical charge, the A and Z
a ae pa234 numbers of the isotope remain unchanged but

the energy level of the nucleus is reduced.
90 12 gaF
The beta particle has properties similar An important property of any radioactive
to an electron.’ However, the origin of the isotope is the time involved in radioactive
beta particle is within the nucleus rather decay. To understand the time element, it is
than the orbital shells of an atom. It is postu- necessary to understand the concept of half-
lated that a beta particle is emitted at an life. Half-life may be defined as the time
extremely high energy level when a neutron required for one-half of any given number
within the nucleus decays to a proton and an of radioactive atoms to disintegrate, thus re-
electron (beta particle). When this phenomenon ducing the radiation intensity of that particular
occurs, the proton stays within the nucleus isotope by one-half. Half lives may vary from
forming an isotope of a different element microseconds to billions of years. At times
having the same mass. an isotope may be said to be ‘‘short-lived’’
or ‘‘long-lived’’, depending upon its peculiar
A radioactive isotope may gothrough several radio-active half-life. Some half-lives of typical
transformations of the above types before reach- elements are:
ing a stable state. In the case of 92238
there are a total of eight alpha patticles and
six beta particles emitted prior to reaching apeicre = 4,51 x 109 years
a stable isotope of lead (g9Pb 06)
The third manner in which a naturally
radioactive isotope may reach a more stable 235 7,13 x 108 years
configuration is by the emission of gamma
92U
rays (Ssymboly). The gamma ray is an electro-
magnetic type of radiation having frequency, ggRa776 = 1620 years
= 6.7 hours
2 Francis W. Sears and Mark W. Zemansky, Uni-

versity Physics (3d ed.; Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1964), p.986. ="10-5 seconds
617
As stated previously, naturally radioactive 1 amu (atomic mass unit=1/16 of an oxy-

isotopes decay by the emission of alpha particles, gen atom (by def-
beta particles, gamma rays, or a combination inition)
thereof. In the case of induced nuclear reactions 1 amu = 1.49 x 10-3 erg
there are many other phenomena which may = 1,66 x 10-24gm
occur, including fission and the emission of = 931 Mev
neutrons, positrons, nutrions, and other forms =1 ‘415 x 1072? Btu
of energy.
NUCLEAR ENERGY SOURCE
CONSERVATION OF MASS—
AND ENERGY It was previously stated that the atomic
mass number is the total number of nucleons
The conservation of energy is discussed in within the nucleus. It can also be said that
chapter 8 of this text. It now becomes necessary the atomic mass number is the nearest integer
to consider mass and energy as two phases of the (as found by experiment) to the actual mass of
same principle. In so doing, the law of conserva- an isotope. In nuclear equations, the entire
tion becomes: mass must be accounted for; therefore the actual
mass must be considered.
(mass + energy) before = The atomic mass of any isotope is somewhat
(mass + energy) after. less than indicated by the sum of the individual
masses of the protons, neutrons, and orbital
Fundamental to the above and to the entire electrons which are the components of that
subject of nuclear power is Einstein’s mass- isotope. This difference is termed mass defect:
energy equation where the following relation it is equivalent to the binding energy of the
holds: nucleus. Binding energy may be defined as the
amount of energy which was released when a
E = mc2 nucleus was formed from its component parts.
The binding energy of any isotope may be
found, as in the following example of copper
(4gCu°’) which contains 34 neutrons, 29 pro-
E = energy in ergs, tons, and 29 electrons. Using the values given
mass in grams, 0 in figure 24-2 we find:
velocity of light (3 x 101 cm/sec)
34 x 1.00894 = 34.30496 amu
Mass and energy are not conserved separa- 29 x 1.00785 = 29.21982 amu
tely but can be converted into each other. 29 x 0.00055 = 0.01595 amu
Several units and conversion factors which Total of component masses = 63.54073 amu
have become conventional to the field of nuclear Less actual mass of atom = 62.9298 amu
engineering are listed below. Mass defect = 0.61093 amu
Converting to energy, we find:

1 ev (electron-volt = the energy acquired by
an electron as it moves 931 Mev/amu x 0.61093 amu = 568.77583
through a potential dif- Mev, or 560.8 + 63 = 8.9 Mev/nucleon
ference of 1 volt
1 Mev (million electron- The relationship between mass number and
volts) = 108ey the average binding energy per nucleon is
=1.52 x 10-16Btu shown in figure 24-5.
Since binding energy was released when a
nucleus was formed from its component parts,
it is necessary to add energy to separate a
nucleus. In the fissioning of uranium 235, the
4 For detailed information on nuclear particles, refer
to Samuel Glasstone, Sourcebook on Atomic Energy additional energy is supplied by bombarding the
(2d ed.; Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., fissionable fuel with neutrons. The fissionable
1958). material absorbs a neutron and is converted
618
(Mev)
NUCLEON
PER
ENERGY
BINDING
20 40 60 80 100 =120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260

ATOMIC MASS NUMB ER
147.155
Figure 25-5.—Relationship between atomic mass number and
average binding energy per nucleon.
into the compound nucleus of uranium-236, into fragments having mass numbers of 95 and
which fissions instantaneously. 139. The following equation is typical:
There are more than 40 different ways a 139

3 1
+ 532 +2 02
uranium-235 nuclei may fission, resulting in
more than 80 different fission products.’ For where the daughter products, yttrium and iodine,
the purpose of this discussion, let us consider are toh radioactive and decay through beta
the most probable fission of a uranium-235 emission to the stable isotopes of molybdenum
nucleus. In slightly more than 6 percent of (49Mo%) and lanthanum (57La139), respectively.
the fissions, the uranium-235 nucleus will split
One method of determining the energy re-
leased from the above reaction is to find the
difference in atomic mass units of the daughter
5 : : 5 ew products and the original nucleus. It is also
For a detailed discussion on nuclear fission, refer
to Samuel Glasstone, Sourcebook on Atomic Energy necessary that we account for the neutron used
(2d ed.; Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., to bombard the uranium-235 atom and the two
1958). neutrons liberated in the fission process. In
619
the investigation of energy released in this its surroundings and has an energy level of
reaction we find: less than 1 ev.
Neutrons lose their kinetic energy by inter-
Mass of uranium-235 atom 235. 0439 acting with atoms in the’ surrounding area.
Mass of neutron 1. 00894
The probability of a neutron interacting with
Original mass 236. 05284 amu
one atom is dependent upon the target area
Mass of molybdenum-95 presented by that atom for a neutron reaction.
atom = 94,9058
This target area (which is the probability of a
Mass of lanthanum-139 neutron reaction occurring) is called cross
atom = 138.9061
section. The unit of cross section meseut a
Mass of 2 neutrons = 2.01788
ment is barns. The size of a barn is 107 4
Total mass of fission Square centimeters. Four of the different cross
fragments = 235. 82978 sections that an element may have for neutron
Mass defect = 236. 05284 - 235. 82978 = processes are as follows:
0. 22306 amu/fission Scattering cross section is a measure of the
Hence, probability of an elastic (billiard ball) collison
with a neutron. In this type of collision part of
0.22306 amu/fission x 931 Mev/amu the kinetic energy of the neutron is imparted to
207.7 Mev/fission the atom and the neutron rebounds after col-
lision. Neutrons are thermalized (reduced to an
Thus we find that from each fission ap- energy level below 1 ev) by elastic collisions.
proximately 200 Mev of energy is released, Capture cross section is a measure of the
most of which (about 80 percent) appears probability of the neutron being captured with-
immediately as kinetic energy of the fission out causing fission.
fragments. As the fission fragments slow down, Fission cross section is a measure of the
they collide with other atoms and molecules; probability of fission of the atom after neutron
this results in a transfer of velocity to the capture.
surrounding particles. The increased molecular Absorption cross section is a measure of the
motion is manifested as sensible heat. The re- probability that an atom will absorb a neutron.
maining energy is realized from the decay of The absorption cross section is the sum of the
fission fragments by beta particle and gamma capture cross section and the fission cross
ray emission, kinetic energy of fission neutrons, section.
and instantaneous gamma ray energy. The cross section for any given element
In a nuclear reactor, the two neutrons may vary with the energy level of the ap-
liberated in the above reaction are available, proaching neutron. In the case of uranium-235,
under certain conditions, to fission other ura- the absorption cross section for a thermal
nium atoms and assist in maintaining the re- neutron is 100 times the cross section for a
actor critical. A nuclear reactor is said to be fast neutron.
critical if the neutron flux remains constant.
Neutron flux is defined as the number of REACTOR PRINCIPLES
neutrons passing through unit area in unit
time. A neutron flux of 10 neutrons per A nuclear reactor must contain a critical
Square centimeter per second is not uncommon. mass. A critical mass contains sufficient fis-
If the neutron flux is decreasing, the reactor sionable material to enable the reactor to
is said to be subcritical; conversely, a reactor maintain a self-sustaining chain reaction, there-
is Supercritical if the neutron flux is increasing. by keeping the reactor critical. A critical
mass is dependent upon the species of fis-
NEUTRON REACTIONS sionable material, its concentration and purity
the geometry and size of the reactor, and the
Neutrons may be classified by their energy matter surrounding the fissionable material.
levels. A fast neutron has an energy level of
greater than 0.1 Mev, an intermediate neutron Spor a thorough discussion of the aspects of reactor
in the process of slowing down possesses an design, see Samuel Glasstone, Sourcebook on Atomic
energy level between 1 ev and 0.1 Mev, a Energy (2d ed.; Princeton: D, Van Nostrand Company,
thermal neutron is in thermal equilibrium with Inc., 1958).
620
REACTOR FUELS a low fission cross section. Three materials

suitable for control rod fabrication are cadmium,
The form and composition of a reactor boron, and hafnium. Hafnium is particularly
fuel may vary both in design and in the fis- suitable for control rods because it has a
sionable isotope used. Many commercial power relatively high capture cross section and be-
reactors use a solid fuel element fabricated cause several daughter products after neutron
in plate form, withthe fissionable material being capture are stable isotopes which also have
enriched uranium in combination with aluminum, good capture cross sections.
zirconium, or stainless steel. Fuel elements The control rods are withdrawn from the
may be arranged in thin sandwich layers, as reactor core until criticality is obtained; there-
shown in figure 24-6. This construction provides after very little movement is required. It is
a relatively large heat transfer area between important to note at this point that after
the fuel elements and the reactor coolant. criticality is reached, movement of control
The outer cladding on the fuel elements rods does not control the power output of the
confines the fission fragments within the fuel reactor; it controls only the temperature of
elements and serves as a heat transfer surface. the reactor.
Cladding materials should be resistant to cor- Control rod drive mechanisms are so de-
rosion, should be able to withstand high temper- signed that, should an emergency shutdown of
atures, and should have a small cross section the reactor be required, the control rods may
for neutron capture. Three common cladding be inserted in the core very rapidly. A shut-
materials are aluminum, zirconium, and stain- down of this type is called a scram.
less steel. The fuel elements may be assembled
in groups, some of which may contain control MODERATORS
rods. Several groups of fuel elements placed
within a reactor vessel make up the reactor A moderator is the material used to ther-
core, It is not necessary that all fuel groups malize the neutrons in a reactor. As pre-
within the reactor contain control rods. viously stated, neutrons are thermalized by
elastic collisions; therefore, a good moderator
CONTROL RODS must have a high scattering cross section and
a low absorption cross section to reduce the
Control rods serve a dual purpose in a speed of a neutron in a small number of col-
reactor. They keep the neutron density (neutron lisions. Nuclei whose mass is close to that of
flux) constant within a critical reactor and they a neutron are the most effective in slowing
provide a means of shutting down the reactor. the neutron; therefore, atoms of low atomic
The material for a control rod must have weight generally make the best moderators.
a high capture cross section for neutrons and Materials which have been used as moderators
include light and heavy water, graphite, and
beryllium.
Ordinary light water makes a good moderator
CLADDING since the cost is low; however it must be
free from impurities which may capture the
neutrons or add to the radiological hazards.
PLATE OF REACTOR COOLANTS

CLADDING COOL ANT
MATERIAL SINE The primary purpose of a reactor coolant
is to absorb heat from the reactor. The coolant
may be either a gas or a liquid; it must pos-
sess good heat transfer properties, have good
thermal properties, be noncorrosive to the
system, be nonhazardous if exposed to radiation,
FUEL and be of low cost. Coolants which have been
used in operational and experimental reactors
147.156 include light and heavy water, liquid sodium, and
Figure 24-6.—PWR fuel element. carbon dioxide.
621
REFLECTORS Experimental Breeder Reactor, and the Ex-

perimental Gas Cooled Reactor.
In a reactor of finite size, the leakage of The first full-scale nuclear-powered central
neutrons from the core becomes somewhat of station in the United States was the Pressurized
a problem. To minimize the leakage, a re- Water Reactor (PWR) at Shippingport, Pennsyl-
flector is used to assist in keeping the neu- vania. The Shippingport PWR is a thermal,
trons in the reactor. The use of a reflector heterogeneous reactor fueled with enriched
reduces both the required size of the reactor uranium-235 ‘‘seed assemblies’? arranged
and the radiation hazards of escaping neutrons. in a square in the center of the core, surrounded
The characteristics required for a reflector by ‘‘blanket assemblies”’ of uranium-238 fuel
are essentially the same as those required for elements. Figure 24-7 shows a cross-sectional
a moderator. view of the PWR reactor and core. This type
Since ordinary water of high purity is suit- of reactor can be called a converter, since the
able for moderators, coolants, and reflectors, uranium-238 is converted into the fissionable
the inference is that it could serve all three fuel of plutonium-239.
functions in the same reactor. This is indeed A schematic diagram of PWR and its as-
the case in many nuclear reactors. sociated steam plant with power output and
flow ratings is shown in figure 24-8. The
SHIELDING reactor plant consists of a single reactor
with four main coolant loops; the plant is
The shielding of a nuclear reactor serves
capable of maintaining full power on three
the dual purpose of (1) reducing the radiation
loops. Each coolant loop contains a steam
so that it will not interfere with the necessary
generator, a pump, and associated piping.
instrumentation, and (2) protecting operating
High purity water at a pressure of 2000
personnel from radiation.
psia serves as both moderator and coolant
The type of shielding material used is
for the plant. At full power the inlet water
dependent upon the purpose of the particular
temperature to the reactor is 508°F and the
reactor and upon the nature of the radioactive
outlet temperature is 542°F.
particles being attenuated or absorbed.
The coolant enters the bottom of the reactor
The shielding against alpha particles is
vessel (fig. 24-9) where 90 percent of the water
a relatively simple matter. Since an alpha
particle has a positive electrical charge of 2,
a few centimeters of air is all that is required
for attenuation. Any light material such as
aluminum or plastics makes a suitable shield
for beta particles. EXTRA BLANKET.
ASSEMBLY
Neutrons and gamma rays have considerable
penetrating power; therefore, shielding against SEED
SUBASSEMBLY
them is more difficult. Since neutrons are best
attenuated by elastic collisions, any hydrogenous BLANKET
material such as polyethylene or water is suit- ASSEMBLY
able as aneutron shield. Sometimes polyethylene

CONTROL ROD
with boron is used for neutron Shields, as
boron has a high neutron capture cross section. SPACER
Gamma rays are best attenuated by a dense
material such as lead. SEED ASSEMBLY
(FOUR SUB
ASSEMBLIES)
NUCLEAR REACTORS
The purpose of any power reactor is to CORE CAGE
provide thermal energy which can be con-

THERMAL
verted to useful work. Several types of experi- SHIELD
mental and operational reactors have been

designed. They include the Pressurized Water 147,157X
Reactor (PWR), the Sodium Cooled Reactor, Figure 24-7.—Cross-sectional view of
the Experimental Boiling Water Reactor, the PWR reactor and core.
622
TOTAL STEAM FLOW = 861,000 LBS/HR

FROM OTHER ‘7
Li
STEAM GENERATORS ————————>
GENERATOR
60,000 —- KW NET
OUTPUT (3 LOOPS)
7
REACTOR
STEAM PRESSURE = 600 PSIA
HEAT OUTPUT STEAM FLOW = 287, 000 LBS/HR
= 790 X 10§ BTU
/ HR
FLOW = 50,400 GPM
OPERATING PRESSURE STEAM
= 2000 PSI Seay SEPARATOR
T
DESIGN PRESSURE 4
= 2500 PSI GENERATOR
FLOW = 16,800 GPM

LOOP NO. 1
VELOCITY = 30 FT/SEC
EEDWATER
REHEATER
um
BOILER FEED PUMP
LOOP NO.4 LOOP NO. 3
TO OTHER STEAM GENERATORS
147,158X
Figure 24-8.—Schematic diagram of PWR plant.
flows upward between the fuel plates, with quality saturated steam for the use in the
the remainder bypassing the core in order to turbines.
cool the walls of the reactor vessel and the The primary coolant flows from the steam
thermal shield. After having absorbed heat as generator to a hermetically sealed (canned
it goes through the core, the water leaves the rotor) pump (fig. 24-10) and is pumped through
top of the reactor vessel through the outlet connecting piping to the bottom of the reactor
nozzles and flows through connecting piping to vessel to complete the primary coolant cycle.
the steam generator. The pressure on the reactor vessel and the
main coolant loop is maintained by a pres-
The steam generator is a shell-and-tube surizing tank (fig. 24-11) which operates under
type of heat exchanger with the primary coolant the saturation conditions of 636° F and 2000 psia.
(reactor coolant) flowing through the tubes and A second function of the pressurizing tank is to
the secondary water (boiler water) surrounding act aS a surge tank for the primary system.
the tubes. Heat is transferred to the secondary Under no load conditions the inlet, outlet, and
water in the steam generator, producing high average temperatures of the reactor coolant
623
CONTROL DRIVE
ME (CHANISM HOUSING
TERMINAL BOX
ZZ
YL 7— COOLING JACKET
ROTOR
CONTROL ROD STATOR
NATURAL URANIUM
ASSEMBLY (BLANKET)
Seo PUMP
DISCHARGE
ENRICHED
URANIUM
ASSEMBLY
SSS CORE CAGE
(SEED) TN
THERMAL SHIELDS
IMPELLER
BOLTING RING
147,159X 147,160X
Figure 24-9.—Longitudinal section of Figure 24-10.—PWR main coolant pump.
PWR reactor. (A) External view. (B) Cutaway view.
624
are nearly equal in value. As the power in- coolant increases, so does the magnitude of the
creases, the average temperature remains neutron scattering cross section. The higher
constant but the inlet and outlet temperatures value of the scattering cross section allows the
diverge. Since the colder leg of the primary coolant, in its capacity as moderator, to therma-
coolant is the longer, the net effect in the lize neutrons at faster rate, supplying more
pressurizer is a decrease in level to make
up for the increase in density of the water in
the primary loop. The reverse holds true with
a decreasing power level. Electrical heaters
and a spray valve with a supply of water from
the cold leg of the primary coolant assist in
maintaining a steam blanket in the upper part
of the pressurizer and also assist in main-
taining saturation conditions of 2000 psia and ——— sera NOZZLE
636 F.
PRINCIPLES OF REACTOR CONTROL

DOME
Reactor control principles? which are of
particular interest to this discussion include
the negative temperature coefficient, the de-
layed neutron action, and the poisoning of fuel.
The term ‘‘negative temperature coefficient’’
is used to express the relationship between
temperature and reactivity—as the temperature
decreases, the reactivity increases. The nega- STANDPIPE
tive temperature coefficient is a design re-
quirement and is achieved by the proper ratio
of elements in the reactor, the geometry of the
reactor, and the physical size of the reactor.
The negative temperature coefficient makes it
possible to keep a power reactor critical with
minimum movement of the control rods.
The concept of negative temperature coef-
ficient may be most easily understood by use
of an example. Assume that, in the PWR plant
shown in figure 24-8, the reactor is critical
and the machinery is operating at a given
power level. Now, if the valve is opened to
increase the turbine speed, the rate of steam
flow, and the power level of the reactor, the HEATER
SECTION
measurable effect with installed instrumenta-
tion is a decrease in the temperature of the
primary coolant leaving the steam generator.
The decrease in temperature is small but
significant in that it results in an increase in
density of the coolant. As the density of the
147,.161X
"John F. Hogerton, The Atomic Energy Deskbook (New Figure 24-11.—Cutaway view of PWR
York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1963), p. 463. pressurizing tank.
625
thermal neutrons to be absorbed in the fuel. Most of the fission products produced in
As more neutrons are absorbed in the fuel, a reactor have a small absorption cross sec-
more fissions occur, resulting in a higher tion. The most important one that does have a
power level and more heat being generated high absorption cross section for neutrons is
by the reactor. The additional heat is re- xenon-135; this can become a problem near
moved by the reactor coolant to the secondary the end of core life. Xenon-135 is a direct
water in the steam generator to compensate for fission product a small percentage of the
the increased steam demand by the turbine. The time but is mostly produced in the decay of
temperature of the primary coolant leaving the iodine-135 as indicated in the following de-
steam generator increases slightly, lowering cay chain:
the scattering cross section of the moderator,
and the reactor settles out at a higher power aoe 6.7 hrs xepe 9.2 hrs
level.
———+ 54
The delayed neutron action is a phenomenon 135 135
55CS 2.0x 10° yrs 56Ba
that simplifies reactor control considerably.
Each fission in a nuclear reactor releases on
the average between two and three neutrons Xenon-135 has a high neutron absorption
which either leak out of the reactor or are cross section. In normal operation of the
absorbed in reactor materials. If the reactor reactor, xenon-135 absorbs a neutron and is
material which absorbs the neutron happens to transformed to the stable isotope of xenon-136,
be the fissionable fuel, and if the neutron is of which presents no poison problem to the re-
proper energy level, another fission is likely actor. Equilibrium xenon is reached after about
to result. The majority of the neutrons re- 40 hours of steady-state operation. At this
leased in the fission process appear instan- point the same amount of xenon-135 is being
taneously and are termed prompt neutrons; but “purned” by neutron absorption as_ is being
other neutrons are born after fission and are produced by the fission process.
termed delayed neutrons. The delayed neutrons The second, and perhaps the more serious,
appear in a time range of seconds to 3 or more effect of xenon poisoning occurs near the end
minutes after the fission takes place. The of core life. As indicated by the half-lives
weighted mean lifetime of the delayed neutrons shown in the xenon decay chain, xenon-135 is
is approximately 12 seconds. About 0.75 per- produced at a faster rate than it decays. The
cent of the neutrons produced in the fission buildup of xenon-135 in the reactor reaches a
process are delayed neutrons. maximum about 11 hours after shutdown. Should
Should a reactor become prompt critical a scram occur near the end of core life, the
(critical on prompt neutrons), it would be very xenon buildup may make it impossible to take
difficult to control and any delayed neutrons the reactor critical until the xenon has de-
would tend to make it supercritical. The delayed cayed off. In a situation of this type, the re-
neutrons have the effect of increasing the actor may have to sit idle for as muchas
reactor period sufficiently to permit reactor two days before it is capable of overriding
control. Reactor period is the time required the poison buildup.
to change the power level by a factor of @
(the base of the system of natural logarithms). THE NAVAL NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
A nuclear poison is material in the reactor Since many aspects of the design and
that has a high absorption cross section for operation of naval nuclear propulsion plants
neutrons. Some poisons are classed as burnable involve classified information, the information
poisons and are placed in the reactor for the presented here is necessarily brief and general
purpose of extending the core life; other poisons in nature.
are generated in the fission process and have a In a nuclear power plant designed for ship
tendency to be a hindrance to reactor operation. propulsion, weight and space limitations and
A burnable poison has a relatively high cross other factors must be taken into consideration
section for neutron absorption but is used up in in addition to the factors involved in the design
the early part of the core life. By addinga of a shore-based power plant.
burnable poison to the reactor, more fuel canbe The thermodynamic cycle of the shipboard
loaded into the core, thus extending the life of nuclear propulsion plant is similar to that of
the core. the conventional steam turbine propulsion plant.
626
Chapter 24. -NUCLE AR POWER PLANTS
i ae ee a
Instead of a boiler, however, the nuclear pro- importance in connection with the shipboard
pulsion plant utilizes a pressurized water re- nuclear power plant are noted here briefly.
actor as the heat source and a steam generator The remote possibility of radiological
as a heat exchanger to generate the steam used hazards exists even though the radiation is well
to drive the propulsion turbines. contained in the shipboard nuclear reactor. To
eliminate or minimize the radiological hazards,
The steam generator is a heat exchanger in a high degree of quality control is essential in
which the primary coolant transfers heat to the the design, construction, and operation of nuclear
secondary system (boiler water) by conduction. power plants. The high pressures and temper-
The water in the secondary side of the steam atures used in nuclear reactors, together with
generator, being at lower pressure, changes
the prolonged periods of continuous operation,
from the physical state of water to the physical pose materials problems. For shipboard use,
state of steam. This steam then flow through the great weight of the materials required for
piping to the engineroom. shielding presents still other problems.
The engineroom equipment consists of pro- Although many of these problems may be
pulsion turbines, turbogenerators, condensers, solved by further technological developments,
and associated auxiliaries. the problems involved in the selection and
training of personnel for nuclear ships appear
to be continuing ones. The safe and efficient
PROBLEMS OF NUCLEAR POWER operation of a shipboard nuclear plant requires
highly skilled, responsible personnel who have
Although many developmental and engineer- been thoroughly trained in both the academic and
ing problems associated with nuclear power the practical aspects of nuclear propulsion. The
have been solved to some extent, some problems selection and training of such personnel is in-
remain. A few problems that are of particular evitably costly in terms of time and money.
627
CHAPTER 25
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN NAVAL ENGINEERING
New developments in naval engineering tend appear to offer some promise for future appli-
to be closely related to concepts of strategy. In cation in the field of naval engineering. With a
some instances, new concepts of strategy may few exceptions, the areas noted in this chapter
force the development of new engineering equip- are ones in which some actual work has been
ment to meet specific needs; in other instances, done or in which some serious thought has been
the development of a new source of power, a given to naval engineering applications. It should
new engine, a new hull form, or anew propulsive be emphasized that this chapter is neither a com-
device opens up new strategic possibilities. In plete survey of new developments nora crystal-
any event, engineering capability is a major ball type reading of the future. Some ofthe areas
limiting factor in strategic planning, since it mentioned here may turn out to have littleor no
determines what is possible and what is not application to naval engineering, while areas that
possible in the way of ship operation. are not even mentioned may suddenly come into
In previous chapters of this text, we have prominence and importance.
been concerned with naval engineering equip-
ment currently installed in naval ships. But it HULL FORMS
would be unreasonable to assume that present
achievements, impressive though they may be, Many new developments in naval engineering
are the last word in naval engineering. Practi- have been aimed, directly or indirectly, at in-
cally everything in the Navy—policies, proce- creasing the speed of ships. One approach to this
dures, publications, systems, and equipment—is problem is to increase the size or change the
subject to rapid change and development, and nature of the propulsion machinery—a solution
naval engineering is certainly no exception. The which, for various reasons, is not always feasi-
rate of change in technological areas is increas- ble. Even when larger or better propulsion ma-
ing all the time. The officer who is just beginning chinery is feasible, it is not alwaysatotal solu-
his naval career may well, in the course of a tion to the problem of increased speed, since at
few years, see more changes in naval engineer- least some of the increased power thus provided
ing than have been seen in the past half century is needed to overcome the increased resistance
or more. And, difficult though it may be, every of the ship at the resulting higher speed. In the
naval officer has a responsibility for keeping up continuing search for ways to achieve higher
with new developments. Operating speeds, therefore, a considerable
Because of the increasingly rapid rate of amount of thought has been given to new hull
technological development, it is no mean feat to forms which will reduce the resistance of the
keep abreast of changes in engineering equip- ship as it moves through the water.
ment. In order tokeep up withnew developments A surface ship moving through the water is
in naval engineering, it is necessary to read impeded by various resistances,* chiefly the
widely in the literature of the field and to develop frictional resistance of the water and the resis-
a special kind of alertness for information that tance that results from the generation of wave
may ultimately have an effect on naval engineer- trains by the ship itself. Overcoming each of
ing.
In the present chapter, we will depart from
our previous framework of the here-and-now and 1pundamentals of ship resistance are discussed in
mention briefly a few areas which, at present, chapter 5 of this text.
628
Chapter 25. -NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN NAVAL ENGINEERING
a a i te a EE Ee eee
these resistances requires the expenditure of In spite of design difficulties, the use of large
definite, calculable amounts of energy; hence bulbs is of value in the design of certain types of
each kind of resistance must be considered in ships. Tests of models have shown that a ship
connection with efforts to increase the speed of with a large bulb at the bow generates smaller
surface ships. and smoother systems of waves than a ship with-
Among the interesting hull forms that have out sucha bulb. However, this gain is not all free,
been developed (or at least considered) with a since the bulb adds frictional resistance to the
view to increasing surface ship speed by de- ship.
creasing one or both of these resistances are the
bulbous-bow form, the slender hull form, the Slender Ships
semi-submarine form, the hydrofoil, and the
A slender hull ship is basically similar to a
various forms devised to utilize an air cushion
destroyer except that, for any given displace-
or an air bubble. Each of these formshas speci-
ment, the slender ship is about 30 percent longer
fic advantages and disadvantages; the search is
than the destroyer. The extra length is designed
not for one perfect hull form but rather for a
to increase speed by decreasing the wave- making
variety of hull forms suitable for a variety of
resistance of the ship. A slender ship has less
functions.
static stability than a comparable destroyer, due
to the narrower beam in relation to length. Also,
Bulbous-Bow Forms the structural weight of the slender ship must be
considerably greater than the structural weight
of a comparable destroyer.
The bulbous-bow configuration is currently
Some slender ships have been designed utiliz-
used on most large naval ships.2 The theory of
ing a large bulb atthe bow and another one at the
the bulbous-bow form is that the bulb will gen-
stern. Such ships are of interest because they
erate its own system of waves which will inter-
have improved longitudinal stability charac-
fere with the systems of waves formed by the
teristics as well as decreased wave-making re-
ship, thus reducing the resistance that results
sistance.
from the wave-making of the ship.
Although the bulbous-bow configuration is not
Semi-Submarine
so very new either in theory or in application,
the concept of using much larger bulbs isa fairly The semi-submarine is still another ap-
recent development. In theory, the wave-making proach to the problem of increasing speed by
resistance of a ship could be substantially re- using a special hull form. The semi-submarine
duced by locating a large bulb just belowthe sur- is shaped somewhat like avery streamlined sub-
face and just forward of the bow. Inreality, there marine. The main hull of the semi-submarine
are enormous design difficulties involved, since runs submerged, while surface-piercing struc-
the bulb must be specifically designed to inter- tures or fins (hydrofoils) at the stern increase
fere with complex wave trains generated by the the dynamic stability characteristics of the ves-
ship. 5 sel and provide a means for handling engine air
Some idea of the complexity of the problem intake and exhaust. Because the semi-submarine
may be obtained by tossing pebbles into a pond runs submerged, except for the fins (hydrofoils),
and observing the waves that are formed. When the craft avoids both storm waves and the self-
two pebbles are tossed in together, each pebble generated wave-making resistance of surface
generates its own systems of waves. Under some ships.
conditions, the systems of waves tend to cancel
each other out; under other conditions, they tend Hydrofoils
to enhance or amplify each other; and under still
other conditions, they interfere with each other The hydrofoil has been described as a cross
in a chaotic, unpredictable manner which is es- between a high speed boat and an airplane. The
sentially useless as far as achieving any cancel- craft has two modes of operation; it may run on
lation of waves is concerned. the surface of the water, as a conventional sur-
face ship, or it may fly on the foils with the hull
clear of the water. When flying, the hydrofoil is
2 sce the discussion of stem and bow structure in supported clear of the water by the dynamic lift
chapter 2 of this text. of the foils.
629
The primary advantages of the hydrofoilform A major problem in the development of hydro-
are high speed and superior seakeeping abilities. foils has centered around the transmission of
The high speed is attainable because the resis- power. When an underwater propeller is used,
tances encountered by other shipforms are sub- power must be transmitted downward from the
stantially reduced in the hydrofoil. When the hy- prime mover in the hull to the propeller, which
drofoil is flying, the hull is entirely above the is at a deeper level. Various solutions to this
surface of the water and is therefore not impeded problem have been tried. One solution is to use
by frictional resistance or wave-making resis- an inclined shaft and an inclined prime mover
tance and is not disturbed by waves, swells, or which drives into a V-gear. Another solution is
choppy surfaces that slow down other craft. to use double right-angled gearing. To date, no
At present, the hydrofoil form is not con- solution has been found that is entirely satisfac-
sidered feasible for very large vessels. How- tory.
ever, the future development of propulsion plants Propellers have also been a continuing pro-
with smaller specific weights’ could well extend blem with hydrofoils. The cavitation encountered
the tonnage range of the hydrofoil form. In fact, at high speeds has led to numerous propeller
a ‘“‘hydrofoil destroyer’’ has even been proposed. failures. One solution to this problem is the su-
Several types of hydrofoil systems have been percavitating (SC) propeller discussed later in
developed. The Navy hydrofoil program has con- this chapter. Because of the propeller problem,
centrated largely on fully submerged subsurface other propulsion devices such as airscrews and
wings or foils. Control surfaces on the fully sub- airjet or waterjet propulsion systems have been
merged foils act like aircraft ailerons and con- considered for use with hydrofoils.
trol the course of the craft through the water; The Navy’s first operational hydrofoil, USS
the foils are controlled by aheight-sensing sys- High Point, PCH 1, is shown in figures 25-1 and
tem which maintains level flight. Inanother type 25-2. In flight, this hydrofoil reaches speeds of
of control (incidence control) the entire foil is more than 45 knots.
moved instead of flaps. Other hydrofoil systems
Hydroskimmers
include skids or other planing devices and sur-
face-piercing foils. Surface-piercing foils have The hydroskimmer belongs to the general
a lifting area that is proportional to the amount category of craft designed to ride ona bubble or
of foil immersed. a cushion of air. Vehicles and craftinthis cate-
A number of hull forms have been used for gory are called ground effect machines (GEM),
hydrofoils, but most of them are basically adap- air cushion vehicles (ACV), or surface effect
tations of conventional hull forms. The hull is ships. In general, any GEM that is designed to
relatively long and narrow, with the length of the operate over water is called a hydroskimmer.
craft being eight to ten times the beam. It has The hydroskimmer has been referred toasa
been suggested that the catamaran* design may “flying washtub,’’?> and the comparison is apt.
have certain specific advantages for hydrofoils; The basic principles of the hydroskimmer (and,
however, this type of design is not currently used indeed, of all ground effect machines) may be
in Navy hydrofoils except on an experimental grasped by considering an inverted washtub with
basis. a fan mounted inside the tub. When the fan is
Although a wide variety of power plants have turned on, the tub begins to rise off the ground
been considered for hydrofoil craft, the gas tur- as soon as the air pressure inside the tub be-
bine and the diesel engine are the types primarily comes sufficiently great. This, in essence, is
installed in these craft at present. Some hydro- the principle of the hydroskimmer.
foils are equipped with both gas turbines and In a real hydroskimmer or other GEM, theair
diesel engines. escapes uniformly around the bottom edges of the
craft, thus providing a cushion of air which lifts
the craft evenly above the ground or the water.
The air cushion is developed and maintained in
3The specific weight of a propulsion plant is the various ways, depending upon the basic design of
number of pounds of propulsion machinery required the vehicle.
per shaft horsepower.
*The catamaran or twin-hull design consists of two
slender hulls which are joined together above the 5Erwin A. Sharp, JOC, USN, "Sailing on a Bubble of
waterline. Air,'' All Hands, December 1960, pp. 8-11.
630
(
rt AIR INTAKE AND STRUT
y |/ TRUNK HOUSING
TORPEDO TUBES
\o te fe
a sf
:
———
te
ab: ag
=
FORWARD FOIL
EEN BUMPER
AFT FOIL ES
PROPELLER FOR FOILBORNE PS PROPELLER FOR
OPERATION iP ; HULLBORNE OPERATION
NACELLE
3.88
Figure 25-1.—Hydrofoil (USS High Point, PCH 1)
In the plenum-chamber type, air is forced The hydroskimmer, although still experi-
down from the top of one chamber and allowed to mental at this stage, gives promise of being a
escape around the edges at the bottom. very fast and effective craft for a variety of uses.
In the air-curtain type, the interior is divided Speeds of 80to 120 knots are considered feasible.
into sections, with open air ducts between the The hydroskimmer is being considered for such
sections. Air is forced down through the ducts to uses as ASW craft, patrol craft, high speed trans-
form a high pressure air cushion for the craft to port, amphibious assault, mine countermeasures
ride upon. Air jets, pointing downward and in- craft, and rescue craft. The Navy’s 25-ton re-
ward, are installed around the periphery of the search hydroskimmer, SKMR-1, is shown in
craft; the air from these jets holds the air bubble figure 25-3. This vessel was built with the speci-
in place. In some air-curtain designs, the air fic aim of providing more knowledge on the pre-
jets are used only at the front andthe rear. Side ferred shapes, propulsion machinery, and pro-
walls (called skegs) are used to enclose the air pulsive devices for this type of craft. The air
bubble at the sides. cushion system for SKMR-1 is shown in figure
25-4.
In the water-curtain type, a scoop anda water
pump are used to form water jets (insteadof air
jets) around the periphery of the craft. The water PROPULSION AND STEERING
jets are even more efficient than the air jets in
keeping the air cushion under the craft. Ob-
For more than a hundred years, the under-
viously, the water-curtain design is suitable only
water screw propeller has been the conventional
for craft operating over water.
device for ship propulsion. Although the screw
The air cushion gets the hydroskimmer into propeller is in no danger of being replaced within
the air, but it does not provide it with any means the foreseeable future, the increasing emphasis
of horizontal propulsion. Both airscrews and on high speed ships has ledto an increasing con-
water screws have been tried; each type has some cern with other types of propulsion devices. Some
advantages, with the choice depending upon the of the propulsion devices presently under de-
nature of the vehicle and the service conditions. velopment or consideration are mentioned here.
631
ee
re
Dee
ee
3.88
Figure 25-2.—Hydrofoil in flight.
The supercavitating (SC) propeller isa recent A supercavitating propeller is designed to

development that may have particular application operate with the suction side (back) of the blades
to hydrofoils and other high speed ships. The enclosed in avapor cavity. Because of the special
supercavitating propeller is intended for use at design of the blades, this vapor cavity collapses
high forward speeds and high rpm, with a re- far enough downstream from the propeller blades
latively shallow depth of submergence. It is de- to prevent any cavitation effects on the face of the
signed to operate under conditions of full cavi- blades. In essence, the basic line of reasoning be-
tation, although it may encounter conditions of hind the design of the supercavitating propeller
partial cavitation when operating at less than is not to do away with or prevent cavitation but
designed forward speed and rpm. Under condi- rather to accept it as inevitable at high speeds
tions of partial cavitation, the supercavitating and to control it. The supercavitating propeller
propeller may be subject to cavitation erosion controls cavitation by making sure that the cavity
similar to that encountered on conventional pro- collapse occurs in an area inwhichit can do re-
pellers. latively little damage.
632
can be varied in such a way as to provide com-

plete maneuverability, as well as propulsion;
hence this device is actually a combination of a
propulsion device anda steering device. Although
originally proposed for small submersible craft,
it is possible that this type of installation may
have application for larger ships in the future.
A number of other devices have been sug-
gested which combine the functions of propulsion
and steering. Among these are the steering
screw, which consists of a propeller mounted on
a vertical shaft. The shaft can be rotated through
360° in order to propel the vessel inany desired
direction. Other devices which combine the func-
tions of propulsion and steering to some extent
are screw propellers arranged as bowthrusters
or as stern thrusters. In each case, the screw
propeller is mounted on a horizontal shaft. The
propeller is located within a tube which runs ath-
wartship through the bow or the stern. The pro-
pellers can be reversed to provide thrust in
either athwarthship direction. The tubes can be
3.265 arranged to be closed off when not in use.
Figure 25-3.—Navy research hydro- Airscrew propulsion for ships has been under
skimmer (SKMR-1). investigation for the past few years. The primary
advantage of the airscrew is that it provides very
Another approach to the problem of cavitation great maneuverabiltiy, particularly at low
and the resulting reduction in thrust is the use of speeds. In a Navy test of airscrew propulsion on
propeller nozzles and shrouds. Nozzles and the liberty ship John L. Sullivan (YAG 37), it was
shrouds reshape the flow of water to the propel- found that maneuverability at low speeds was
ler in such a way as to delay cavitation by in- better with the airscrews than with conventional
creasing and ‘‘containing’’ the pressure around propulsion and steering. When approaching piers
the propeller. A similar reshaping of the water or mooring buoys, the ship was able to maneuver
flow may be obtained by the use of hydraulic jets. without the assistance of a tug because the air-
One ‘‘new’’ propulsion device is actually quite screws provided the capability for applying pro-
old; although it has not recently had any major pulsive force in any direction.
application for ship propulsion, it has beenused The disadvantage of airscrew propulsion for
on some torpedoes. This is the contra- rotating ships is that enormous airscrews would be re-
propeller, which consists of two screws turning quired to propel evena medium-sized ship at any
in opposite directions. The advantage of the con- great speed. For certain types of craft, however,
tra-rotating propeller design is that the after it is possible that some combination of water
propeller is able to utilize some of the energy screw and airscrew propulsion may be feasible.
from the wake of the forward propeller, thus Although none of the combined devices thus
leading to higher efficiencies than are obtain- far developed have solved all propulsion and
able with a single screw propeller. The con- steering problems, there is muchto recommend
tra-rotating propeller also offers possible the combination approach. Propulsion and steer-
weight savings and efficiency improvements in ing are very closely related; a truly effective
the propulsion machinery. propulsion and maneuvering combination should
One variation of the contra- rotating propeller result in greater simplicity and greater effi-
installation is called a tandem propeller instal- ciency than is obtainable with two separate de-
lation. In this arrangement, one propeller is in- vices.
stalled near the bowand the other near the stern. Waterjet propulsion for ships was tried out
The propeller blades are mounted ona blade ring, many years ago but abandoned because of its re-
with the blades projecting out through the hull. latively low efficiency. However, the Navy has
The pitch of the contra-rotating propeller blades recently been investigating the possibility of
633
STABILIZING NOZZLES
PERIPHERAL. NOZZLE
FLOTATION
NOZZLE CONTROL VANE COMPARTMENTS
3.265
Figure 25-4.—Air cushion system for SKMR-1).
using the waterjet as a prime mover in small chamber reacts with the water; hence the water
craft such as the one shown in figure 25-5. that enters the combustion chamber may be re-
The general principle of waterjet propulsion garded as a co-propellant. The products of the
is illustrated in figure 25-6. The ‘‘prime mover’”’ reaction are expanded through a nozzle at the
consists merely of a water pump. The rotating after end of the craft, thus propelling the craft
impellers deliver thrust by accelerating alarge forward, Although a propulsion system of this
volume of water at ahighvelocity througha noz- sort would have many advantages for short-range
zle. Operation, there are some disadvantages; one
The velocity of flow through the nozzle is di- present disadvantage is that the system is ex-
rectly proportional to the flow rate and inversely tremely noisy. Also, it is very inefficient except
proportional to the volume of flow times the ve- at very high speeds (above 80 knots).
locity of flow.
One of the outstanding advantages of the DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION
waterjet mode of propulsion is that the waterjet
produces much less underwater noise than a The production of power for ship propulsion
conventional propeller-driven craft of the same begins with the conversion of some stored form
size and general configuration. Preliminary of energy. In all present propulsion plants, the
studies of the waterjet indicate that a comparable stored energy that is the original source of power
conventional propeller-driven craft could be de- must undergo a series of transformations before
tected approximately tentimes farther away than it can be utilized to propel the ship. We have two
the waterjet. major sources of stored energy: fossil fuel and
Quite a different system ofjet propulsionhas nuclear fuel. In each case the stored energy must
been suggested asa possibility for the propulsion be converted into thermal energy which is then
of underwater vehicles. This propulsion system converted into mechanical energy.
(fig. 25-7) is generally known as an underwater During the past few years, a considerable
ramjet system. The fuel in the combustion amount of interest has developed concerning
634
require a great deal of equipment to perform

these various energy conversions. Beginning
with an inherently inefficient cycle which cannot
operate unless a great deal of heat is ‘‘wasted’’
because it must be rejected to a heat receiver,
we mustaccept even greater inefficiency because
of the mechanical losses and miscellaneous heat
losses that inevitably occur throughout the plant.
There are two major approaches to the prob-
lem of direct energy conversion. One approach
is to findan energy conversion which is not based
on the Carnot cycle and is therefore not limited
by the requirement that some heat be rejected
to a low temperature heat receiver. The other
approach is to utilize a ‘‘static’’ heat engine
which is based onthe Carnot cycle, andtherefore
subject to its limitations, but which hasno mov-
147.162 ing parts and therefore no mechanical losses.
Figure 25-5.—Small craft with waterjet The fuel cell is an example of a device that by-
propulsion. passes the Carnot cycle to make adirect energy
conversion. Thermoelectric converters, ther-
direct energy conversions that may ultimately mionic converters, and magnetohydrodynamic
have application to the production of power for generators are examples of static heat engines
ship propulsion. This interest arises from two which, although operating on the Carnot cycle,
major considerations. First, the Carnot cycle come very much closer to the maximum theore-
which is the thermodynamic basis for our heat tical efficiency of the cycle by reducing or elimi-
engines is inherently inefficient, with the the- nating mechanical losses.
oretical maximum efficiency of the cycle being
Fuel Cells
T; — T2
A fuel cell is a battery-type device in which
T chemical energy is converted directly into elec-
trical energy. The reaction involves a free
limited to where Tj is the absolute temperature energy release, without the rejection ofheattoa
at which heat flows from the source to the heat sink; hence the process is independent of the
working fluid and T9 is the absolute temperature Carnot cycle and free of Carnot cycle limitations.
at which heat is rejected to the receiver. Since The major parts of a fuel cell (fig. 25-8) are
the temperature of the heat receiver (the ocean) an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The fuel
cannot be lowered, the only way to improve the is fed continuously to the anode, while the oxidant
efficiency of an actual cycle based on the Carnot is fed continuously to the cathode. The conversion
cycle is to increase the temperature of Tj. The from chemical energy to electrical energy oc-
past few years have seen great advances in the curs as electrons, released at the anode, flowto
use of higher T, temperatures (e.g., boilers the cathode.
operating at higher pressures in order to in- Several types of fuel cells are under investi-
crease the difference between T, and TQ), but gation and development. Some operate at rela-
materials limitations eventually impose a bar- tively low pressures and temperatures, others at
rier to progress in this direction. high pressures and temperatures. A wide variety
The second reason for current interest in of fuels have been considered for fuel cells; hy-
novel energy conversions is that the actual ship- drogen, various hydrocarbons, and methanol ap-
board cycles in which stored energy is converted pear to offer particular promise for many appli-
to thermal energy which is then converted to work cations, while a sodium amalgam is being
considered for use in certain small fuel cells.
The oxidants most commonly used are air and
6The Carnot cycle is discussed in chapter 8 of this oxygen; however, peroxides, chlorine, andother
text. substances have also been tried. Electrolytes
635
147.163
Figure 25-6.—Principle of waterjet propulsion.
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
DISCHARGE a ee _———
WATER
NOZZLE INTAKE
FORWARD MOTION OF VESSEL

I
147.164
Figure 25-7.—Underwater ramjet propulsion system.
that have been used in fuel cells include potas- of the piece. In P materials, the application of
sium hydroxide, fused salts, and liquid salts. heat tends to produce positive charges toward the
As may be inferred, the fuel cell is simpli- cold end of the piece. When heat is applied to the
city itself in basic concept, and it offers the hot junction of a thermoelectric converter (as
promise of enormously greater efficiencies than shown in fig. 25-9) the cold end of the N material
can ever be obtained through any energy conver- is negative and the cold end of theP material is
sion that is based on the Carnot cycle. However, positive. When the cold ends are connected
there are many problems to beovercome before through a load, the electric circuit is complete.
the fuel cell can be regarded as a major source The efficiency of the thermoelectric con-
of power for applications requiring large power verter is limited by Carnot cycle limitations.
outputs. As with all Carnot cycle energy conversions, the
efficiency of the thermoelectric converter in-
Thermoelectric Converters creases as the temperature differential in-
creases. It is believed that the maximum attain-
A thermoelectric converter is a device for able efficiency of the thermoelectric converter
converting heat to direct-current electricity. may be on the order of 25 to 30 percent, although
The general arrangement of a thermoelectric efficiencies thus far achieved are not nearly so
converter is illustrated in figure 25-9. As may high.
be seen, the converter is basically a thermo-
couple device in which an emf is developed Thermionic Converters
through the application of heat to dissimilar ma-
terials, Another device for converting heat to direct-
In the thermoelectric converter, one of the current electricity is the thermionic converter.
dissimilar materials is of the type known as an In its simplest form, the thermionic converter is
N material and the other is of the type known as similar to a vacuum tube, consisting of two metal
a P material. As far as electron behavior is con- electrodes separated by a space under vacuum.
cerned, N and P materials react differently when The cathode is heated, and the anode is main-
heat is applied to one end. In N materials, the tained at a lower temperature. When the cathode
application of heat tends to make negatively is heated, electrons are thermally agitated and
charged free electrons move toward the cold end driven from the cathode to the anode. Connecting
636
LOAD
thus neutralizing the space charge effect andal-
FUEL OXIDANT lowing the unimpeded flow of electrons. Ther-
mionic converters in which the space between
electrodes is filled with cesium vapor appear to
be promising.
Because athermionic converter must operate
at an extremely high temperature in order to de-
velop any great efficiency, some thought has been
given to utilizing the decay heat of radioactive
isotopes as the heat source. One device that has
been successful in laboratory tests combines
reactor fuel and the thermionic converter inone
unit, thus in effect producing a ‘‘thermionic fuel
CATHODE cell.’’ It is also believed that thermionic con-
version may be suitable for solar energy con-
version for use in space.
ELECTROLYTE
Magnetohydrodynamic Generators
The magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator

is still another device for converting heat to di-
147.165 rect-current electricity. In the MHD generator,
Figure 25-8.—Fuel cell. the conversion is accomplished by passing a high
temperature gas through a magnetic field. Heat-
the two electrodes to a load establishes a circuit ing the gastoavery hightemperature ionizes the
and allows the flow of electric current. gas and makes it electrically conductive. Passing
The thermionic converter, like the ther- the electrically conductive gas through a fixed
moelectric converter, is a static heat engine and magnetic field induces an electrical voltage in
is limited by Carnot cycle considerations. It is accordance with Faraday’s law.
believed, however, that higher efficiencies can
be obtained with the thermionic converter than
LOAD
with the thermoelectric converter. One reason
for the higher efficiencies is that the thermionic
converter typically operates at substantially
higher temperatures (and with substantially
greater temperature differentials) than the ther- HEAT OUT (T>)
moelectric converter. Another reason for the
higher efficiencies is that very little thermal
energy is lost between the hot and coldterminals
because of the vacuum that is maintained between
the cathode and the anode.
In itself, however, the use of avacuum creates
some significant problems in connection with the COLD ENDS
thermionic converter. As electrons pass through
a space under vacuum, there is a tendency for a N
negative ‘‘space charge’’ to be built up. This MATERIAL MATERIAL
Space charge is merely a cloud of electrons
which, after escaping the cathode, have insuffi-
cient energy to reach the anode. As the negative
space charge builds up, electron flow is greatly
diminished. The space charge effect can be re-
duced by putting the electrodes extremely close
|
HEAT IN (T,)
together, but this is difficult todo except in very
small converters. One recent approach to this 147.166
problem is to fill the space with positive ions, Figure 25-9.—Thermoelectric converter.
637
ee eee
PRINCIPLES
eee
OF NAVALEEE
ENGINEERING
EE eee ee ee ee
The MHD conversion is similar to the ther- used to furnish propulsive power. Each type of
moelectric conversion and the thermionic con- prime mover has its own inherent limitations, as
version in some respects but quite unlike them well as its own unique advantages; the purpose of
in others. All three conversions involve the di- combining two prime movers is to make full use
rect conversion of thermal energy into electrical of the special advantages of each and, atthe same
energy, without the intervening step of conver- time, to minimize or bypass its limitations.
sion to mechanical energy; in this sense, all three Combined power plants are of particular in-
may be regarded as “‘direct energy conver- terest for naval ships because of the constant
sions.’’ But the MHD conversion, unlike the ther- need to reconcile conflicting operational re-
moelectric and thermionic conversions, requirements. On the one hand, a naval ship must
quires a working fluid—namely, a hot ionized gas. be able to operate at high speeds when necessary.
In this respect, then, the MHD conversion is On the other hand, the ship must be able to cruise
somewhat less a ‘‘direct energy conversion’’ economically at lower speeds for extended dis-
than the other two processes. tances and extended periods of time. ‘ If the prime
The major problems in connection with mag- mover is selected specifically for high speed
netohydrodynamic conversion arise from the fact operation, there is normally some sacrifice of
that extremely high temperatures (in excess of cruising radius. If the prime mover is selected
4000 ° F) must be developed in order to produce specifically for economical operation at cruising
ionization of the gas. Obviously, such high tem- speeds, there is normally some sacrifice of
peratures pose materials problems. Also, it is speed capability. In most cases, then, the selec-
difficult to achieve such temperatures on the tion of a prime mover represents a compromise
large scale desired for MHD generators. Nuclear between high speed capability and large cruising
reactors capable of operating at these ultra-high radius.
temperatures are under development but are not For many naval applications, it appears that
fully operational. When chemical fuels such as conflicting operational requirements can be re-
oil or powdered coal are used, the desired tem- conciled by combining a base-load plant of mod-
peratures can be obtained only if combustion erate weight and high efficiency with a booster
takes place with almost pure oxygen or if the plant of very light weightand lesser efficiency.
combustion air is preheated to approximately The base-load plant is selected to meet cruising
2000° F. requirements, and should be able to go many
In spite of the temperature problem, the mag- hours between overhauls. The booster plant will
netohydrodynamic conversion process continues inevitably require overhauls at much shorter in-
to arouse great interest among scientists and tervals but is capable of providing additional
engineers. It should be noted, in fact, that the power for high speed operation when necessary.
temperature problem is only one side of the coin. A combined power plant for ship propulsion
On the other side, the use of suchhigh tempera- usually consists of two prime movers whichare
tures leads to the possibility of thermal efficien- mechanically connected by gearing, clutching, or
cies far greater than any that are even theoreti- both. In some combination plants, the two prime
cally possible with conventional heat engines. It movers have interrelated thermodynamic cycles
has been estimated that overall efficiencies as in which one prime mover utilizes waste heat
high as 50 to 60 percent may be achieved through from the other. In other combination plants, the
MHD conversion, if provision is made for utiliz- thermodynamic cycles of the two prime movers
ing the ‘‘waste’’ heat of the MHD process. The are entirely separate and independent.
advantage of utilizing the waste heat is enormous, A great many combinations of prime movers
since the ionizedgasisatatemperatureof 2500° are possible, though not all combinations are
to 3000° F when it is discharged from the gen- equally feasible or desirable. Also, for any given
erator.
COMBINED POWER PLANTS

7More than 80 percent of the total operating time of
naval ships is at speeds requiring less than a third of
In recent years there has been a great deal the power available from the installed plant.
of interest in the use of combined power plants 8This does not necessarily apply to nuclear ships. Ob-
for ship propulsion. In a combined power plant, viously, however, the use of nuclear power brings
two basically different kinds of prime movers are about the necessity for another set of compromises.
638
combination of prime movers, various arrange- clutches which automatically connect the gas tur-
ments are possible. The three combination plants bine drive to the main shaft; and two hydraulic
which at present appear to offer great advantages couplings which are used when maneuvering on
for naval ships are (1) the combined steam and the gas turbine. With this arrangement, the steam
gas turbine plant, known as COSAG, (2) the com- turbines or gas turbines (or both) canbe used for
bined diesel and gas turbine plant, known as propulsion, and maneuvering can be accom-
CODAG, and (3) the combined gas turbine and gas plished either on the astern steam turbine or on
turbine plant, known as COGAG., Other combina- the gas turbine and the reversing gears.
tions, including some that utilize nuclear power,
are also under consideration.
Combined steam and gas turbine (COSAG) STEAM TURBINE
plants have been installed in some combatant
ships of the British Navy and are being investiga- BOILER
ted by our own Navy. Figure 25-10 illustrates the

general arrangement of one COSAG plant in- Ba
stalled in a British twin-screw guided missile GEARING GAS TURBINE
destroyer; there are two such plants, each serv-

ing one propeller. Each shaft set consists of 147.168
a cross-compound steam turbine of 15,000 shaft Figure 25-11.—COSAG plant for one-screw ship.
horsepower plus two gas turbines of 7500 horse-
power each. All prime movers drive into one Combined diesel and gas turbine (CODAG)
gear box. plants utilize diesels for the base-load plant and
gas turbines for the booster plant. The use of
multiple diesels and multiple boost gas turbines
means that the loss in ship’s speed will be very
small in the event of failure of any one or even
any two units. The ship can get underway very
quickly with either diesel or gas turbine power.
BOILER The efficiency of the diesel is much higher than
GAS TURBINES GEARING STEAM TURBINES the efficiency of a steam plant, and (for small
sizes of engines) the specific weight is somewhat
147.167 less. In general, CODAG plants appear to be suit-
Figure 25-10.—COSAG plant for one screw of a able for ships which have moderate requirements
twin-screw ship. for cruising power,
A combined gas turbine and gas turbine
A slightly different arrangement of aCOSAG (COGAG) plant has been proposed. Such a plant
plant is shown in figure 25-11. This plant, which would combine a long-life, efficient, moderate-
is installed in a British single-screw frigate, weight gas turbine for the base load and a light,
consists of a singlecasing steam turbine of aircraft-type gas turbine for the booster load.
12,500 shaft horsepower and one gas turbine of COGAG plants have not yet been tried out because
7500 shaft horsepower. gas turbines suitable for the base loadsare still
In both of the COSAG plants illustrated, the in developmental stages.
steam turbine installation is capable of propel-
ling the ship at approximately 85 percent of full CENTRAL OPERATIONS SYSTEM
power ship’s speed, in the event of complete
failure of the gas turbine unit. The ability of the Advances in engineering technology, the use of
gas turbines to makea rapid start allows the ship solid state devices, and computer circuitry have
to get underway very quickly with the steam plant made possible significant automation factors in
cold. Maneuverability (including reversing) with the operation of the naval engineering installa-
the gas turbine is achieved by fairly complex tions. Much of this automation has been applied
gearing and clutching. Each gear box incorpo- in the area of ship control and plant surveillance.
rates a reversing section for the gas turbine; two A general discussion is presented inthis chapter
manual clutches for the gas turbine, one for the on a portion of an automated engineering plant
boost drive and one for maneuvering; a manual considered representative of those currently
clutch for the steam turbine; synchronizing being employed on naval vessels.
639
The automated engineering plant is designed Information on plant conditions is provided by

to bring together in one location allofthe major digital demand displays, alarm indications, in-
control functions and indications previously lo- dicating lights, meters and the printout type-
cated throughout the engineering spaces. In ad- writers. This is handled by a time sharing sys-
dition, major advances made in the areas of tem made up of logic circuitry, and controlled by
boiler control, turbine control, and plant surveil- a synchronous timing generator.
lance have also been incorporated in the control A substantial decrease in the number of watch
systems. Control systems such as the central standers required to operate the engineering in-
operation system provide for direct control of stallation can be achieved through the use of a
shaft speed and direction at a console located on system of this type. The bridge throttle control
the bridge. These control systems are located in feature provides the OOD with a greater feel of
an enclosed Engineering Operation Station (EOS) the ship as well as a faster response to desired
located within the machinery plant. changes.
The Central Operations System (COS), shown
in figure 25-12, as found in naval vessels, pro- ENGINE ROOM CONSOLE
vides for control of the electrical plant, the main
turbine, selected auxiliary equipment and sur- The engine room console (fig. 25-13) is the
veillance of the entire engineering plant. Ituti- heart of the central operations system (COS) and
lizes solid state components in the analog and the is divided into five functional sections. gen-
digital circuitry. Analog components areused in erators, propulsion, boilers, auxiliaries, and
the throttle control systems and in the input to the data logger. The desk top of the console houses
plant surveillance equipment. Throttle control the controls and devices required to be within the
features are provided by standard operational operator’s reach. The vertical surface above the
amplifiers and functional generators used ina desk top is used primarily for instrument display
closed loop system which maintains operation at and visual indicators. Solid state control modules
a desired point. with printed circut elements are used which can
BLOCK DIAGRAM
BRIDGE CONSOLE
PROPULSION
SarPrecann
ANT
CONTROL
SENSORS
INFORMATION
DISPLAY
ENGINE ROOM
CONSOLE MONITOR
& ALARM TEMR PRESSURE
PROGRAM
CONTROLS ACTUATORS
SUB-LOOP
ONTRO
DATA
{} @ MOTOR VALVE
LOGGER
27.344
Figure 25-12.—Central operations system major units.
640
27.345
Figure 25-13.— Engine Room Console.
be easily removed from the panels by unplugging. Generator Section

Temperatures, pressures, and liquid levels are
converted to electrical signals by sensors lo- The generator section of the engine room
cated at various points throughout the system. console (fig. 25-14) provides control and mon-
itoring of the ship service generators. Provi-
Significant readings on the console are sions are included which enable the operator to
displayed on flush mounted electric meters. adjust the frequency and voltage and monitor the
Other readings which only need to be checked output of each generator; monitor the current in
periodically are read on digital meters (called the shore power connection; open, close, or mon-
digital demand display readouts). The console itor the position of generator or bus tie circuit
provides monitoring of the boilers and monitor- breakers and the shore power circuit breaker;
ing and control of the main propulsion plant, tur- test each switch-board bus for grounds, and con-
bogenerator sets, main condensate pumps, lube trol and monitor the space heaters in each gen-
oil pumps, fire pumps, and other auxiliary ma- erator.
chinery, thus, enabling the engine room operator
to observe all important operating functions Propulsion Section
without leaving his station. At any time a plant
status record may be made with the data logger. The propulsion section of the engine room
console (fig. 25-15) contains the throttle controls
The COS continually monitors key tempera- and transfer switches, engine order telegraph,
tures, pressures, levels and motor conditions. shaft revolution indicator-transmitter, and the
If any go beyond operating limits, the system necessary gages and indicators for monitoring
sounds an alarm to alert the operator and the the operating conditions of the main turbines, re-
alarm logger automatically records the out of duction gears, and propeller shaft.
limit conditions. An alarm log review, plant The throttle control handwheel controls the
status log and bell log printout may be obtained position of pilot valves onhydraulic power actua-
at any time by pressing a push button. Selected tors. The hydraulic power actuators, in turn,
points also have individual alarm lights. A bell open or close the main steam valves to the ahead
logger automatically records engine order tele- and astern turbines, thus, controlling the speed
graph signals and responses, propellor r.p.m., and direction of the propellor shaft. Analternate
throttle control location, and throttle control electrical control and a direct mechanical con-
wheel position together with time and date. trol of the throttle are also provided. Throttle
641
27.346
Figure 25-14.—Generator Section.
control may also be shifted to the bridge control equipment as fire pumps, condensate and circu-
console, but may be reclaimed by the engine room lating pumps, and ventilation systems. It also
personnel at any time. monitors nonvital systems suchas potable water,
air conditioning, and refrigeration. This section
Boiler Section also contains three digital demand meters. These
meters will display, upon demand, any one or any
The boiler section (fig. 25-16) contains the three simultaneously, of approximately 170 dif-
necessary pressure, temperature, and level in- ferent readings relating to the boilers, fuel and
dicators and alarms for monitoring boiler oper- lube oil, main condensers, main turbines, ship
ation. Also mounted is an underwater log speed service generators, andauxiliary machinery. To
indicator and a sound-powered telephone handset obtain a reading, the operator looks up the num-
and jack. Actual boiler control is accomplished ber (address) of the function he wishes to read
by a Bailey boiler control console (not shown). on the function address nameplate located on the
data logger section and turns a thumbwheel
Auxiliaries Section switch beside the digital demand meter to this
address. The meter will then display the value
The auxiliaries section (fig. 25-17) provides of the function selected. The same function may
for remote operation (start and stop) of such be selected and readonall three meters or three
642
El Aa
———
'
—-
27.347
Figure 25-15.—Propulsion Section.
different functions may be displayed simulta- to print at regular time intervals andon demand,
neously. with continuous scanning of all sensor points. Ab-
normal conditions are printed in red by the per-
Data Logger Section formance typewriter (shown on the left in fig.
25-18). The bell log typewriter (on the right) re-
The data logger section (fig. 25-18) consists cords each engine order telegraph signal along
of plant performance data logging, alarm scan- with time and date, location of throttle control,
ning, and bell logging equipment. The plant per- throttle control wheel position, and shaft RPM as
formance logging equipment can be set up stated previously.
643
27.348
Figure 25-16.—Boiler Section.
BRIDGE CONSOLE mounted on the right section as shown in figure

25-19.
The bridge console provides remote control
SENSORS
of the throttle as stated earlier. The throttle con-
trol handwheel and other necessary equipment The sensing devices used with the automated
for control of the propulsion plant are mounted on controls are in most cases improved versions of
the left section of the console. The ship’s helm detectors already receiving wide usage through-
and other steering and navigation equipment are out the fleet.
644
Chapter 25. -NEW DEVELOPMENT IN NAVAL ENGINEERING
27.349
Figure 25-17.—Auxiliaries Section.
In all cases the manufacturer’s technical man- transmission to the Engine Room Console. Two
uals used with the system give complete installa- of the main types of sensors are the pressure-to-
tion, operation, and maintenance instructions. current transmitter and the pressure switch
types.
Pressure Sensors The pressure-to-current transmitter (fig.
25-20) converts the applied pressure to adirect
Pressure sensors are used to convert plant current proportional to the applied pressure.
pressure to an electrical signal for further This current can then be applied to a meter for
645
Sr eae re tsPRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ENGINEERING
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27.350
Figure 25-18.—Data Logger Section.
remote indication. The meter is calibrated in the Level Sensors

desired scale (PSI). These meters are in most
applications d.c. microammeters. Three types of level sensors are gen-
The pressure switch type transmitter finds erally employed throughout the system. Since
its application in the alarm circuitry on the En- pressure may be a function of level the first
gine Room Console. Herein, atagivenhighor low two devices used are the two detectors men-
pressure, electrical contacts within the switch tioned under pressure; the pressure-to-current
housing are actuated completing or breaking a for indication and the pressure switch for
circuit and actuating an alarm. alarm.
646
27.351
Figure 25-19.—Bridge Console.
An additional level switch is employed in In most applications the RTD is installed in

bilges and unvented tanks. This switch is similar thermo wells, bored and threaded to receive the
in operation to that described in chapter 3 as a detector. By the use of this method the unit may
float switch. be removed from the measured component or
piping without disturbing the integrity of the com-
Temperature Sensors ponent. Extra protection is also afforded to the
element in this manner.
Temperature is measured by means of re-
sistance temperature detectors (RTD). The RTD DATA SCANNER SYSTEM
(fig. 25-21) consists of asensing element incased
in a protective tube. Since the electrical resist- Figure 25-22 is a block diagram of the Data
ance of the element changes with temperature Scanner system. The inputs from the sensing de-
changes, the temperature can be determined by vices are placed into the scanner (block 27) as
measuring the resistance. analog values. The scanner is an electronic se-
For temperatures having a maximum of 600 lector governed by the Synchronous Timing Gen-
degrees F., a nickel resistance elementis used. erator (22), the Program Contact (23) and the
These detectors are found to be of the stem-sen- Point Drive (26). When there areno requests for
sitive type, where the sensing element is located the system such as the Bell Log, Alarm Log,
within a few inches of the stem, or the tip-sensi- Status Log, or Display Triggers, the scanner
tive type, where the sensing element is within the continues to check each of the inputs. Ifthere is
tip of the detector tube which must be pressed a request present, the scanner will go directlyto
against the material being measured. the address requested and process that signal
Above 600 degrees aplatinum element is em- before monitoring all of the addresses. The
ployed in the stem-sensitive element type. Cur- signals are sent to the Isolation Amplifier (28)
rently this is the only application of this type ele- from the scanner, and after amplification it pass-
ment. es on to the Analog/Digital converter (29). The
647
(1) Differential Pressure-to-Current Transmitter

(2) Pressure-to-Current Transmitter
(3) Float Switch
(4) Differential Pressure Switch
(5) Pressure Switch
140.92
Figure 25-20.— Pressure and Level Sensors.
program contact, controlled by the scanner, sets After the information leaves the A/D con-
up the comparison values for the signal as well verter it is sent to the scaling module which
as any adjustments to the signal required during scales all signals into a zeroto1000scale. This
conversion and scaling. information is in the form of pulses numbering
If the information is requested and/or the from zero to 1000 according to the value of the
point is in alarm, the A/D converter then trans- input signal to the A/D converter. The address
fers the values via the Word Distributor (24) to information is then placed in thenecessary reg-
the scaling module. If neither of the previously isters and along with inputs from the Real Time
mentioned conditions exist, the scanner executes Clock (40) and Digital Inputs (43) and made ready
branch back and picks up the next address and to be sent to the log Printout Buffer (37) and on
repeats the process. to the Typewriter Drive (38) for printing.
648
(1) Stem Sensitive RTD

(2) Thermowell with Adapter
(3) Tip Sensitive RTD
(4) Thermowell with Holder
140.93
Figure 25-21.—Resistance Temperature Detectors.
Information leaving the scaling module for a signal of a given polarity. The ahead function
display is sent directly to the Digital Display Buf- generator accepts positive signals and the astern
fers and Readouts (44) and appear at the readout function generator negative signals. The signal
units on the console face. to the function generator isalsousedasa refer-
The entire operation from pick-up of the input ence signal for the speed feedback system. This
address to activation of the printout units circuit compares the reference and speed feed-
requires a time span of .0376 milliseconds. The back signals and uses the algebraic sum as the
assembly will monitor the complete bank of 273 input to the speed error amplifier.
inputs in approximately two seconds providing The signal to the function generator is ad-
there are no requests or alarms conditions pre- justed within the amplifier so that the output is
sented to the system during that time period. equivalent to the cube of the input. This is done
to change the linear movement of the reference
THROTTLE CONTROL to the non-linear characteristics of the throttle
valve. Inversion once again takes place in the
Figure 25-23 is a block diagram of the function generator.
throttle control system. A reference input signal The output of the function generator is
may be taken from either the bridge or engine matched with the speed error signal and the
room reference handwheel potentiometer and fed throttle position signal at the summing junction
to the system. Negative voltages are used for and the algebraic sum isfedto the summing am-
ahead speeds and positive for astern. The signal plifier. Inversion takes place and the output con-
then passes through a common operational am- trols the action of the SCR power package.
plifier where it is inverted and then goes to the The SCR power package will cause the pilot
common circuit for both the ahead and astern tur- motor to drive in either direction depending upon
bines. The function generators will accept only the input. A positive input will cause the pilot
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tscr
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eaniiied aS) OPERATION
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|
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THROTTLE |
POSITION '
SENSOR
ENGINE a *
ROOM CLOSED jin AMD TURB MANUAL HANOWHEEL
REFERENCE MANEUVERING cLurcn
+ MODE ONLY
AHO
0 Ano
\ S2 sPeEeD
Of enkon (MOUNTED ON
CONSOLE)
(HANOWHEEL) DK] trea
AHEAD
SHAFT SPEED
FROM
+S
TACHOMETER
PROPELLER
TACHOMETER
BRIDGE
REFERENCE
AHD AST. TURBINE
STEAM PRESSURE VALVE
X L
(HANOWHEEL)
7*
(MOUNTED ON
CONSOLE)
Low LuB on
PRESSURE VALVE OVERTRAVEL
Limit
OVERRIDE +E,
ASTERN
AST
Q SUMMING
AMP.
mo
ore
SUPPLY
eS ie
AeAOR
(scr
PACKAGE) PiLoT
MOTOR
DIRECT >
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CONTROL
FEEDBACK MAY BE USED
140.95
Figure 25-23.—Block diagram of throttle control system.
motor to drive in a direction to open the throttle During direct electrical control of the throt-
valve. A negative input will close the throttle tle, the contacts in the throttle location switch
valve. The SCR power package will be inhibited change the circuitry eliminating the regulated
by limit switches if the motor travel exceeds a signal and setting up the circuitry for signals
predetermined point of travel. from the direct throttle switches.
The pilot motor positions a pilot valve inthe During manual operation, the manual clutch is
hydraulic actuator which ports oil in the proper engaged and the hydraulic actuator is inhibited. In
direction to correctly position the throttle valve. addition, the hydraulic system is vented to pre-
A reference signal for throttle position, which vent a hydraulic lock and permit the movement
is controlled by the pilot motor, is fed back to the of the handwheel for manual throttle control.
summing junction. This section cancels the input A tachometer generator on the shaft produces
signal when the desired valve opening is reached. an output signal that is fed back as the speed
651
SSS
ee
error signal. This signal produces a rapid re- First, we may expect continuing refinement
sponse from the system when the engineering and improvement of the machinery and equipment
plant is in the maneuvering mode. Under normal now in use. The steam turbine, the diesel engine,
mode of plant operation the speed feedback signal the gas turbine, the nuclear propulsion plant—all
is not utilized. are capable of further development and perhaps
The signals for astern throttle movement are increased efficiency. We may reasonably look for
handled in the same manner but all of the polari- new designs in boilers,turbines, reducing gears,
ties are reversed. bearings, propellers, condensers and other heat
In the near future we may see a substantial exchangers, and a wide variety of auxiliary ma-
increase in the automation of naval propulsion chinery. Some improvements may be aimed at
machinery and auxiliary machinery. At the pres- reducing mechanical losses, others at increasing
ent time, it is entirely possible to design a the utilization of power developed by the prime
completely automated ship. Although complete mover, others at reducing noise levels, and still
e
automation is an unlikely goal for the naval ship, others at minimizing maintenance requirements.
three is little doubt that automation will increase We may look forward to the introduction of
to some extent within the next few years. new engineering materials-metals and alloys,
plastics, ceramics, lubricants, and others. We
FUEL CONVERSION PROGRAM may watch for—though not necessarily count on—
a materials breakthrough that would raise the
As of this writing, the Department of Defense upper temperature limits of our present ma-
has authorized the Navy to shift to an all dis- chinery. If it is not possible to devise new ma-
tillate marine diesel type fuel which will replace terials to withstand ultra-high temperatures, we
the Navy Special Fuel Oil (NSFO) now in use. may perhaps look for new designs that will enable
The shift will take place on agradual basis over us to utilize higher temperatures with some of
a three year period. This conversion will ease our present materials. We may also expect new
the principal adverse factors associated with the and improved techniques for welding or other-
use of Navy Special Fuel Oil such as: wise joining metals, new methods of metal form-
ing and shaping, new methods of treating metals
1. Fouling of firesides of boilers by permis- to obtain desired properties, and new procedures
sible impurities in Navy Special Fuel Oil, prin- for the nondestructive testing of engineering ma-
cipally sulphur, ash, and carbon residue. terials.
2. Decrease in ship readiness associated In the more distant future, perhaps, we might
principally with cleaning of firesides. look for some entirely new concepts of ship pro-
3. High corrosion rate of above-deck equip- pulsion. In particular, we might expect to see
ment associated with exposure to products of ship and machinery designs tending toward the
combustion of Navy Special Fuel Oil. ultimate goal of integrating the prime mover, the
4. Substantially below average retention rate propulsive device, the steering device, and the
of Navy enlisted personnel who perform boiler hull form into one coordinated unit. Designers of
cleaning operations. ships and propulsion machinery have long looked
with envy at the fully integrated propulsion sys-
Testing planned completion date 1975, is tems of many fish, and a good deal of work has
presently taking place with diesel engines and been done in analyzing fish propulsion with a view
gas turbine propulsion plants; the results of these to picking up some usable ideas. One approach
tests are to be evaluated for the ‘‘Single-Fuel’’ that has been suggested is to effect undulation of
Navy concept, which will permit the Navy to a flexible hull by pumping water in a sinusoidal
Operate either steam diesel, or gas turbine path through a series of compartments. Still
driven propulsion plants with one and the same another approach utilizes a series of undulating
type fuel. plates. Although no type of simulated fish pro-
pulsion is even close to being operational at pres-
GENERAL TRENDS ent, these approaches should not be dismissed
as frivolous or trivial. A great deal has already
In conclusion, it may be of interest to note been learned through biological and simulation
some general trends in naval engineering and to studies of fish propulsion.
hazard a few predictions concerning possible Altogether, we may expect the future to bring
future developments. at least a few surprises, a few practical results
from ideas which at the moment might be classi- in the field of naval engineering, and some of
fied as exotic if not downright ludicrous, There these ideas will doubtless find application inthe
is at present a great proliferation of new ideas propulsion plants of the future.
653
INDEX
A-c generators, 505-507 Boiler components-Continued

Accessories and controls R-12, 479-482 fuel oil burners, 241-243
Adiabatic state changes, 178 furnaces and refractories, 243
Air ejector assemblies, 352 generating and circulating tubes, 236
Alpha survey meters, 76 saddles and supports, 244
Alternating-current theory, 503 superheaters, 237-239
Anchor windlass, 503-532 Boiler controls, 307-318
Area meters, 145 Boiler fittings and controls, 276-318
Auxiliary machinery and equipment, 361 controls, 307-318
Auxiliary steam turbines, 422-436 external fittings and connections, 281-307
safety devices, 434-436 internal fittings, 276-281
safety devices-testing, 436 Boiler maintenance, 274
speed control devices, 428-434 Boiler water requirements, 261-265
turbines-auxiliary Bourdon-tube elastic elements, 138-141
lubrication, 424-428 Bridge console, 644
types of, 422-424 Butterfly valves, 375
Back-pressure trips, 435 Capstan, 530

Ballasting systems, 225 Carnat principle, 182
Basic mechanical units, 121-124 Carrier catapults, 532-539
Bearings, 93-98 Centrifugal pumps, 407-410
main line shaft, 96 Centrifugal purifiers, 116-118
main thrust, 96 Centrifugal tachometers, 147
stern tube and strut, 96-98 Check valves, 375
Bellows elastic elements, 141 Chemical decontamination, 80
Bernoulli’s theorem, 395 Chronometric tachometers, 148
Beta and gamma meters, 75 Components and accessories-turbines, 328-333
Bimetallic expansion thermometer, 132 bearings, 329
Bimetallic steam traps, 370 blades, 329
Biological decontamination, 79 castings, 328
Blower lubrication, 417 dummy pistons and cylinders, 331
Blower speed, control of, 418 flexible couplings, 332
Boiler casualty control, 271-274 foundation, 328
Boiler components, 235-245 gland sealing systems, 330
airheaters, 244 lubricating systems, 333
castings, uptakes, and smoke pipes, 244 nozzles, 328
desuperheaters, 239 nozzle diaphragms, 329
drums and headers, 235 reduction gears, 332
economizers, 239 rotars, 329
fittings, instruments, and controls, 244 shaft glands, 330
654
INDEX
Components and accessories-Continued Distilling plants-Continued

turning gears, 333 operation of, 469
Compressed air plants, 437-449 principles of distillation, 450
air compressor maintenance, 449 types of distilling units, 451-468
compressor classifications, 437-441 Dosimeters, 76
reciprocating air compressors, 441-446 Double-furnace boilers, 248-251
rotary-centrifugal air compressors, 446-449 Drainage systems, 228
safety precautions, 449 Drive mechanisma, types of, 579-582
Compressed air systems, 226
Compressor classifications, 437-441
Compressor components, 442-446 Elastic elements, 138-143
Compressor R-12, 478 Electrical systems steering gear, 525
Condensate and feed systems, 213-219 Electrohydraulic steering gear, 522-528
Condenser-R-12, 478 Electrohydraulic transmission, 520
Condensers and other heat exchangers, 348-360 Electromechanical steering gear, 521
air ejector assemblies, 352 Electron theory, 492
deaerating feed tank, 354-356 Elevators-electrohydraulic, 528
gland exhaust condenser, 353 Emergency steering systems, 523
main condenser, 348-352 Engine room console, 640-643
maintenance, 360 Engineering piping systems, 195-229
safety and casualty control, 356-360 ballasting systems, 225
vent condenser, 354 compressed air systems, 226
Constant-pressure pump governors, 431-434 condensate and feed systems, 213-219
Control rods, 621 diesel oil and JP-5 systems, 225
Controllable pitch propeller, 90 distillate fuel system, 225
Controlled circulation boilers, 256 drainage systems, 228
Conventional steam turbine propulsion plant, 191 exhaust systems-auxiliary, 211-213
Coulomb’s law of charges, 493 firemain systems, 226
flushing systems, 228
fuel oil systems, 221-225
gland seal and gland exhaust systems, 213
Damage control central, 62 hydraulic systems, 229
Damage-investigations of, 64 main lubricating oil systems, 225
Data scanner system, 647-649 main steam systems, 205
Deaerating feed tank, 354-356 potable water systems, 228
Degaussing installations, 518 sprinkling systems, 228
Detailed contamination, 79 steam and fresh water drains, 219-221
Development of Naval ships, 3-14 steam excape piping, 213
Naval surface ships-modern, 7-12 steam systems-auxiliary, 206-211
steam machinery, 3-7 washdown systems, 228
submarines, 12-14 Engineering theory-basic, 83
Diaphragm elastic elements, 142 Evaporator-R-12, 475
Diesel and gasoline engines, 543 Exhaust systems-auxiliary, 211-213
clutches, reverse gears, and reduction gears, Expansion thermometers, 128-135
582-593 External fittings and connectors-boilers,
maintenance, 593 281-307
reciprocating engines, 543-577 blow valves, 297
transmission of engine power, 577-582 drains and vents, 283-288
Diesel oil and JP-5 systems, 225 feed stop and check valves, 288
Direct-current circuits, 495-500 oil drip detector periscopes, 304
Direct-current generators, 500-502 pressure and temperature gages, 305
Direct-current motors, 502 safety valves, 290-295
Distillate fuel systems, 225 sampling connections, 288
Distilling plants, 450-470 single-element feed water regulators,
definitions of terms, 451 305-307
655
External fittings and connectors-Continued Hull members-Continued

smoke indicators, 304 plating, 23
soot blowers, 295-297 stanchions, 25
steam stop valves, 288-290 stem and bow structure, 20-21
superheater steam flow indicators, 300-303 stern structure, 22
superheater temperature alarms, 303 upper deck and superstructure, 25
water gage glasses, 297-300 Hydraulic clutches or couplers, 588-593
Hydraulic telemotor system, 526
Hydraulic systems, 229
Filled-system thermometer, 132-134

Firemain systems, 226
Fireroom operations and efficiency, 267-270 Impulse steam traps, 368-370
Fires-control of, 66-68 Internal fittings-boilers, 276-281
Flooding-control of, 68-71 Isenthalpic state changes, 178
Flushing systems, 228 Isentropic state changes, 178
Force-pressure-area relationships, 391 Isobaric state changes, 177
Forced draft blower operation, 419 Isothermal state changes, 178
Friction clutches and gear assemblies, 583-588
Friction head, 395
Fuel cells, 635
Fuel oil systems, 221-225 Jet pumps, 411
Joe’s double clutch reverse gear, 585-588
Gamma meters, 75
Gas turbines, 595-613 Langmuir theory, 113
basic principles, 595-597 Liquid-column elements, 138
components, functions of, 597-611 Liquid-in-glass thermometers, 128-132
gas turbine and jet propulsion, 611-613 Longitudinal bending and stresses, 17
transmission of engine power, 611 Longitudinal stability and effects of trim, 56-59
Gate valves, 373 calculation of change of trim, 58
Geometry of the ship, 29-33 center of flotation, 56
body plan, 31 change of trim, 56
half-breadth plan, 32 effects of trim on transverse stability, 58
sheer plan, 32 flooding effects diagram, 58
Gland exhaust condenser, 353 longitudinal stability, 57
Gland seal and gland exhaust systems, 213 longitudinal weight addition, 58
Globe valves, 372 moment to change trim one inch, 57
Gross decontamination, 79 Lubricants, 114
Gyrocompasses, 518 Lubrication-theory of, 112-118
fluid lubrication, 112-115
friction, 112
lubricating oil, care of, 115-118
Head meters, 145
Header-type boilers, 245-248
Heating and ventilation, 490
Horizontal weight shift, 45-49 Machinery arrangement and plant layout, 193-
Hull members, 18-26 229
bilge keels, 24 engineering piping systems, 195-229
bulkheads, 25 methods of propulsion plant operation, 229
decks, 24 propulsion machinery-arrangement of, 193-
double bottom, 20 195
framing, 18-20 Magnetohydrodynamic generators, 637
keel, 18 Main condenser, 348-352
INDEX
Main line shaft bearing, 96 OHM’s law, 496-500

Mail lubricating oil system, 225 Orifice-type steam traps, 370
Main steam systems, 205 Other auxiliary equipment, 520-539
Main thrust bearing, 96 anchor windlass, 530-532
Material conditions of readiness, 63 capstans, 530
Measurement-principles of, 119-156 carrier catapults, 532-539
concept of, 119 electrohydraulic elevators, 528
fluid flow, 143-146 electrohydraulic transmission, 520
instrument accuracy, 155 operation, maintenance, and safety, 539
liquid level, 146 steering gears, 521-528
Navy calibration program, 151-155 winches, 528
pressure, 135-143 Overall ship survival measures, 64
rotational speed, 147-150 Overspeed trips, 435
specific gravity, 150
systems units and standards of measurement,
120-127
temperature, 127-135 Pipe fittings, 366-386
viscosity, 150 expansion joints, 366
Mechanical cooling, 487-490 flanges, 366
chilled water circulating systems, 488-490 flareless fluid connection, 366
refrigerant circulating systems, 487 steam traps, 366-370
self-contained air conditioners, 490 unions, 366
Mechanical energy, 158-161 Piping, fittings, and valves, 363-390
Mechanical steam traps, 367 design considerations, 363
Mixed-flow pumps, 411 identification of, 387
Moderators, 621 packing gaskets and insulation, 388
Modern Naval surface ships-development of, 7- pipe and tubing, 364-366 (366)
12 safety, 389
Piston valves, 375
Plug valves, 374
Positive-displacement meters, 144
Potable water systems, 228
Navy calibration program, 151-155 Power distribution system, 509-516
NBC attack-defenses against, 74-81 Pressure head, 392-395
NBC contamination-detection of, 75 Pressurized-furnace boilers, 257-261
NBC decontamination, 77-81 Preventive and corrective damage control, 61-82
Needle valves, 375 corrective measures, 64
Neutron reactions, 620 damage control organization, 62
New developments in Naval engineering, 628-653 damage control precautions, 82
central operations system 639-652 investigations of damage, 64
combined power plants, 638 material conditions of readiness, 63
direct energy conversion, 634-638 practical damage control, 65-74
fuel conversion program, 652 resist damage-preparations to, 61
general trends, 652 Principles of air conditioning
hull forms, 628-631 air motion, 486
propulsion and steering, 631 humidity, 483-485
Nuclear energy source, 618-620 sensation of cooling, 487
Nuclear power plants, 614-627 temperature, 485
advantages of nuclear power, 614 Properties of A-C circuits, 504
naval nuclear power plant, 626 Propeller pumps, 410
nuclear fundamentals, 614-622 Propellers, 88-93
nuclear power-problems of, 627 blade angle, 89
nuclear reactors, 622-625 blade velocity, 89
principles of reactor control, 625 controllable pitch propellers, 90
Nuclear reactors, 622-625 problems, 91-93
657
Propellers-continued Reciprocating engines-Continued

size, 90 combustion cycles, 548-554
thrust deduction, 90 combustion gases on pistons, 554
Propulsion boilers, 230-275 components, 555-577
boiler casualty control, 271-274 mechanical cycles, 544-548
boiler water requirements, 261-265 Reciprocating pumps, 396-400
classification, 232-235 Reducing valves, 377
combustion requirements, 265-267 Reduction gears, shafting and bearings-care of,
components, 235-245 103-109
definitions, 230-232 Reflectors, 622
fireroom efficiency, 269 Refrigeration and air conditioning plants, 471-
fireroom operations, 267-269 491
maintenance, 274 air conditioning, 482-491
types of, 245-261 refrigeration, 471-482
Propulsion machinery arrangement, 193-195 safety precautions, 491
Propulsion plants, other types, 541 Relief valves, 377
Propulsion steam turbines, 319-347 Remote control systems for steering gears, 524
components and accessories, 328-333 Remote operating gear-valves, 384-386
nozzles, 319-321 Repair parties, 62
steam turbine propulsion plant, 333-347 Resistance thermometers, 134
turbine classification, 324-327 Resonance tachometers, 148
turbine design-basic principles, 321-324 Rotary-centrifugal air compressors, 446-449
Propulsive power-development and transmis- Rotary pumps, 403-407
sion, 85-103 R-12 plant, 473-482
bearings, 93-98
flexible couplings, 100-103
power requirements, 87
propellers, 88-93 Sensors, 644-647
propulsion shafting, 98 Sentinel valves, 377
reduction gears, 99 Settling tanks, 118
Pump capacity, 392 Ship design and construction, 15-33
Pumps and forced draft blowers, 391-421 basic design considerations, 15
forced draft blowers, 414-421 basic ship structure, 17-26
pumps, 391-414 geometry of the ship, 29-33
centrifugal, 407-410 ship compartmentation, 26-29
jet, 411 ship flotation, 16
mixed-flow, 411 Ship propulsion and steering-fundamentals of,
propeller, 410 85-111
reciprocating, 396-400 care of reduction gears, shafting and bear-
rotary, 403-407 rings, 103-109
variable stroke, 400-403 propulsive power, development and trans-
mission of, 85-103
resistance, 85
safety precautions, 109-111
Radiation and optical pyrometers, 134 steering, 111
Radioactivity, 616-618 Shipboard electrical systems, 492-519
Radiological decontamination, 79 A-C generators, 505-507
Reactor control, principles of, 625 alternating current theory, 503
Reactor coolants, 621 basic theory, 492
Reactor fuels, 621 degaussing installations, 518
Reactor principles, 620 direct-current circuits, 495-500
Receiver-R-12, 479 direct-current generators, 500-502
Reciprocating air compressors, 441-446 direct-current motors, 502
Reciprocating engines, 543-577 gyrocompasses, 518
basic principles, 543 power distribution system, 509-516
658
INDEX
Shipboard electrical systems-Continued Thermal energy-Continued

properties of A-C circuits, 504 heat transfer, 162-167
safety precautions, 518 heat transfer appratus, 169-171
synchros and servomechanisms, 516-518 internal energy, 161
transformers, 507-509 sensible heat and latent heat, 167-169
Single-furnace boilers, 251-255 units of measurement, 162
Speed-limiting governors, 434 Thermionic converters, 636
Sprinkling systems, 228: Thermocouple pyrometers, 134
Stability and bouyancy, 34-60 Thermodynamics-introduction to, 157-190
inclining movements, 36 carnot principle, 182
influence of metacentric height, 38 cycles, 178
metacenter (M), 37 energy, 157-171
metacentric height (GM), 38 energy balance, 190
principles of stability, 34-39 energy relationship in the shipboard propul-
Stability curves, 39-42 sion cycle, 188-190
cross curves, 41 entropy-concept of, 181
effects of draft on righting arm, 39-41 first law of, 171-173
Stability-principles of, 34-39 processes, 173-178
displacement, 34 second law of, 180
impaired stability-causes of, 59 reversibility-concept of, 179
inclining experiment, 42-44 systems, 173
KB versus draft, 35 working substances, 183-188
longitudinal stability and effects of trim, 56- Thermodynamics processes, 173-178
59 flow-type of, 175-177
loose water effects of, 52-56 state change-type of, 177
reverse bouyancy, 36 Thermoelectric converters, 636
stability curves, 39-42 Thermostatic recirculating valves, 384
weight shift-effects of, 44-49 Thermostatic steam traps, 367
weight changes-effects of, 49-52 Throttle control, 649-652
Standards of measurements, 124-127 Top-fired boilers, 256
Static electricity, 492-495 Transformers, 507-509
Steam and fresh water drains, 219-221 Twin-disk clutch and gear mechanism, 584
Steam distilling units, 456-468
flash-type, 460-463
submerged tube, 456-460
vertical basket, 463-468 Unloading valves, 384
Steam escape piping, 213
Steam machinery-development of, 3-7
Steam systems-auxiliary, 206-211
Stern tube and strut bearing, 96-98 Valve manifolds, 384
Steam turbine propulsion plant, 333-347 Vapor compression distilling units, 451-456
Stop-check valves, 376 Variable stroke pumps, 400-403
Strainers and filters, 371 Velocity head, 395
Stroboscopic tachometers, 149 Vent condenser, 354
Structural damage-repair of, 71-73 Vital services-restoration of, 73
Submarines-development of, 12-14
Synchros and servomechanisms, 516-518
Washdown.systems, 228
Wheatstone bridge, 500
Thermal energy, 161-171 Winches, 528
heat, 161 Wirerope system, 526
659
yy U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1979 O—299-962

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- PRINCIPLES OF

This text provides an introduction tothe theory and design of engineer-

First edition 1958

(=) Stock Ordering No.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Chapter 1 The Development of Naval Ships......

PART II BASIC ENGINEERING THEORY

Chapter 5 Fundamentals of Ship Propulsion

PART IIT THE CONVENTIONAL STEAM TURBINE

Chapter 9 Machinery Arrangement and

PART IV AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Chapter 14 Piping, Fittings, and Valves.........

PART V OTHER TYPES OF PROPULSION PLANTS

Chapter 22 Diesel and Gasoline Engines ........

American Engineering Co. 21-7

Naval Auxiliary Machinery (Cont’d) 14-20, 14-27, 14-29

Chapter 1 The Development of Naval Ships

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVAL SHIPS

The 19th century saw the application of

BOILER PADDLES ENGINE

Figure 1-9.—The USS Holland; first U.S. Navy submarine. (lait

SHIP DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

weight is a constant percentage of the displace- SHIP FLOTATION

LOAD LOAD LOAD NEUTRAL

The principal strength members of the ship

GARBOARD OR ‘‘A’’ STRAKE

MAIN DECK LONGITUDINALS

In the bottom framing, which is probably

In many naval ships, the inner bottom plat-

The aftermost section of the ship’s structure

Figure 2-15.—Bulbous-bow configuration.

The outer bottom and side plating forms a

LONGITUDINAL STERN WELDMENT

INNER BOTTOM PLATING

In most naval construction, light deck beams are

Upper Decks and Superstructure

The decks above the main deck are not

In order to reinforce the deck beams and

Bulkheads are the vertical partitions which,

Bulkheads consist of plating and reinforcing

Every space in a naval ship (except for

MAIN DECK eine See]

Compartment number (starboard

After part of ship (C section)

Letter Type of compartment Examples

Stowage spaces....... Storerooms; issue rooms; refrigerated

Cargo holds... Cargo holds and cargo refrigerated

Engineering control centers Main propulsion spaces; boiler

Oil stowage compartments (for Fuel-oil, diesel-oil, lubricating-

Oil stowage compartments Compartments carrying various types

Gasoline stowage compartments Gasoline tanks, cofferdams, trunks,

Gasoline stowage compartments Gasoline compartments for carrying

Chemicals and dangerous mate- Chemicals, semisafe materials, and

Living spaces.... Berthing and messing spaces; state-

Ammunition spaces, .... Magazines; handling rooms; turrets;

Miscellaneous spaces not covered Shops; offices; laundry; galley; pan-

Vertical access trunks. , Escape trunks or tubes.

Water compartments , Drainage tanks; fresh water tanks;

dimension, no single drawing of a ship can