Technical Writing

Unit One: Technical Writing Basics

1.1 Technical Writing

Before we begin to practice technical writing, we must understand several basic

concepts, including the terms communication, medium, document and generate.

Communication is the act of transmitting an idea from one person to another

and the vice versa. Communication always requires at least two people, the sender
of the message & its receiver. The sender refers to the writer; receiver refers to
the reader or audience.

A medium, literally “a thing in the middle,” is the means by which the sender
conveys his/her ideas to the receiver.

The sender records or “encodes” his /her message in the medium & then
transmits it to the receiver. Then the receiver completes the transmission by
interacting with the medium to understand or “decode” the message.

Document is the generic term for a written object. Other terms, such as essay,
papers, & work, do not clearly reflect the many types of technical writing.

To generate means to perform all the activities that result in a final document.
These activities often include choosing or creating visual aids & designing pages for
visual effect, so write is not always an accurate term.

1.1.1 Operational Definitions of Technical Writing

Technical writing is difficult to define. Researchers in the field have not agreed on
a definition. However, in this section, we can use an operational definition to
explain the purposes and the characteristics of technical writing.

Therefore, technical writing is defined as the act of practical writing that people
do as part of their jobs. It is the written communication characteristics of business,
law, IT, etc., that emphasizes audience selection, language (precise, economical,
unemotional), certain organizational format, & technical vocabulary.

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 1.1.2 Purpose of Technical Writing
The first rule of technical writing is to remember never to start writing until you
have answered these questions:
A. What is the purpose of my report?
B. Do I want to be purely informative, instructive, or convincingly persuasive?

Technical writing has three basic purposes: to inform, to instruct or to persuade. Most
technical writing, however, informs. To carry out their functions in the work place,
people must supply or receive information constantly. Informative writing is much
common and simpler writing. To write informatively, you need to present facts in a
logical sequence.

The other purpose of technical writing is also to instruct. Writers give readers directions
for using equipment and for performing duties. Someone must tell consumers how to use
their new purchase, whether it is a TV set or a computer.

Finally, technical writing persuades. Writers present readers with a cogent reason to
follow a particular course of action. On the job, people must persuade others to do
certain things. One writer, for example, persuades readers to purchase Lap top, not Desk
top.

Although any technical writing sometimes has only one of these purposes, it often serves
two or even all the three at the same time.

1.1.3 Characteristics of Technical Writing

Technical writing typically has four characteristics. It engages a specific audience,
use plain & objective language, stresses presentation, and employs visual aids.

Specific Audience
Technical writing engages a specific audience. Because so many reports,
documents and memoranda are designed for small groups within a company or
specific organization, writers must tailor the documents to meet the needs of
these readers. For example, the executive who must choose between two
alternatives receives the feasibility report that explains them. Knowing this, good
technical writers always generate documents whose goal is to address the needs of
specific readers.

Objective Language

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Technical writing is framed in plain, objective language and uses terminology the
audience understands. Because its purpose is to inform, instruct, or persuade a
reader about a specific practical matter, technical writing focuses the reader’s
attention on the relevant facts. The reader should respond to the subject.

Presentational Organizations
Technical writing is presentational. Presentational writing employs devices that
enable readers to assimilate information at a glance. Good technical writers make
the structure of the document obvious and make the format of the document
easy to scan.
To make the structure of the document obvious, technical writers follow the old
rule, “Tell them what you’re going to say; then say it.”

At the beginning of the document, writers often do the following:

 Name the topic and list its subdivisions
 Use obvious repetitions(repeat key words) – to make the document easy to scan
 Emphasize transitions-to clearly indicate the start of a new sections
 Chunk information by presenting it short, visual distinct units
 Use numbered vertical lists
 Use marginal indentations

Visual Aids
Technical writers use visual aids such as graphs, tables, and drawings for the
following four major purposes:

 To summarize data
 To give readers an opportunity to explore
 To provide a different entry point to the discussion
 To engage reader expectations-to cause readers to develop questions about the topic.

1.2 The Technical Writing Process

The goal of the writing process is to generate a clear, effective document for
an audience. Writers can achieve this goal by performing three types of
activities.

1. Prewriting: planning
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 2. Writing: drafting
3. Post writing: finishing

Planning is discovering and collecting all the relevant information about the
communication situation and deciding what steps to follow in creating the document.
Drafting, on the other hand, is selecting and arranging all the elements in the document.
Finally, finishing is editing the document into final form.

Writing

Prewriting
Post writing

Finish

Plan Draft
Determine Apply strategies of Edit for consistency &

the: style, organization, accuracy

-audience & interest

-goal Understand your

-constraints method of producing

-basic facts the report

Revise to help
readers

The arrows show that the process is both linear and recursive.

1.3 Planning a Document

Planning is a key activity in writing any document. To plan effectively, you
should

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 1. Consider the audience, goal and constraints
2. Find the gist of your document
3. Develop specifications for presenting your document
4. Develop a production schedule

1.3.1 Audience, Goal and Constraints

To begin your planning, answer questions about the situation surrounding your
document.

1. Who is my audience?
2. What is my goal in the writing situation?
3. What constraints affect this situation?

1. Audience
In identifying your audience, you should answer these questions:
Who will read this document? (Will the audience be a single person, or a group of
people?)
How much do they know about the topic?
What are their beliefs about the topic? Consider whether they believe the topic is of
high or low importance to their job responsibility. What will they do with the
document or because of it?
What form do they expect the document to have? (Formal /informal, complete detail/
an overview etc.)

2. Goal
You actually have two goals:
A. to communicate a specific message; in other words, you ask and answer what is my basic
message?
B. to achieve a specific purpose; in other words, you ask and answer what is my purpose?

In general, your message is your content & your purpose is to inform, instruct, or
persuade your audience. The combination of the two is your goal.

3. Constraints
Constraints are social and physical factors that affect both your ability to write the
document and your reader’s ability to respond to it.

A. What are social constraints?

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 a. They are expectations that you will perform in a certain manner. For instance, -
The company’s policy for formatting reports and memos. E.g. If you produce
five handwritten pages when the reader expected a half page typed outline, your
communication is weakened.
b. Reader’s history with the topic or project. For instance, to assume that all your
readers have
similar history on your topic. -The line of authority in the situation. e.g. To
overstep your authority by demanding compliance from the superior in a
corporation.

B. What are physical constraints?

They are factors that affect your production of the document. These constraints include
time, length, budget, method of production, method of distribution, and place of use.

1.3.2 Gist of the document

To find gist of your document is to discover both your central topic and the basic points
you will make about the topic. Grasping your gist, however, can be tricky. Sometimes it is
immediately apparent—say, to write a memo to schedule a meeting; sometimes difficult
to find—say, to explain why you object to a well-written proposal or to trace a complex
chain of cause and effect in a manufacturing problem.

To answer the gist of your document, answer these questions:

1. What are the basic facts for the reader?

2. What is an effective strategy?
3. What is an effective outline?
4. What is the proper tone?
Now, let’s see all one by one.
1. What Are the Basic Facts for the Reader?
Determining the basic facts for your document is a key planning activity. Do so by:
 Reviewing the knowledge you already possess
 Collecting facts through reading
 Interviewing
 Observing

2. What is an Effective Strategy?

Strategy is a plan to achieve a goal. Do so by:
 Developing a central metaphor e.g. computer storage is like a giant file cabinet.
 Using a common psychological progression. e.g. definition followed by example and analogy.
 Establishing an organizational progression, such as most vita to least vital or top to bottom.

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3. What Is an Effective Outline for this document?
After you have determined the basic facts and strategy, you construct a
preliminary outline that organizes the facts according to your strategy. E.g. if you
have a simple message—say, writing an announcement for a meeting,—you need
only copy a previous agenda and fill in the appropriate information. If you have a
longer report, you must forge a plan that will guide you as you write.
If no standard outline exists, you can generate ideas for an outline by:
a. brainstorming or treeing
b. rapid drafting

4. What is the Proper Tone?

As you begin to draft, you must consider the tone of your document. Tone means
your attitude toward your message & your audience. Readers react not just to
the message but also the way they perceive the presenter—and that perception
comes in large part from tone. Your tone must help you achieve your goal (to
inform, instruct, or persuade) your audience.

1.3.3 Develop Specifications

Specifications are statements about how you will present your document. You can
discover appropriate specifications by answering these questions:

a. What format should I use?

b. What visual aids should I use?
Regarding the format to be used you can make decisions about:

 the width of the margins

 the appearance of the heads
 the type face(or font)

1.3.4 Production Schedule

A production schedule is a chronological list of the activities required to generate the document
and the time they will consume.

Developing a production schedule requires you to acknowledge the scope of the project and to
think through constraints in a detailed and realistic manner. To do so ask yourself the following
questions:

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 1. How much time do I have?
2. Who is involved in producing the document

1.4 Defining Audiences

1.4.1 Audience’s Knowledge

Knowing how much your audiences know will help you to choose which
information to present & in what depth to explain it. An expert audience
understands the basic terminology, facts, concepts, and implications associated
with the topic.

Finding Out What Your Audience Knows i.e.

Ask them before you write

Ask them after you write
Ask someone Else
Consider the audience’s position
Consider prior contacts

1.4.2 Audience’s Role

What is the Audience’s Role in the Situation?

In any writing situation, your audience has a role. Like actors in a drama,
audience members play a part; using the document as a “script” They perform
actions after receiving the information in your document.

Determining Role

A good writer will change a document to accommodate different roles of audience.

The topic (and even the subtopics) may be similar, but the documents will be
quite different because of the different roles of the intended audiences. To
determine your audience’s role, ask these questions.

 What is the audience’s need?

 What is the audience’s task?

1.4.3 Audience’s Organizational Distance

What is the Audience’s Organizational Distance?

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The term organizational distance refers to the relative positions of reader and
writer in the hierarchy of the institution.

To adapt to the distance you must answer these questions:

 How formal is the situation?

 How powerful is the reader?

Formality is the degree of impersonality in the document. Generally, the more formal the
situation, the more impersonal the document is.
Power is the relative ranks of the author and reader in the hierarchy. The more powerful
the reader, the less likely the document is to give orders and the more likely it is to make
suggestions.

If you write someone close to you who is also the only one receiving the message, you can
be relatively informal. But as you move in any direction away from your place in the
hierarchy, even horizontally, you probably need to become more formal. You can issue
order to those below you but not to those above you. You can recommend or remind. You
can recommend or remind, however, in either direction.

1.4.4 Audience’s Attitude

What is the Audience’s Attitude?

Attitude means the expectations the reader has when he/she reads the document.
These expectations arise from the reader’s social situations and feelings about the
message and the sender. You must learn to asses these attitudes and take them
into account. The basic questions to ask are:

 How do social constrains affect the audience?

 What are the audience’s feelings about the message and the sender?
 What form does the audience expect?

How do Social Constraints Affect the Audience?

Key ingredients in social constraints are consequences, history, & personal

involvement.
Consequences are the effects of one’s actions on the organization.
History is the situation prior to your writing. You need to give the sense that you understand the
situation.
Personal involvement is the audience’s level of power and satisfaction.

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What Are the Audience’s Feelings about the Message & the Sender?

In terms of feeling, the audience’s relationship to the writer and the message can
be described as positively inclined, neutral, or negatively inclined.

If the audience is positively inclined, a kind of shared community can be set up

rather easily. In such a situation:
 Many of the small details won’t make much difference
 The form that is chosen is not so important
 The document can be brief & informal.

Much the same is true of the neutral audience. You can use a variety of forms---
-perhaps a memo, or just a brief note with the information on it.

However, if the audience is negatively inclined, the writer cannot assume a shared
community. The small details must be attended to carefully. Spelling, format, &
word choice become more important than usual, b/s negatively inclined readers
may seize upon anything that lets them vent their frustration or anger.

What Form Does the Audience Expect?

Many audiences expect a certain types of message to take certain form.

To be effective, you must provide the audience with a document in the form they
expect. For instance, a manager who wants a brief note to keep for handy
reference may be irritated if he gets a long, detailed business letter. Thus his
attitude may change from neutral to negatively inclined.

1.5 Technical Writing Style

1.5.1 Clear Sentences
As you generate your drafts, keep in mind these guidelines, which will help you
clear sentences:
 Place the main ideas first.
 Use normal word order.
 Use the active voice.
 Employ parallelism.
 Write sentences of 12 to 25 words.

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  Use there are sparingly.
 Avoid nominalizations.

Place the Main Ideas First

To put the main idea first is a key principle for writing sentences that are easy
to understand. Place the sentence’s main idea ------its subject -----first. The
subject makes the rest of the sentence accessible. It presents the topic to the
readers.

Use Normal Word Order

The normal word order in English is Subject-verb-object. This order makes
reading easier, because it reveals the topic first and then develops the idea for the
readers. That order usually produces the clearest, most concise sentences.
e.g.
Normal Modems transmit data between two computers.
Inverted Data between two computers is transmitted by modems.

Use the Active Voice

The active voice emphasizes the performer of the action rather than the receiver.
e.g. Passive The memo was sent by the manager.
Active The manager sent the memo.

Employ Parallelism
Using parallelism means to use similar structure for similar elements.
i.e., Noun-----Noun Adjective----Adjective Adverb-----Adverb
Phrase-----Phrase
Clause----Clause Infinitive-----Infinitive Gerund-----Gerund

e.g. Faulty We prefer to dance and singing.

Parallel We prefer dancing and singing.

Write sentences of 12 to 25 words long. Shorter or longer sentences are weaker

because they become too simple or too complicated. However, this is only a rule of
thumb. Longer sentences, especially those exhibiting parallelism are easy to grasp.

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Use There Are Sparingly.

Overuse of the indefinite there are and its many related forms (there is, there will
be, and so on) weakens sentences by “burying” the subject in the middle the
sentence.

e.g. Ineffective There are 22 different container sizes that lie in this range.
Effective This range includes 22 different container sizes.

Avoid Nominalization
Avoid using too many nominalizations—verbs turned to nouns by adding a suffix such as –ion, -
ity, -ment, or – ness. Nominalization weakens sentences by presenting the action as a static noun
rather than as an active verb.

e.g. Static Research showed the division of waste products into biodegradable and non
biodegradable substance.
Active Research showed that we can divide waste products into ----.

1.5.2 Revising for Clarity at Sentence Level

A. Avoid Strings of choppy sentences

A string of short sentences result in choppiness. Because each idea appears as an

independent sentence, the effect of such a sentence is to deemphasize all the ideas b/s
they are all treated equally. To avoid this, combine & subordinate ideas so that only the
important ones are expressed as main clauses.

Choppy

The bowl is made from stainless steel. This material makes it lightweight & durable. The
weight of the bowl is four pounds. The use of stainless steel also allows for easy cleaning.

Clear

Because the bowl is made from stainless steel, it is durable, easy to clean, and lightweight—only four pounds.

B. Avoid Wordiness

Ideas are effective when they are expressed concisely. Try not to use by:
 Eliminating redundancy and all unnecessary intensifiers (very) repetition, subordinate clauses, &
prepositional phrases.

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 e.g. Unnecessary subordinate clause

Two important concepts that go along with this field are inventory
control & marketing.
Revised
Two important concepts in this field are inventory control & marketing.
Redundant intensifiers plus unnecessary subordinate clause

It made of very thin glass that is milky white in color.

Revised
It is made of thin, white milky glass.

C. Avoid Redundant Phrase

e.g.
Redundant Phrase Concise Word/ Phrase

Due to the fact that because

Employed the use of used
Basic fundamentals fundamentals
Connected together connected
Alternative choice alternative
In a few words as possible concisely
Final result result

D. Avoid Noun Clusters

Ncs are three or more nouns joined in a phrase. Try to break them up.

e.g. NC

Allowing individual input variance of data process entry will result in higher morale in the
keyboarder.

Revised
We will have a high morale if we allow the keyboarders to enter data
at their own rate.

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 E. Use you correctly

Do not use you in formal reports. Use you to mean “the reader”; it should not mean “anyone”
or “I.”

Incorrect
I know when I took the training course that you must experience the problems firsthand.

Correct
I know when I took the training course that I needed to the problems experience firsthand.

F. Avoid Sexist Language

Language is considered sexist when the word choice suggests only one sex even though both are
intended.

Avoid using he/she & s/he. An occasional he or she is accepted.

Sexist The clerk must make sure that he punches in.

Revising by Using an Infinitive
The clerk must make sure to punch in.
Revising by Using the Plural
The clerks must make sure that they punch in.

1.5.3 Clear Paragraph

A paragraph consists of several sentences introduced by a topic sentence. The topic sentence
expresses the paragraph’s central idea, and the remaining sentences develop, explain, & support
the central idea. If will make the reader’s job easier if in constructing paragraphs you will place
the old, known, or topic-setting idea first & then provide new developments.

In technical writing almost all paragraphs begin with a topic sentence which is followed by several
sentences that explain its central idea. This structure is, called Deductive, gives your paragraphs
the direct, straightforward style most report readers prefer.

Structure your paragraph coherently, i.e. each sentence amplifies the point of the topic sentence.
You achieve coherence by the words you choose and by the way you place sentences in paragraphs.
You can indicate coherence in four ways:
 by repeating terms
 by placing key terms in the dominant position-repeating a key term as the subject, or main
idea, of a sentence.
 by indicating class or membership---use words that show that the subsequent sentences are
subparts of the topic sentence ,and

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  by using transitions---connecting sentences by using words that signal a sequence or a
pattern.

1.5.4 Choosing Appropriate Tone

Your tone is your attitude toward your audience and your subject matter. The tone, or
emotional attitude implied by the word choice, can communicate almost as much as the content
of a message.
These are four possible tones:
 Forceful
 Passive
 Personal
 Impersonal

The forceful tone implies that the writer is in control of the situation or that the situation is
positive. It is appropriate when the writer addresses subordinates or when the writer’s goal is to
express confidence. To write forcefully:
 Use the active voice
 Use the subject-verb-object structure
 Do not use “weasel words” (possibly, maybe, perhaps).
 Use imperatives
 Clearly indicate that you are the responsible agent.

The passive tone implies that the reader has more power than the writer or the

situation is negative. It is appropriate when the writer addresses a superior or

when the writer’s goal is to neutralize a potentially negative reaction. To make

the tone passive:

 Avoid imperatives

 Use the passive voice

 Use “weasel words.”

 Use longer sentences

 Do not explicitly take responsibility

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 The personal tone implies that reader and writer are equal. It is
appropriate to use when you wish to express respect for the reader. To make a
style personal:

 Use the active voice

 Use first names
 Use personal pronoun
 Use short sentences
 Use contractions
 Direct questions at the reader.

This tone is also appropriate for delivering the negative message when both

parties are equal.

The impersonal tone implies that the writer is not important or that the

situation is neutral. Use the tone when you wish to downplay personalities in the

situation. To make the tone impersonal:

 Do not use names

 Do not use personal pronouns

 Use the passive voice

 Use longer sentences

1.5.5 Good Organization

If carefully organize your documents, you will enable your reader to grasp
your message quickly and effectively. Use these basic principles to do so:
1. Move from old/ known to unknown, accessible to less accessible
2. Put important topic information in key places.

To clarify your organization:

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 Use context-setting introductions (supply an overall framework so that the reader can grasp the

details that later explain and develop it.

 Place important materials first

 Use preview lists( contain the key words to be used in the document)

 Use repetition and sequencing( restating key subject words or phrases from the preview list and

placing the key words in the same order in the text as in the list)

 Use structural parallelism. (Each section of a document follows the same organizational pattern)

e.g. first definition, then a list of terms, then the definitions of the terms.

Unit Two: Technical Writing Techniques

Researching

It is the systematic collection, analysis & interpretation of data to answer certain

question or to solve a problem. Researching a topic in order to generate a
document is an essential part of a professional life. And the purpose of research is
to find out about a particular subject that has significance for you. Generally, the
goal of your research is to solve or eliminate some problem.

The Basic Skill of Researching

Research follows certain procedures:

 Identifying Problem,
 Reviewing Related Literature,
 Selecting Research Methodology,
 Collecting, Analyzing & Interpreting Data
 Reaching Conclusions.

The basic skill of researching is questioning. Asking question is fundamental to

research. The answers are the facts you need. In order to ask and formulate those
questions:
 Ask basic questions.
 Ask questions about significance.

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  Consult the right sources.
 Interact flexibly( probe to get more information from your respondents)

Collecting Information from People/ Primary Data/

You can collect information (data) from your subjects in a number of ways.
 Interview,
 Survey,
 Questionnaire, and
 Observation, etc

Collecting Published Information/ Secondary Data/

As with all writing projects, you must plan carefully. In order to do so, you must develop
a search strategy, review reference material, and record your findings.

You can develop a search strategy by determining your audience, generating questions,
and following search guidelines. Especially, to follow search guidelines that will help you to
find relevant information quickly:

A. Consider the age of the information. For instance, if your topic demands information

less than a year old, consult periodicals, government documents, annual reviews, and

full-text data bases. If your topic requires established standard information, consult

bibliography, annual reviews, yearbooks, etc….

B. Consider the technical level of the information, i.e. if you need information at a high

technical level, use technical journals, key informant interviews, specialized

encyclopedias etc….

C. Watch for key documents which you find repeatedly cited in articles, books, or

technical reports.

D. Find key terms. Key terms are the specific words or phrases that all writers in a

particular field use to discuss a topic.

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 Quoting and Paraphrasing
1. Quotation

What is a Quotation?

A. A quotation is an exact reproduction of spoken or written words. Direct

quotes can provide strong evidence, act as an authority’s voice, or support a

writer’s statements.

B. A quotation is any material repeated form another source. The material

borrowed may be words, sentences, ideas, illustrations, or facts. Whether the

quotation is direct or indirect, the source should be acknowledged to avoid

plagiarism. Furthermore, the source should not be misrepresented by taking

the material out of the text.

C. Quoting is using another writer’s words verbatim.

When to Quote?

You use quotation:

 When the author’s words convey a powerful meaning.

 When you want to use the author as an authoritative voice in your own writing.

 To introduce an author’s position you may wish to discuss.

 To support claims in, or provide evidence for, your writing.

Ho to do it?

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Make sure that you have a good reason to use a direct quotation. Quoting should

be done sparingly and should support your own work, not replace it. For example,

make a point in your own words, and then support it with an authoritative quote.

- Every direct quotation should appear between quotation marks (“ “) and

exactly reproduce text, including punctuation and capital letters.

- A short quotation often works well integrated into a sentence.

- Longer quotations (more than 3 lines of text) should start on a new line,

use single line spacing, be indented, and in italics.

Using Signal Phrases to Integrate Quotations in to the Text

Every quotation you use requires transition to weave it into your text. Usually, a

signal precedes the quotation. This introductory phrase signals the reader that a

direct quotation will be presented.

The examples below illustrate signal phrases for introducing quotations.

- According to Dr. Sheila S. Smith , a psychologist at Blake University,

- A study by an Ohio state university medical team found “….”

- Others, like Dr. H.R Smy the, believe that “…”

2. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a way of presenting a text, retaining the meaning, but using different

words. Paraphrasing is used with short sections of text, such as phrases and sentences.

A paraphrase may result in a longer, rather than shorter, version of the original text. It

offers an alternative to using direct quotations and helps you to integrate evidence/

source material into assignments. Paraphrasing is also a useful skill for making notes

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 from readings, note-taking in lectures, and explaining information in tables, charts and

diagrams.

As you paraphrase, take care to select accurate synonyms, not variations of the original

words. For example, if an author uses defend, do not use defending. Find other word

such as protect. Use paraphrase for the following reasons:

- As an alternative to a direct quotation.

- To rewrite someone else’s ideas without changing the meaning.

- To express someone else’s ideas in your own words.

- To support claims in, or provide evidence for your writing.

- To emphasize important ideas.

- To classify a difficult passage.

- To combine details.

Using the following steps you can paraphrase a long text.

Step: 1 Start by reading the text and highlighting the main points as you read.

Step: 2 Rewrite each main point using synonyms (words or expressions which have similar

meaning) where possible.

Step: 3 Change the sentence structure:

- Break up a long sentence in to two

- Combine two short sentences and simplify their structure.

- Change the voice (active/passive)

- Change the order in which ideas are presented (as long as they still sense in

different order).

Step: 4 if you use any unique or special phrases, use quotation marks (“…”)

2.2 Summarizing and Outlining

2.2.1 Summarizing

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 A summary is overviews of a text. The main idea is given, but details, examples and formalities

are left out. Used with longer texts, the main aim of summarizing is to reduce or condense a

text to its most important ideas.

Summarizing is a useful skill for making notes form readings and in lectures, writing an

abstract/synopsis and incorporating material in assignments.

You can summaries long sections of work, like a length paragraph, paper or chapter.

- To outline the main points of some one else’s work in your own words, without the details

or examples.

- To include an author’s ideas using fewer words than the original text.

- To briefly give examples of several differing points of view on a topic

- To support claims in, or provide evidence for, your writing.

The amount of detail you include in a summary will vary according to the length of the

original text, how much information you need and how selective you are

- Start by reading a short text and highlight the main points as you read.

- Reread the text and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples, evidence etc.

- Without the text, rewrite your notes in your own words; restate the main idea at the

beginning plus all major points.

- Group the reading into sections according to the author’s topic divisions and label them.

- Write one sentence that summarizes the whole article

- Write the first draft: in the first sentence, include the title and author of the reading as

well as thesis. Then use your one sentence summaries to complete the summary. Do not

include your own opinion, but be sure to use your own words.

Précis

The précis (pronounced pray-see) is a type of summarizing that insists on an exact

reproduction of the logic, organization, and emphasis of the original texts. An effective

précis retains the logic, development, and argument of the original in much shorter form.

22
Thus, a précis is useful when you are dealing with lengthy passages that demand careful

attention to the logic and organization of an argument.

To write an effective précis:

- Read the passage several times for a full understanding

- Note key points.

- Restate each paragraph in one or two sentences

- Make sure that you retain the précis order of the original points, and combine the

sentences in to one or more smooth paragraphs

- Check your précis against the original to be sure that it is exact and retains the order,

proportions, and relationships of the original.

2.2.2 Outlining

An outline is a map of a document’s main ideas and supporting points. It’s not, however,

a prose piece a full sentences. It is a full of concise phrases, organized in the same

sequence as the document.

Writers use outlines in two ways.

 As reading aids
 As prewriting devices

As a Reading Aid

Readers use outlines to grasp the sequence of the ideas in a document & their
relationship to each other. Constructing an outline is a good way to start the
summarizing process. Jot down main points & sub points until the pattern in the
document emerges. Once you have the pattern, you can write the summary.

As a Prewriting Device

Writers use outlines as discovery and planning devices. The outline helps the writer see the
relationship between ideas. Like drafting, outlining progresses in stages. In the early stages, you
must move, merge, expand, & eliminate ideas. Your goal is to discover basic topics, logical

23
principle of organization, & an effective approach. Later, after you have discovered your main
ideas & approach, your outline can become more rigid.
Types of Outlines
There are two types of outlines.
 Traditional
 Nucleus
In traditional outlines, each phrase is on a line of its own. Numbers and letters show the sequence
in which the ideas unfold &, along with indentations, show which ideas are equal & which are
subordinate to others.
I.
A.
1.
2.
a.
b.

The nucleus outline uses clusters to group similar ideas. You can use this type of outline, which you
can draw with or without circles, as a reading aid, clustering on your paper ideas that are
separated in the original pages. You can also use it as a prewriting device to group related
thoughts.

Planning and Writing an Outline

To plan and outline you must draft, just as you do for any document. The basic method is to:

 brainstorm,
 cluster, and
 evaluate.

To brainstorm a topic is simply to jot down everything you know about it. The list will not be in
any special order or contain logically grouped sequences, but that doesn’t matter. The key is to get
your ideas on paper. After you brainstorm, you cluster your ideas.
To cluster means indicate which ideas go together. After you cluster, you make a new draft that
juxtaposes all the similar items. Then you evaluate your draft to decide whether you have enough
useful ideas or need to provide more.

2.3 Definition

Providing definition-giving precise meanings of terms-is an essential strategy in helping readers

grasp new concepts. Definitions give readers a way to relate the new material to ideas they
already hold. A definition is a bridge that takes readers from the familiar to the unfamiliar
concept.

Types of Definition

24
Definitions can be categorized into:

A. Formal,
B. Informal, and
C. Extended.

A formal definition is one sentence that contains three parts: the term that needs defining, the
class to which the item belongs, and the differentiation of the item from all other members of its
class.

An informal definition provides operational definitions or synonyms for the term. Scholars use
operational definitions to give measurable meanings to abstractions.

An Extended definition is expanded explanations of the term being defined. After reading a formal
definition, a less knowledgeable reader often needs more explanation to understand the term
completely. There are eight methods to extend definitions.

1. Explain the Derivation-to explain its origin

2. Explicate Terms – to explain d/t words contained in the formal definition
3. Use Analogy- to point out the similarities or d/ces b/n things
4. Use Example- to give readers something concrete
5. Compare & Contrast-to show both the similarities & d/ces b/n objects
6. Explain Cause & Effect- to define in terms of their cause & effect
7. Use Visual Aids-to use drawings & diagrams to reinforce definitions
8. Analyze the Term- to divide the term onto its parts.

Writers plan definitions by considering why the readers need a definition & how much
definition they need.
Memorandums and Reports
Memorandums(Memos)

Writing memos is an important job responsibility. Memos are used to report everything
from results of tests to announcements of meetings. In industry you must write memos
clearly and quickly. Your ability to write tells a reader a great deal about your abilities as
a problem solver and decision maker.

Memo Format
Memo format consists of specific lines placed at the top of a page. To, From, Subject, and
Date lines. Usually such a report is brief—from one or two sentences to one or two pages.
Follow these guidelines to set up a memo.
25
 1. Fill in the blanks in the preprinted form, if any.
2. Place the To, From, and Subject lines at the left-hand margin.
3. Place the Date either to the right, without a head, or at the top of the list with the
head.
4. Follow each item with a colon and the appropriate information.
5. Name the contents or main point in the subject line.
6. Place the name of those people who are to receive copies below the name of the
main recipient.
7. Sign to the right of your typed name.
8. Choose a method of capitalization and placement of colons.
11111

MEMO FORMAT: EXAMPLE 1

November 10, 2008

Date on far right

To: Dr. Abdiwak Milkessa

Cc: Mr. Jalel Tesfaye
Copy
From: Daniel Benti
Signature
Subject: Sending of the List of New Arrival Memo
st
heads-only 1

letter capitalized

2222

MEMO FORMAT: EXAMPLE 2

DATE: November 10, 2008

Date line
TO: Dr Abdiwak Milkessa
Memo heads in all capital

FROM: Daniel Benti

Signature
SUBJECT: SENDING OF THE LIST OF NEW ARRIVAL Subject line

capitalized for

26
 emphasis

3333

MEMO FORMAT: EXAMPLE 3

November 10, 2008

To: Abdiwak Milkessa
Memo heads

aligned on colons
From: Daniel Benti
Subject: Sending the list of New Arrivals

Reports

Definition and Characteristics of Reports

Definition of Reports

Even though reports are common places in today’s business world, scholars do not agree
on how to define them.
Definitions in current use ranges from one extreme to the other. By the broadest
definition, a report is any representation of information ranging from the extremely
formal to the highly informal. The narrower definition of a report limits it to more
formalized presentation of information. Accordingly, a report is defined as an orderly
and objective communication of factual information that serves some purpose.

From this definition, we can understand that a report is:

----an orderly communication,
----an unbiased approach to the facts presented,

27
 ----a factual information (not fictional),
----a report must some purpose.

In general, there are some important characteristics of reports to be known by the

writer.
(1) Reports can be informational or analytical in contents;

(2) Reports can be short/long, formal/informal depending on the complexity of the subject

matter they treat;

(3) Reports which analytical in content are mostly produced upon the request of an

authority from above;

(4) Internal business reports are either up-ward or down-ward directed in organization

channels;

(5) Reports of all kind must emphasize objectivity. The objectivity of reports can facilitate

the process of problem-solving and decision making;

(6) Reports are by and large, generated to meet the specific needs of a limited audience;

(7) Reports can be prepared and presented to a limited audience regularly, occasionally,

and very irregularly through what are called periodic, progressive, and special reports

respectively; and

(8) Most reports are the result of careful investigation, sound thinking, logical organization

and clear writing and they are presented in a conventional form.

Classification of Reports

Even though there are no universal report classification procedures to be adopted as such,
certain factors may be considered in classifying business reports.

Below are some of the factors that could be employed in the classification of reports:
a) Contents of reports;
b) Formality pf reports;
c) Intervals of transmission; and
d) Directions that reports travel.

A. Contents/ Function of Reports

28
Based on contents/functions, report can be either informational report or analytical
report.
a. Informational Reports
The following are major characteristics of informational reports:
 Focuses on facts;
 The main goal of the reporter is to present information as clearly as possible;
 The reader is left to consider the information and draw his conclusion;
 The writer omits any comments, or recommendations.(e.g. Annual reports, periodic
reports, progressive reports)

b. Analytical Reports
As compared to informational reports, analytical reports have the following distinguished
features.
 Focuses on facts;
 The writer can include analysis of data, conclusions, and recommendations.
 The attempt is to solve problems by way of gathering data and analyzing facts and
providing recommendations. ( e.g. Market survey report, research reports)

B. Formality of Reports
Formality of reports is related to the relationship b/n the writer & the reader. Based on
formality, reports can be classified into:
a. Long/Formal Reports
 Tend to be long and traditional in style & tone
 Are carefully structured
 Contain detailed information
b. Short/Informal Reports
 Few sentences( 3-5) sentences in number
 Carry messages within or outside the organization(memo reports, incident
reports, lab. reports)

C. Intervals of Transformation of Reports

The frequency in which reports are prepared in an organization can vary. Based on such
fact, we have the following reports.
a. Periodic Reports
 Discuss what has taken place over a given periodic time.
 Summarize general events that took place over a period of time.
 Issued regularly, i.e. monthly, quarterly, etc.

29
 b. Progressive Reports
 Focus on specific activities accomplished
 Issued occasionally b/n the commencement & end of certain project.(project
report)

D. Directions that Reports Travel

Based on the direction/directions, reports can be classified as follows:
a. Internal reports
 Move up-wards or down-wards within a certain business
establishment.
 Up-ward directed reports management control purposes.
 Down-ward directed reports are informational & transmit policies,
procedures & orders.
b. External reports
These are reports that move out of the bounds of a certain organization for public consumption.
(E.g. annual reports)

2.4.2.1 Field Trip Reports

Field trip reports are written whenever people leave their normal place of work to do
some thing elsewhere. These kinds of reports can cover many kinds of events such as:
 Installation or modification of equipment;
 Assistance on a field project;
 Attendance at a conference seminar, workshop;
 Reports to a client’s equipment, or field instruments; and
 Evaluation of another firm’s building, facilities or methods.
The essential sections contain the following information:
1. Background Section-describes the purpose of the trip
2. Job section w/c contains
- what the report writer set out to do;
- what was actually done;
- what could not be done, and why;
- what else was done.

3. Outcome Section-sums up the results of the trip and often submitted as

memorandums;

2.4.2.2 Progress Reports

Progress report keep management informed of work progress on projects that span a
lengthy period, which can vary from a few weeks to several years based on the nature of
the project. There are two types of progress reports:
30
  Occasional progress report, and;
 Periodical progress report.

Occasional progress report

Occasional progress reports are often written at random intervals and usually concern
shorter projects. The report writing sections for an occasional progress report are:
1. The Summary Section
Comments briefly on the progress achieved and where the project is on the
schedule; it may also predict a project completion date. Its information is drawn
from Work done, Schedule, and Plans sections.
2. Background Section
If the reader is a person familiar with the project, only minimum background
information is necessary. Otherwise, brief description of the person involved in the project,
the location, and the dates are necessary. (Who? Where? Why? & When?).
3. Progress Section
Contains information from the four sub-sections mentioned below:
A. Planned Work
B. Work Done
C. Problems
D. Schedule
4. Plans –indicates when the project finishes on the schedule and if not predict a
revised completion date.
5. Backup Section contains data such as statistics, results of tests, specifications, and
drawings.

Periodic Progress Report

Periodic progress reports are written at regular intervals (usually weekly, biweekly, or
monthly). It contains information similar to those for an occasional report, but there is
some shift in content and emphasis.
The format of a periodic progress report also appears to be more rigid that of an
occasional report. The sections of periodic progress report are:
1. Summary section- contains comments on the work accomplished during the
period. It may also mention whether the project is on the schedule.
2. Background Section
3. progress section
4. Plan Section
5. Backup Section.

31
Suggested headings for backup section of a periodic progress report are:

a) Summary
b) Introduction
c) Project Progress
d) Problems Encountered
e) Adherence to Schedule
f) Current
g) Predicted
h) Attachments

2.2.4.3 Lab Reports

Considerable variation exists in the presentation of laboratory (often called lab reports).
Lab reports written in educational institutions and research organizations may use
similar or different forms when writing lab reports to suit their individual requirements.
But generally these reports contain the following elements:
1. Summary: A brief statement of the purpose or objective of the tests, the major
findings, and what was deduced from them.
2. Objective or Purpose: A more detailed statement of purpose or objective, plus other
pertinent background data.
3. Equipment setup: A list of equipment and materials used for the tests, and a
description and illustration of how the equipment is interconnected.
4. Method: A step-by-step detailed description of each test.
Results: A statement of the test results or findings evolving from the test.
5. Analysis: A detailed analysis of the results or findings, their implications, and what
can be learned or interpreted from them.
6. Conclusions: A brief statement describing how the tests, findings, and resulting
analysis have met the objective stated in the objective or purpose section.
7. Data (Attachment): A separate sheet(s) containing data derived during the tests,
such as detailed calculations, measurements weights, lengthy procedures…etc.

2.4.2.4 Feasibility Reports

The feasibility report investigates whether to undertake a project. After considering

criteria, they make recommendations whether the project should be pursued. A
criterion has three parts: a name, a standard, and a rank. In order to discover

32
 criteria, writers analyze the problem; ask technical, management/maintenance, and
financial questions.
To write feasibility report, choose a format, and write the introduction and the body.
The situation will help you determine whether to use a formal or informal format for
your feasibility studies. As a rule of thumb, use the formal format for a lengthy report
intended for a group of clients. The informal format is suitable for a brief report
intended to determine the feasibility of an internal suggestion.

The two main sections of feasibility reports are:

 The introduction:
It includes appropriate background, conclusions, and recommendations.
 Body
In the body you present the details for each topic, the standard, relevant details,
and conclusion. Organize the material in the body from most to least important.

2.4.2.5 Incident Reports

Incident reports are sometimes called occurrence reports. They

 tell about events that have happened.

 explain how and why they happened.

 describe what effects the events had and what have been done about them, and

 sometimes also suggest that corrective actions be taken, or what should be done to prevent the

events from recurring.

The writing sections for incident reports are:

1. Summary Section Contains brief summary (synopsis) of the event and its outcome.

2. Background Section Contains the circumstances leading up to the event.

3. The Event Section Tells what happened.

4. Outcome Section Contains the result-the effect the event had; what actions has

been taken; what actions need

to be taken.

33
Unit Three: Writing Proposals
Proposals and Its Contents
3.1. 1 Proposals

To renew, or to bring change, growth, and expansion in your business

organization it is essential to review constantly the existing situation. Often the suggested
changes are put forward in the form of proposals. Therefore, a proposal persuades its
readers to accept the writer’s idea. In other words, a proposal is any conceived idea,
service, project, or plan whether theoretical or practical in nature, put forward for
action or implementation. It could be for carrying out research on a specific topic,
writing of a book, manufacturing a product, setting up a plan, construction of a building
or road, modifying a procedure, or system, providing a facility, establishing new
organization or Plc. etc. Thus we may define a proposal as a written offer to undertake a
project for designing, creating something new, or for modifying an existing procedure,
method system, or structure within a specified period of time.

There is, however, a basic difference between a proposal and a report. The proposal
aims at getting the approval or acceptance of what one wants to do whereas report
usually deals with what one has already done.

Proposals can be classified into different categories based upon:

 content/objective of proposal;
 initiator of the proposal;
 direction of proposals; and
 formality of proposals.

1. The Content/Objective of Proposals

The common types of proposals in this category are:

a. Business Proposals- deals with any aspect of business or industry or commerce.

b. Research Proposals- deals with scientific inquiry or systematic investigation.
c.Technical Proposals- deals with creating or modifying something using technical
knowledge and skills.

2. The Initiator of Proposals

Proposals are divided into Solicited and Unsolicited.

A proposal is often prepared in response to a demand or an invitation from an
authorized person within an organization or from an outside agency. In such cases,

34
usually the form in which the proposal is to be prepared is clearly indicated. The proposer
has simply to supply the relevant particulars in the required sequence. Such a proposal is
termed as a solicited. Sometimes, a person may, on his own initiative, prepare a proposal
to solve a problem or to meet a specific need as perceived by him. A proposal thus
prepared is called unsolicited. Most suggestions are internal proposals and are written as
memorandums.

3. Directions of Proposals
Based on the directions they travel proposals can be either internal or external. Internal
proposals serve within a certain business establishment and are mostly informal and
unsolicited. External proposals move out of the bound of the organization and are;
therefore, company’s bid for business from other companies.

4. Formality of Proposals

Proposals vary from short memorandums to multivolume documents. The format of a

proposal can be either a short memorandum when it travels within an organization or a
letter when it travels outside a business organization. Generally speaking, there are three
types of proposals in this regard:

Types of Proposals:
 informal suggestion proposal;
 semiformal proposal; and
 formal proposal.

I. Informal Suggestion proposal

An informal suggestion proposal offers an idea and briefly discusses its advantages and disadvantages. Most

suggestions are internal proposals and are written as memorandums. The sections of informational

suggestions are illustrated below.

A. Summary Section
The summary section states very briefly what the proposer wants to do or wants to
be done.
B. Background Section
Describes the present situation
C. Details Section
This section has two components:

35
  A suggestion part, which outlines the suggested changes or improvements, and
describes why they are needed.
 An evaluation part, which identifies what effect the suggested changes or
improvements, will have, and categorizes them into advantages and
disadvantages.
D. Outcome Section
The outcome section identifies what action needs to be taken. It can either request
approval for the author to implement his or her suggestion; or identifies who should
take the necessary action and possibly describes when it should take place and who
should do the work.

THE WESTERN FARM IMPLEMENT COMPANY

Inter-office Memorandum

1. Oct 23,
2006.
From: Ermias Hailu, Accountant
To: Dr. Elias Fekiru, Manager
Subject: Proposal for Computer Training
2.
Now that our business volume has reached a level where we probably
should be employing a computer for accounting and inventory control, I
propose we engage a consultant to identify our exact need.
3.
Presentations made me over the past 12 months by representative of
several computer companies have almost convinced me that we need a
computer, but which system will best meet our current and future needs
neither I nor anyone else in the company is qualified to evaluate.

4.
I would like to obtain an objective analysis from Beka Business consultants.
As his attached letter describes, he will assess our existing and potential
business volume and, if he believes we need a computer, will evaluate
alternatives and recommend the best system. He has quoted a firm price

36
 of
22,000.00 ETB to undertake the study.
I suggest we authorize Beka Business Consultants to carry out the study,
and request your approval to go ahead.

Ermias

Sample Informal Suggestion Proposal

Comments on the above informal suggestion proposal

As can be seen from the sample, Ermias uses a “cause-and-effect” approach for his
summary, first very briefly identifying his reason and then stating in general terms what
he would like to do.
The background section amplifies the reason stated in the summary. The details
paragraph contains a specific suggestion. A short evaluation spells out what is to be
gained and the cost estimate.
In the outcome section, Ermias states specifically what he wants to do, and requests
approval.

II. Semi-formal Proposal

37
A semiformal proposal presents ideas for resolving a problem or improving a situation;
evaluate them against certain criteria, and often recommends what actions should be
taken.

There are features that make a semiformal proposal more comprehensive than an
informal suggestions proposal. These features are:

 usually deals with more complex situations such as a problem or

unsatisfactory condition;
 discusses the circumstance in detail;
 establishes criteria(guidelines) for any proposed changes;
 frequently offers alternatives rather than a single suggestion;
 realizes the proposed alternatives in depth; and
 appears more formally.

The writing sections for semiformal proposal are:

1. Summary Section
This section briefly describes the main highlights of the proposal, mostly drawn from
the background, Solution, and Outcome sections. If headings are used in the
proposal, this section is preceded by the word Summary or Abstract.

Background Section
The background section introduces the problem, situation, or unsatisfactory
condition, and outlines the circumstances leading up to it. It may be preceded by
the heading introduction.

2. Objective Section
This section defines what needs to be achieved to resolve the problem, and
establishes criteria for an idea, optimum, or the best solution. This information may
be included as part of the Introduction or preceded by a heading of its own (such as
Requirements or Criteria).

3. Solution Section
The solution section describes various ways the problem can be resolved or the
solution improved.

38
4. Evaluation Section
The evaluation section analyzes and compares the alternative solutions, with
particular reference to the criteria established in the Objective Section. It may
briefly discuss the effects of:
a. adopting the proposed solution;
b. adopting each of the alternative solutions; and
c. adopting none of the solutions ,i.e. taking no action.

5. Outcome Section
This section recommends what action should be taken. It should be worded in strong,
positive terms and, if headings are used, be preceded by single word
recommendation.

6. Backup Section
The backup section if used contains detailed analysis, test results, drawings, etc…,
which support and amplify statements made in the previous compartments. It is
usually preceded by the heading Attachments or Appendices.

Sample of Semiformal Proposal

June 10, 2008

The Dean
School of Engineering & Information Technology
P.O.Box 1888
Adama University
Adama

Dear Dean:

Subject: Revision of Course Outline of Communicative English Skills

On May 2, 2007 you requested the ad hoc committee to study the content
39
and an outline of Communicative English Skills course and make
recommendations on the appropriateness of each course item to the needs of
degree students of the University.

I. Purpose

The report covers a thorough investigation of the contents of communicative

English skills course and provides recommendations on actions to be taken to
suit the course items to the present day needs of the students of the University.

II.Investigation Procedures and Methodology

Our investigation includes:

a. Interview with heads of the departments of the School;
b. Thorough investigation of the course outlines of the same course of
other Universities;
c. Thorough examination of students, feedback procured from
questionnaires and interviews; and
d. Consultations with lecturers of communication skills at Addis Ababa
University.

III. Findings

On the bases of the investigation made, the committee has found that:

(1) The course content is so widely drawn that it cannot be

satisfactorily treated in four contact hours; and
(2) The course items are not appropriately identified and
designed to meet the particular needs of students.

IV. Recommendations

Accordingly, we make the following recommendations:

(1) The chapters dealing with Micro Skills be omitted from the
course outline;
(2) That the treatments of chapters on written and oral
communication be given due emphasis by including
practical activities; and
(3) That contents related to Information Science be included.

40
 Yours Faithfully,
Signature
Chairperson of the Committee

III. Formal Proposal

A formal proposal describes an organization’s plans for carrying out a large project for a
major client or the government. It is a substantial, often impressive document which
describes the following in considerable details:
 what you plan to do;
 how you will do it;
 how much time you will take in completing it; and
 what it will cost.

The purpose of such a proposal is mainly to get a project accepted by concerned

authorities. They are external proposals and are unique in that they will almost always
compete with other company’s proposals to secure the winning bid. Since it is persuasive
in nature, its presentation is based on what is termed as AIDA plan. First Attention (A) is
caught towards what is being proposed, then an Interest (I) is created by pointing out
how the plan would be executed. The next step is to generate a Desire (D) to be accepted
by highlighting the benefits and advantages that would accrue and finally, an impulse for
Action (A) is induced by persuasive reasoning.

A number of factors play a role in converting this selling tool into a contractual
commitment. Some of these factors for this purpose include the following:

 specify the scope clearly;

 be realistic in your estimate of time, money, material and personnel required;
 establish your credentials for accomplishing the task;
 highlight the benefits that would accrue to the customer;
 keep the proposal short and precise;
 use plain language; and
 ensure that the presentation and layout are neat and attractive.

Although different kinds of proposals have different structures, the following elements are
common to all be external, solicited, or unsolicited.

41
 I. Title Page

This page acts as the cover of the proposal and contains the following information:
 Title,
 Name and designation of the proposer,
 Name of the organization to which he/she belongs, and
 The month and year of submission.

II. Table of Contents

This is given when the proposal is long, running into 15 or more pages. The manner of
preparing and the pattern of setting it is the same as that of the report.
III. Executive Summary

This part summarizes the entire proposal. Many readers need to have a preview of the
proposal before beginning to read through the details.

IV. Statement of the Problem

This part defines the need, or the rationale, or states the problem to which the proposal
addresses itself. An ability to handle this element successfully is crucial to the acceptance
of your proposal b/c other elements such as objectives, methodology, etc would logically
flow from your problem statement.
V. Objectives

To what extent your project is going to solve the problem or effect the change should be
clearly specified in this part. The objectives may be listed in terms of short term or long
term goals.

VI. Technical Plan

The technical plan is the core of the proposal and should be specific and concrete. The
technical plan includes the following sections:
A. Statement of the problem—you need to give a detailed description of the
company’s problem and its need for your product or service.
B. Technical description--- describes the specific steps you will take to complete
your proposal’s objectives.
C. Facilities description__ describes any facilities or equipment you may require in
order to implement your proposal.
D. Exceptions---No one company can do everything, and your reader knows this.
You must address what you cannot do that your reader may expect you to do.
42
 VII. Management plan

This part describes how you will accomplish the proposed task and clearly indicates the
plan of action, facilities required, and the personnel who will execute the project. The
plan of action should specify how the work will be divided, who will be responsible for
each division and how much time would be taken to complete it. You should also describe
your company’s past success or (include the names of specific companies you have helped).

VIII. Cost Estimate

You must provide ample justification for all expenses incurred. Be sure that this section is
clear, explicit, and thorough. It is also important to give your reader a time frame for
the budget.

IX. Conclusion/Summary

Provide a brief summary of your proposal—the company’s problem and how you intend
to solve it. Use your conclusion as one last opportunity to persuade your reader to accept
the terms of your proposals.

Sample of a Solicited Proposal

A Proposal for Modernization of Language

Laboratory Facility

By: X Y
M.A. in TEFL

Department of Humanities &

Foreign Languages

43
Adama University

July 2008

44
 1.Executive Summary

i. Project Title: Modernization of Language Laboratory Facility

ii. Name and Designation of the proposer: X, Y
M.A.in.TEFL
iii. Postal Address: Department of Humanities & Foreign
Languages, Adama University, 1888
iv. Duration of the Project: Six months
v. Amount of Money Required:
a. Non-recurring
i. Hardware 3000 Birr

Software 4000 Birr

b. Recurring 2000 Birr
Total: 9000 Birr

3. Brief Description

The existing language laboratory is based on a spool system, which has become obsolete.
The spares for replacement to keep it fully functional are not available. Hence, the entire
equipment needs replacement. The main purpose of this proposal is, therefore, to
procure and install a new ten-booth language laboratory so that it continues to serve as
an effective technological aid for enriching and strengthening the language courses
designed to inculcate basic communication skills. The secondary purposes are: (a) to
develop a center for imparting in-service training in communication skills to university
employees as well as professionals; (b) to serve as library for individual self development;
and (c) to provide a facility for promoting research in language learning problem. To
realize these purposes, suitable software to meet the situation-specific needs would be
produced. The technical expertise is available to take care of operation and maintenance
of the laboratory. The department has well qualified staff and a properly equipped
Electronics Department. The Department of Humanities and Foreign languages trained
technical personnel besides School with experience in using language laboratory facility
and producing instructional material. The existing room which would be used for the
new system as well as air-conditioned and sound proof and equipped with suitable
furniture for the installation of the equipment.

4. Statement of the Problem

The department has been conducting a number of programs in science, engineering, and
business at first degree level. This entire program requires the development of an ability

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 of effective technical and professional communication. To meet this requirement the
department has been making efforts through formal classroom instruction and the
organization of co-curricula activities such as seminars, workshops, etc. In the past, it
has conducted communication workshops for human resource development both for in-
service staff and professional organizations. It has also run communication workshops for
faculty and for students to improve their presentation skills. For effective development of
the communication aspect of human resource, right from the inception of the
department, language lab has been used successfully. But the present Connivance Mark II
spool system used for this purpose has now become obsolete and requires replacement.

5. Objectives

The objective of this plan is to procure and install a system which can meet the need for
an effective technological aid for strengthening the language courses which form part of
the Department’s programs. Another purpose is to acquire a facility which can serve as
an instrument for the executive development and training program of technical
personnel and professionals from other organizations, besides functioning as a center for
research in language learning problems of the country. The lab would also serve as a
library, and thus provides a variety of self-improvement materials.

6. Technical Plan

It is proposed to go in for a 10-booth lab system with a provision for expansion after
ascertaining the response of, and analyzing the feedback from, the users. The equipment
and material required at present are listed below. The estimated cost and justification
for each item is specified. The first two items relate to the acquisition of hardware and
the last three development of software.

Equipment and Material Justification

a. Ten student books each having a tap A reliable and easily

recorded and a head-set and teacher’s operate system is req-
remote control unit and master tape uired to serve the need
recorded. for effective develop-
ment of communication
skills.

b. Spares and accessories These are essential for

keeping the lab operational

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c. Blank Cassettes These would be required
for recording new material

d. Audio-Video Instructional These are required for use

materials and support of lab technology

e. Books and Journals For continuous updating of

knowledge

7. Management Plan

The installation of the system would be done by the technical personnel of the company
from which the equipment is bought. The technical staff the Department would take over
the responsibility of operating and maintaining it after starts functioning. One Technical
Assistant who has been operating the present lab would continue to look after the new
system.

8. Cost Estimates

A total sum of 9000 Birr is required for non recurring expenditure. Out of this 4000
Birr is required for hardware and 3000 Birr is required for software development. The
details of the items of the expenditure are given in the earlier technical plan section. In
addition, an estimated sum of 2000 Birr per annum is required for recurring
expenditure. The breakup of this estimate is given below:

i. Material required for maintenance 3000 Birr

ii. Electricity 2500 Birr
iii. Stationery 4500 Birr
Total: 10,000 Birr

9. Conclusion

The aim of technical education is human resource development in specific professional

areas of which communication is an important part. The question of this facility would
accelerate the process of training and would undoubtedly enrich professionally oriented
education.

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Unit Four: Professional Communications

4.1 Business Letters

Business letters are important, even a critical, part of any professional’s job. They are

written for many reasons to many audiences. They may request information from an

expert, transmit a report to a client, or discuss the specifications of a project with a

supplier. Letters represent the firm, and the quality of its letters reflects the quality of

the firm.

Letters can be written in three formats.

 block format,

 modified block format, and

 the simplified format.

The block format places all the letter elements flush against the left-hand margin. Do not indent the first word of each

paragraph. This format is widely used b/c letters in this format can be typed quickly.

The modified block format is the same as the full block format with two exceptions: the date line and the signature are

placed on the right-hand side of the page.

Simplified format contains no salutation and no complimentary close, but it almost always has a subject line. It is

extremely useful for impersonal situations and where the identity of the recipient is not known. In personal situations,

writers start the first paragraph with the recipient’s name.

3.1.1. Elements of a Business Letter

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 (a) Address

P.O. Box 1888

Adama University

Adama, Ethiopia

(b) Date

December 18, 2008

(c) Ministry of Education

P.O.Box 565

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

(d) Subject: Opening New Schools at Asella Town

(e) Dear Sir(s)/Madam(s):

(f)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________Introduction______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Discuss

ion____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________Conclusion______________________________

(g) Truly Yours,

(h) MesfinAbera

(i) Mesfin Abera

(j) A/V/President

Key:

(a) Heading-----the address of the writer (The name is not included)

(b) Date----The month, the day, and the year when you write the letter.

(c) Inside address---The address of the person or company to whom you are

writing.

(d) Subject line---The entire purpose of the letter.

(e) Salutation----Greetings

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 (f) Body

Introduction—state the aim of the letter

Discussion----include all important details briefly, clearly & correctly.

Conclusion---if necessary restate the main points.

(g) Complimentary close--- use words like sincerely, Truly, etc or phrases such as

Truly Yours, With best regards etc. according to your salutation.

(h) Signed name---Sign your name beneath your complimentary close.

(i) Typed name---Type your name two spaces below your signature.

(j) Title----You may type your title one space beneath your typed name.

4.2 Resume and Application Letters

You will be good at your job only if you enjoy what you are doing. If your job is just a set of

grueling tasks, it is highly unlikely you will excel or standout in any way. And you can only really

be successful in what you value. Prominent career counselors Morgan and Banks (1999, PP. 28-

30) list some questions to guide you on your career quest. Here are some of these for you to

discuss with your instructor.

1. What do you want to achieve in your life? Determine your goals and ambitions.
- Do you value wealth? Fame? Spirituality? Independence?
- Do you want a centre-stage position in life or would you prefer to work behind the scenes?
2. What are your skills and talents, and can you make the best use of them in your career?
- Think of all your talents, interest and abilities.
3. How good a communicator are you?
- Are you good at Writing? Speaking in public? Explaining? Have you ever taught?
4. Are you project or process oriented?
- Do you like doing short-term projects that you can finalize quickly, and then moving onto
something else, or do you prefer being part of a chain, contributing to an on-going process?
5. Do you prefer to lead or to follow?
- Do you prefer to follow others’ instructions, or would you rather instruct others? Do you
work best in a corporate, hierarchical, environmental, or does self-employment appeal to
you more?

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6. What kind of culture would you prefer to work in?
- Do you like strict guidelines or a more liberal way of achieving goals?
- Do you want to be given specific goals or would you rather work with broad parameters?
- How closely do you want to be managed? Would you rather be left alone to find solutions
your own way? Do you want strict hours of work or more autonomy to choose your time
table?
7. What drives you?
- Do you want status? Recognition? Money? Independence? A combination?
8. What location suits you?
- Are you happy in a high-rise building in the centre of town; or would you prefer a suburb,
or the option of working at home?

CVs and Cover Letters

A CV lists your education, work skills, and work experience. A CV should not be made to

be read, but rather to be glanced at or skimmed. It has been documented that potential

employers spend about 30 seconds on a first viewing of a CV, before deciding whether

the candidate is worthy for further consideration. Thus, you should structure your CV in

such a way that the potential employer can tell you at a glance if you are suitable for a

job. Poorly prepared CVs usually wind up in the wastebasket. Therefore, your CV should

be prepared with great care and should emphasize your qualifications that best meet the

requirements of the job you are seeking.

In addition to this, prepare a cover letter or letter of application to mail with your CV.

In the letter, introduces yourself and draw attention to your achievements relevant to

the position. Although the letter of application is data in the CV, the function, then, of

the letter is to highlight your most important qualifications to make the employer eager

to learn more about you and grant you a personal interview.

Writing CVs

CVs tend to be classified into three main categories: functional, chronological and

targeted. However, any type of CV should satisfy certain general standards. It should:

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  Provide information that is relevant, cleat and concise;

 Highlight and provide evidence for your strengths and achievements;

 Inspire confidence;

 Form an agenda for the interview

Function CVs

Functional CVs focus on skills rather than on dates or places of employment. They are

useful if you:

 are changing careers and some of your previous experience is not relevant to your

target job;

 want to highlight specific skills rather than list your life history.

The functional CV format classifies information according to skills. The most

marketable information is presented at the front of the document. The functional

format allows for selective organization of information and enhancement your ability

to customize the CV for the particular position.

Functional skills

List all the responsibilities you had for each job. Think of everything that you did each

day at work, including all the small tasks or the tasks that were so routine that you

hardly noticed them. If your list gets too long, edit it by deleting activities that may

not be directly relevant to the job you are applying for. The following verbs may help

you compile your list:

Analyses expanded photocopied and filed Assembled implemented

prepared

Assisted increased (sales) produced Classified invented project managed

Conducted maintained reviewed Designed managed supervised

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 Distributed operated trained Earned (an award) organized wrote

Always use verbs in the active voice to describe the activities you perform or

performed in your work experience. Use the present tense for positions currently held,

and the past tense for positions previously held. Omit “I”.

Where possible, it is a good idea to use the ‘STAR’ (Situation, Task, Achievement,

Result) method to highlight your successes, either in the CV or in the cover letter. First

state the situation where you had to perform a task, then describe the task, go on to

the outcome of your effort, and enc by stating how your employer benefited from the

way you carried out the task.

Chronological CVs

The chronological format lists education and work experiences in reverse chronological

order (most recent items listed first). Chronological CVs are useful if:

 you have a steady work history;

 all or most your recent work experience is relevant to the position.

Do not use a chronological CV if:

 only one or two jobs in your work history are relevant to the position sought:

 you have a complicated or diverse work history;

 you have many gaps in your work history that are difficult to explain; and

 you are pursuing a career change and wish to highlight transferable skills.

Targeted CVs

Targeted CVs follow the specification given in an application package or job

advertisement. They are similar to functional CVs, but concentrated on skills that are

directly relevant to the requirements listed in the vacancy. When writing a targeted CV,

answer the question or follow the formatting directions given by the recruiting company.

Optional features
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These features are not necessary. Analyze your particular situation and decide whether or

not you wish to include them. If in doubt, leave them out.

 Personal information. In most Western societies, gender, religious beliefs, age,

ethnicity and marital status are irrelevant to many kinds of employment, and, in

fact, and considered confidential by law. You are not obliged to state any of these

in your CV if applying for a job. In practice, however, job seekers include personal

detail in their CVs if they feel that their personal circumstances are advantageous:

for example, if you are a Catholic and you are applying for a position in a catholic

organization it would be wise to mention your religion, and if you are young but

have achieved a remarkable amount it would be wise to mention your age.

 Photograph. Employers in certain countries and in certain sectors of the economy,

such as public relations, may favor photographs on CVs. Others find them

irrelevant or even dangerous, because they de-focus objective skills and capabilities.

For example, in the information technology sector or in education, a photograph

would not be necessary.

 Hobbies/interests. Include a brief list of hobbies and interests if they indicate skills

relevant to the job, such as leadership, teamwork, resilience or determination. You

can also set your CV apart from others if you specify unusual hobbies, or if you

demonstrate excellence in a particular pursuit. If your only hobbies are watching

television and playing cards, leave this section out altogether.

 Career objective. A career objective states the applicant’s goal and ambition within

a specific industry. The best advice is to leave a career objective out, especially if

you are unsure or undecided about your long-term goals. However, if you do

decide to include one. Make it short but focused. It should inform the employer

54
 that you are moving in a certain direction, specify your work preferences and

serve as a focal point fro, which to review your CV.

 Referees. You do not need to include names of referees or references unless they

are specifically requested. However, since referees will play a role if you are short

listed, if is wise to include a statement such as ‘Referees are available on request’,

either at the end of the CV or in the cover letter.

 Nationality or residential status. This is only relevant if it affects your availability

for employment.

Format and presentation

Do not cut costs on presentation-first impressions really count! It is best to laser print

your CV and present it in a folder. It is fine to print your CV on colored bond paper, but

you may also like to include a loosely attached copy on white A4 paper, for easy

photocopying by the recruiting officer.

Make sure that your CV has plenty of white space, with margins of at least 2.5 cm. align

points down the page and preferably indent them.

It is best not to use more than two fonts, a more conventional serif font for the main

text and perhaps a fancier font for the headings. Also, so not use more than one

highlighting technique: that is, bold or underline or italics-not all three.

Sample CV layouts

It is not wise to copy a standard CV format from a book to which countless others have

access. Instead, by making your CV as individual as signature, you increase your chances

of attracting the attention of those who can further your career. So use these sample

55
layouts of a full CV as a guide or inspiration, but tailor them to suit your individual

aspirations and strengths.

Sample Layout of Functional CV

Name Your full name

Address Your current residential or business address

(Where you want your correspondence sent)

Telephone number Home and/or business numbers.(you may include A cell-phone

number, but no just that.)

E-mail address Your business or personal e-mail address.(if you are applying

for many jobs while still working, it’s best to get a yahoo or

hotmail address o avoid too much traffic in your business

address.)

Skills and abilities List the major skills you have acquired from your experience.

List only those skills that you can demonstrate, but be creative

in highlighting their relevance for the job you seek.

Computer skills Depending on the kind o job you seed and the kinds of skills

separately to highlight them. Include operating systems (e.g. PC,

Mac), and software packages (e.g. Microsoft Word, Adobe

PageMaker).

Languages State the languages you know and your degree of fluency.

Education List your educational qualifications with the most relevant first.

Include all professional development and short courses that you

attended.

Professional memberships Again, briefly list them, if relevant.

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Awards and achievements List, but only if relevant to the new job.

Employment history Name of employer, position (job title), and period

of employment.

Interest List, but again, only if relevant.

Sample Layout of a Chronological CV

Name Your full name.

Address Your current residential or business address (where you want

your correspondence sent).

Telephone numbers Home and/or business numbers.( you may include a cell-phone

number, but not just that.)

E-mail addresses Your business or personal e-mail address. (if you are applying

for many jobs while still working, it’s best to get a yahoo or

hotmail address to avoid too much traffic in your business

address.)

Education Lists your educational qualifications with the most recent first.

Professional membership Briefly list them, if relevant.

Computer skills List your skills with operating systems (e.g. PC, Mac), and

software packages (e.g. Microsoft Word, Adobe PageMaker).

Languages State the languages that you know and your degree of fluency.

Interests List these, but only if relevant.

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 Writing the cover letter

A cover letter must be professionally presented in format, grammar, and spelling. It

must be one to tow pages maximum, and must go straight to the point. Member,

employer review hundreds of applications and spend as little as 30 seconds reviewing

each one. Your cover letter must something that stands out.

There are three main kinds of cover letter:

 A letter written I response to a job advertisement

 A ‘cold contract’ letter, written unsolicited (without being requested in advance) to a senior

member of a targeted company. It should not be more than one page. Always follow up a

cold contract letter with a telephone call after a week to ten days.

 A referral letter, mentioning a contract with in the company or a previous conversation

held with a staff member. A referral letter may open with a line such as, ‘I am forwarding

my CV to you as requested during our recent conversation regarding the Human Resources

counseling position opening up at your firm.’

The cover letter has up to four paragraphs, covering the following material:

Opening paragraph Indicate the purpose of writing.

Second paragraph State relevant skills and experience.

Third paragraph Demonstrate your knowledge of the company or organization.

Fourth paragraph Close with confidence and request an interview.

Always try to address a cover letter personally. Avoid ‘Dear sir or Madam’. If necessary,

call the company to ask for the name of the person responsible for a job position.

When sending a ‘cold contact’ letter, it’s best to address it to the manager of the section

you want to work in (rather than to the personnel Department). The advantages of this

are that, even if you are not given employment, the manager will at least know to your

name and may remember you if you apply for an advertised position within the

58
company later. People who are eager and take initiative make a good impression

professionally. Also, a manager who is dedicated to his/her area of specialty a may be

willing at help newcomers join the industry, and therefore a may refer you to someone

or give you some very useful advice, if you approach him/her directly. It’s unlikely that

the personnel officer would have the same commitment.

Cover letter tips

Here are some general tips for writing an effective cover letter.
 Always type your cover letter, unless the job advertisement specifically asks for a handwritten one. A CV is always
typed, no matter what.
 Keep paragraphs short.
 Adapt the content to the particular organization and job position for which you are applying. That is, show that
you are ‘one of us’.(see chapter 8, on promoting, for more tips on how to do this).
 Use bullet points and lists to highlight information.
 Include contact details (name, address, telephone number, fax, e-mail), either in a letter head or in the
concluding paragraph.
 Do not point to any of your weaknesses. Instead, match your skills and experience to the requirements of the
position.
 Do not refer to personal interests or hobbies unless they are directly relevant to the position, or you share an
interest with the recipient of the letter.
 Do not use sarcasm or irony.
 Do not criticize a former employer.
 Do not send a photocopy of a cover letter. Your signature must be original.

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