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OPEN A numerical exploration

of the comparative analysis
on water and kerosene oil‑based
Cu–CuO/hybrid nanofluid flows
over a convectively heated surface
Ebrahem A. Algehyne 1,2, Fahad Maqbul Alamrani 1, Anwar Saeed 3 & Gabriella Bognár 4*

The fluid flow over an extending sheet has many applications in different fields which include,
manufacturing processes, coating, thin film decomposition, heat and mass transfer, biomedical
applications, aerospace engineering, environmental science, energy production. Keeping in mind
these applications, the non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluid flow comprising of Cu and CuO nanoparticles
over an extending sheet is analyzed in this work. Two different base fluids called kerosene oil and
water have been incorporated. The sheet is considered to be thermally convective along with zero
mass flux condition. The main equations of modeled problem have been transformed to dimensionless
form by using similarity variables. The designed problem is evaluated computationally by using
bvp4c Matlab function. Validation of the present results is also performed. The impacts of magnetic,
Brownian motion, chemical reaction, suction and thermophoresis factors are analyzed and discussed
in details. The outcomes of the present investigation declare that the kerosene oil-based hybrid
nanofluid flow has greater velocity and concentration profiles than that of the water-based hybrid
nanofluid flow. The water-based hybrid nanofluid has greater temperature distribution than that of
kerosene oil-based hybrid nanofluid flow. The streamlines of the kerosene oil-based Newtonian and
non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluid flows are more stretched than water-based Newtonian and non-
Newtonian hybrid nanofluid flows.

List of symbols
u, v Velocity components
x, y Coordinate axes
uw Stretching velocity
c Constant
B0 Strength of magnetic field
Tf , Tw , T∞ Hot working fluid, Surface, Ambient temperatures
Cw , C∞ Surface, Ambient concentrations
 Relaxation time factor
µ, ν Dynamic, kinematic viscosities
ρ Density
σ Electrical conductivity
k Thermal conductivity
Cp Specific heat
DB , DT Coefficients of Brownian and thermophoresis diffusions
Kr Chemical reaction coefficient

1
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, P.O. Box 741, 71491 Tabuk, Saudi
Arabia. 2Nanotechnology Research Unit (NRU), University of Tabuk, 71491 Tabuk, Saudi Arabia. 3Department of
Mathematics, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 23200, Pakistan. 4Institute of Machine
and Product Design, University of Miskolc, Miskolc‑Egyetemváros 3515, Hungary. *email: gabriella.v.bognar@
uni-miskolc.hu

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ϕ Nanoparticle volume fraction

M Magnetic factor
β Deborah number
Pr Prandtl number
Ec Eckert number
Nb, Nt Brownian motion, thermophoresis factors
Kr Chemical reaction factor
Bi Thermal Biot number
S Suction factor

Subscripts
f , nf , hnf Fluid, Nanofluid, Hybrid nanofluid
p1 Firs nanoparticle
p2 Second nanoparticle

Nanofluid is a specialized type of fluid engineered by dispersing nanometer-sized particles, typically nano-
particles, within a pure fluid. These nanoparticles are often metallic or non-metallic and can include materials
like metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, or graphene. When mixed with the base fluid as initially done by Choi
and ­Eastman1, nanofluids exhibit unique and enhanced properties compared to the base fluid alone. Nanofluid
flow is a significant area of research and application in fields like fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and materials
­science2. In nanofluid flow, researchers study how these nanoparticles interact with the base fluid and affect its
thermal flow ­behavior3. The nanoscale additives significantly boost the overall heat transfer efficiency of the
fluid, making nanofluids valuable in various industries, like electronics cooling, renewable energy systems, and
industrial ­processes4. The improved heat transfer properties are particularly beneficial in forced convection,
natural convection, boiling, and phase change applications, as nanofluids exhibit increased rates of heat dissipa-
tion and enhanced performance, though challenges related to nanoparticle dispersion and stability continue to
be addressed for broader and more reliable implementation. Khan et al.5 scrutinized thermally the nanofluid
flow in a conduit using the impacts of microorganisms and have noted that with growth in volumetric fraction
of nanoparticles the thermal panels of fluid has augmented while flow distribution declined. Acharya et al.6 dis-
cussed variations in the thermal properties for nanofluid flow using the impacts of nano-layers and diameter of
nanoparticles. Shahid et al.7 inspected experimentally the nanofluid flow with impacts of activated energy on a
permeable surface. Bhatti et al.8 discovered MHD nanofluid flow with influence of microorganisms’ swimming
through circular disks placed in porous medium and have noted that velocity distribution has declined growth
in magnetic factor.
A hybrid nanofluid is an advanced engineered fluid consisting of a base fluid, typically a liquid, in which
multiple types or sizes of nanoparticles are uniformly d ­ ispersed9. These nanoparticles can include various mate-
rials, such as metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, or graphene, and their combination within the fluid creates a
multifunctional nanofluid with tailored thermal, electrical, or rheological p ­ roperties10. Hybrid nanofluids find
applications in diverse fields, including solar thermal system and electronics cooling where their unique composi-
tion synergistically enhances heat transfer efficiency and performance, offering a versatile solution to optimize
thermal management in various i­ndustries11,12. Researchers continually explore the complex dynamics of heat
transfer within hybrid nanofluids to harness their full potential for advanced thermal management solutions
across various industries. Zhang et al.13 discussed hybrid nanofluid flow on a surface with nickel and tantalum
nanoparticles using the impacts of magnetic field. Wang et al.14 simulated hybrid nanoparticles fluid flow in a
microchannel by taking permeable media to analyze stability of CPU. Gumber et al.15 discussed hybrid nano-
fluid flow on a surface using the impacts of thermal radiations, injection / suction and micro-polarity effects.
­Ojjela16 investigated computationally the thermal transportation using silica-alumina hybrid nanofluid flow on
an elongating sheet. Hassan et al.17 inspected experimentally the flow pattern for mass and thermal transporta-
tions for shear thinning hybrid-nanoparticles flow. The combination of nanoparticles within the hybrid nanofluid
imparts tailored and synergistic thermal properties, including enhanced thermal conductivity and heat transfer
­efficiency18. This enables the fluid to effectively dissipate and manage heat in industrial engineering thereby
contributing to improved energy efficiency and system ­performance19. Raizah et al.20 examine hybrid nanofluid
flow within a gyrating channel, with impression of chemically reactivity processes governed by Arrhenius acti-
vated energy and proved that thermal distribution has escalated with escalation in nanoparticles’ concentration.
Further related articles can be read in Refs.21–27.
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD), is a field of physics and engineering consisting of electrically conducting
fluids, in the presence of magnetic and electric ­fields28. In MHD, the fluid’s motion and electromagnetic proper-
ties are strongly coupled, leading to various interesting phenomena and a­ pplications29. MHD has wide-ranging
applications, including in astrophysics (like studying stars and galaxies), nuclear fusion research (for controlled
fusion reactions)30. Heat transmission in MHD fluid flow explores the collaboration between the flow of electri-
cally conducting fluids using magnetic fi ­ elds31. In this complex system, the magnetic field profoundly influences
fluid behavior, altering heat transfer mechanisms. MHD-induced currents generate Joule heating, impacting
heat transfer rates, while the magnetic field itself can suppress turbulence and shape flow patterns. Additionally,
MHD fluid flow considerations are relevant in engineering applications like induction heating and heat shielding
during spacecraft re-entry, making it a crucial field at the intersection of fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, and
heat transfer. Kumawat et al.32 examined production of entropy and thermal transportation for MHD flow in a
permeable artery with impacts of deviated viscosity and have noted that curvature of arterial wall contribute to an

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increased hazard of atherosclerosis development, whereas the presence of a heat source within the bloodstream
has appeared to reduce this risk. Asjad et al.33 studied influences of MHD on Williamson liquid flow using bio-
convective effects. Bejawada et al.34 inspected radiative effects on MHD flow of fluid on a sheet with chemical
reactivity using Darcy-Forchheimer permeable medium.
Heat transfer in fluid flow involving Brownian motion and thermophoresis is a complex interaction of several
­phenomena35. In Brownian motion, the haphazard movement of mixed particles due to collisions with fluid
molecules contributes to the dispersion of heat-absorbing or heat-emitting particles within the fluid. This dis-
persion affects the local temperature distribution as particles move erratically. Similarly, thermophoresis, driven
by temperature gradients, causes particles to migrate toward regions of higher or lower temperature depending
on their thermal properties, thus influencing the heat transfer process. Together, these mechanisms impact the
effective thermal conductivity and heat distribution in the fluid, making them crucial considerations in vari-
ous ­applications36. Brownian motion and thermophoresis play significant roles in various applications within
fluid ­flow37. In aerosol science and environmental engineering, Brownian motion is crucial for understanding
the dispersion and transport of small particles, such as pollutants or aerosols, in the atmosphere. It influences
particle size distributions and can affect air quality and health outcomes. Thermophoresis, on the other hand,
finds applications in areas like particle separation and manipulation within microfluidic devices. By exploiting
the thermal properties of particles, thermophoresis can be used to sort and control the movement of particles in
microscale systems, facilitating tasks such as DNA sequencing and drug delivery. These phenomena have diverse
applications, from nanotechnology and pharmaceuticals to environmental monitoring and advanced materials
research, ultimately impacting a wide range of industries and scientific d ­ isciplines38. Waqas et al.39 debated on
computationally the impacts of thermophoresis and Brownian motion on rotational fluid flow on a rectangular
plate with permeability effects. Sharma et al.40 inspected water flow conveying nanoparticles on a gyrating disk
with significances of thermophoresis and Brownian motion effects. Sulochana et al.41 studied the Joule heating
impacts on MHD fluid flow on a surface with varying thickness using the influence of Brownian movement and
thermophoresis along with no-slip and slip constraints.
The Maxwell hybrid nanofluid flow containing copper and copper oxide nanoparticles has direct significance
to numerous problems from the engineering fields. In many engineering problems, the Maxwell hybrid nano-
fluids improve the heat transfer efficiency in systems like electronics devices, heat exchangers and automotive
cooling systems. Such nanofluids can also improve the thermal properties of heat transfer fluids in solar col-
lectors, heat absorption and dissipation, managing high temperature in engines. In summary, the analysis of
such hybrid nanofluids provides the solutions to various engineering problems related to energy efficiency, heat
transfer, material science and sustainable technologies.
From the above literature, the authors confirm that a comparison of water as well as kerosene oil-based hybrid
nanofluid flows on a convectively heated sheet with zero mass flux constraints have not been performed yet.
Therefore, the authors have intended to perform a comparative analysis on such a topic. Some external forces
are also taken into consideration so that we can analyze the hybrid nanofluid flows against various emerging
factors while with water and kerosene oil as pure fluids. Thus, the authors have planned the following research
questions, which have to be determined by completing this analysis:

• While using water and kerosene oil as base fluids, which one of the hybrid nanofluids flows, will have higher
velocity, temperature, and concentration profiles?
• What will be the streamlines of behavior for Newtonian and non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluid flows while
using two different base fluids?
• For both magnetized and non-magnetized flows, what will be the streamlines behavior of a hybrid nanofluid
flow while using two different base fluids?

To answer these research questions, the authors have formulated a mathematical model in Section "Model
formulation" with its computational solution in Section "Numerical procedure". Validation of the modeled
problem is given in Section "Validation" with discussion of the main results in Section "Discussion of Results".
Section "Conclusion" is used to conclude the problem.

Model formulation
Take two-dimensional flow of Maxwell hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet. The hybrid nanofluid flow is
composed of two different nanoparticles called copper and copper oxide with pure fluids as water and kerosene
oil. The sheet stretches along x-axis with velocity uw = cx and y-axis as normal to fluid flow. B0 is potential of
magnetic field taken normal to fluid flow as depicted in Fig. 1. It is considered that the surface is convective such
that Tf > Tw > T∞ along with zero mass flux condition (Cw = 0). Here, Tf shows temperature of hot working
fluid which transfers heat with heat transfer coefficient hf , Tw and T∞ are surface as well as ambient temperatures.
Also, Cw and C∞ are surface and ambient concentrations. The impacts of magnetic field, viscous dissipation,
thermophoresis, chemical reaction, Brownian motion are used in order to investigate the hybrid nanofluid flows
profiles. Thus, the leading equations a­ re42–44:
∂u ∂v
+ = 0, (1)
∂x ∂y

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Figure 1.  Graphical view of flow problem.

µhnf ∂ 2 u 2 ∂ 2u 2  σhnf B02

  
∂u ∂u 2∂ u 2∂ u ∂u
v +u = −  u − 2uv + v − v + u , (2)
∂y ∂x ρhnf ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2 ρhnf ∂y

2      
khnf ∂ 2T ρCp np DB ∂T ∂C DT ∂T 2

∂T ∂ T µhnf ∂u
v +u =  + + + , (3)
ρCp hnf ∂y 2
  
∂y ∂x ρCp hnf ∂y ρCp hnf δ ∂y ∂y T∞ ∂y

∂C ∂C δDT ∂ 2 C ∂ 2 T
v +u = DB − Kr(C − C∞ ), (4)
∂y ∂x T∞ ∂y 2 ∂y 2

Constraints at boundaries are defined a­ s45:

 u = uw = cx, v = vw , −khnf ∂T = �Tf − T �hf , DT ∂T + DB ∂C = 0 as y = 0,

 
∂y T∞ ∂y δ ∂y (5)
 
u → 0, C → C∞ , T → T∞ as y → ∞.
The thermophysical relations are defined ­as46:
 µf � �� � � � 
 µhnf = �
 �2.5 � �2.5 , ρhnf = 1 − ϕp2 ρf 1 − ϕp1 + ρp1 ϕp1 + ϕp2 ρp2 , 
1 − ϕp1 1 − ϕp2

 


 


 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 

 

 ρC p hnf
= ρC p f
1 − ϕ p 1 + ρC p ϕp 1 1 − ϕ p 2 + ϕ p 2 ρC p , 


 p1 p2 


 � � 

k 2k 2ϕ k k (6)
� �
k nf p1 + f − p 1 f − p1 k hnf k p + 2kf − 2ϕ p 2 kf − k p 2

 = � �, = 2 � �, 



 kf k + 2k f + ϕ p kf − k knf kp2 + 2kf + ϕp2 kf − kp2




 p 1 1 p 1



 � � � � 

2σ 2 2σ 2ϕ
 

 σnf σ p 1 + f − σ f − σ p 1 ϕ p 1 σhnf σ p 2 + f − p 2 σ f − σ p 2


, �.
 
 = � � = � 
σf σp1 + 2σf + σf − σp1 ϕp1 σ σp2 + 2σf + ϕp2 σf − σp2
 
nf

The thermophysical characteristics of both the base fluids and nanomaterials can be found in Table 1.
Table 1 shows the thermophysical features of the water, kerosene oil,Cu and CuO.

Properties Water Kerosene oil Cu CuO

ρ kg/m3 997.1 783 8933 6500
 

4179 2090 385 540

 
Cp J/kgK
k (W/mK) 0.613 0.15 401 18
σ (S/m) 5.5 × ­10–5 21 × ­10–6 5.96 × ­107 2.7 × ­10–8

Table 1.  Thermophysical features of the water, kerosene oil, Cu and ­CuO46,48.

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Variables used for similarity are:


′ C − C∞ T − T∞ c
(7)

u = f (η)cx, v = −f (η) νf c, φ(η) = , θ (η) = , η=y .
C∞ Tf − T∞ vf

Using these similarity variables, Eq. (1) satisfies and Eqs. (2–5) are:
 
µhnf µf ′′′ σhnf σf  
 f (η) +  M βf (η)f ′′ (η) − f ′ (η) − f ′2 (η)
ρhnf ρf ρhnf ρf (8)
+ f ′′ (η)f (η) + β f 2 (η)f ′′′ (η) − 2f (η)f ′ (η)f ′′ (η) = 0,
 

 
khnf kf ′′ µhnf µf ′′2
     θ (η) +      Pr Ecf (η)
ρCp hnf ρCp f ρCp hnf ρCp f
(9)
Pr  
+ Pr f (η)θ ′ (η) +   
′ ′ ′2
 Nbθ (η)φ (η) + Ntθ (η) = 0,
ρCp hnf
ρCp f

Nt ′′
φ ′′ (η) + Scf (η)φ ′ (η) + θ (η) − Kr Scφ(η) = 0, (10)
Nt

f (0) = S, f ′ (0) = 1, f ′ (∞) = 0, 

 

 
 k
 

hnf ′
θ (0) = Bi(θ(0) − 1), θ(∞) = 0, (11)

 kf 


 
′ ′ 
Nbφ (0) + Ntθ (0) = 0, φ(∞) = 0.
In Eqs. (8)–(11), the dimensionless parameters are defined as:
 � � 
σ f B 2
u 2 µf Cp f νf Kr
0 w
 
M= , Ec = � � � � , β = c, Pr = , Sc = , Kr = ,

 

cρf kf DB c
 

 Cp f Tf − T∞ 

� � � � (12)
ρCp np DT Tf − T∞ ρCp np DB C∞
� � �

 hf νf vw 

Nt , Nb , Bi , S = −√ .
 
 = � � = � � =
νf T∞ kf c cνf
 
 ρCp f ρCp f δνf 

Skin friction, Nusselt and Sherwood numbers are described as:

τwx xqw xqm
Cfx = 2
, Nux =   , Shx = , (13)
ρf uw kf Tf − T∞ DB (Cw − C∞ )

where
  
∂u  ∂T  ∂C 
τw = µhnf
∂y y=0
, q w = −khnf
∂y y=0
, q m = −DB
∂y y=0
. (14)

With use of Eq. (7), Eq. (13) converted to:

µhnf ′′ khnf ′
Re1/2
x Cfx = f (0), Re−1/2
x Nux = − θ (0). (15)
µf kf

Here, the Sherwood number eliminates due to fact that the surface concentration is z­ ero45,47,49.

Numerical procedure
Take
 ′′ ′ ′′′ ′ 
 f (η) = ξ (1), f (η) = ξ (3), f (η) = ξ (2), f (η) = ξ (3),
 
θ(η) = ξ (4), θ ′ (η) = ξ (5), θ ′′ (η) = ξ ′ (5), (16)
 
φ(η) = ξ (6), φ ′ (η) = ξ (7), φ ′′ (η) = ξ ′ (7).
 

then
  
σhnf σf

ρhnf ρf
M(βξ (1)ξ (3) − ξ (2)) − ξ 2 (2) + ξ (1)ξ (3) + (−2βξ (1)ξ (2)ξ (3))
ξ ′ (3) = −    , (17)
µhnf µf 2 (2)
ρ

ρ
+ βξ
hnf f

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 �
µhnf µf Pr
�
Pr Ecξ 2 (3) + Pr ξ (1)ξ (5) + Nbξ (5)ξ (7) + Ntξ 2 (5) 
�

 � � 
 (ρCp )hnf (ρCp )f (ρCp )hnf (ρCp )f 
ξ ′ (5) = − � ,
 khnf kf 

 � 

(ρCp )hnf (ρCp )f
(18)
 
Nt ′
ξ ′ (7) = − Scξ (1)ξ (7) + ξ (5) − Kr Scξ (6) , (19)
Nt

ξa (1) − S, ξ (2) − 1, ξb (2) − 0,

 

 

 k
 

hnf
ξ (5) = Bi(ξ (4) − 1), ξb (4) − 0, (20)

 kf 


 

Nbξ (7) + Ntξ (5) − 0, ξ (6) − 0.

Validation
We validate our results for Pr with unlike values, when ϕp1 = 0, ϕp2 = 0, M = 0, β = 0, Sc = 0, Kr = 0, Nt = 0,
Ec = 0, Nb = 0 and Sc = 0. Additionally, the convective condition is eliminated so the parameter Bi vanished.
Comparing our current findings with the results from the authors referenced in Table 2 shows a strong agreement,
affirming the accuracy of our analysis. This validation is not only reaffirming the correctness of our methodol-
ogy but also founds a strong continuity with recognized knowledge. Our new results and the published results
further strengthen the credibility and reliability of our research outcomes.

Discussion of results
This section explains the impacts of various physical factors on the velocity, temperature and concentration
profiles are determined with the help of Figures. Furthermore, the impacts of embedded factors on skin friction
and local Nusselt number are determined with the help of Tables. The impression of M on ( f ′ (η)) is presented
in Fig. 2. From this Figure, we observed that f ′ (η) reduces via increasing M . Physically, the magnetic factor is
associated with a Lorentz force which always acts against the particles motion. When M raises the Lorentz force
supports and so as the opposing forces that results diminishing the fluid velocity with up-surging force of fric-
tion. This increasing friction force reduces f ′ (η). Here, two types of pure fluids have used in the work so, com-
paring both the base fluids, the kerosene oil-based hybrid nanofluid flow have higher velocity than that of
water-based hybrid nanofluid flow. It depends on many physical properties of the base fluids like density, heat
capacitance, viscosity, and electrical conductivity. The electrical conductivity of the water is higher than that of
the kerosene oil because water has ions like sodium and chloride what makes it higher conductive. On the other
hand, kerosene oil is typically a poor conductor of electricity. Also, the study of fluids over different physical
surfaces also plays an important role. Since, water is more electrically conductive than that of kerosene oil, so
the velocity profile of the water-based hybrid nanofluid flow will smaller that of kerosene oil when studying over
a stretching surface. The reason is that the kerosene oil has less electrically conductive. By this discussion, we
conclude that the kerosene oil-based fluid has higher velocity than that of water-based fluid. Effect of β on f ′ (η)
is exhibited in Fig. 3. The higher β diminishes f ′ (η). Physically, the higher Deborah number (0 < β < 1), the
viscous forces are dominant over an elastics forces and the fluid behave like a Newtonian one. As the viscous
forces are higher for lower Deborah number, the hybrid nanofluids flows velocities reduce. Comparing the two
different base fluids, the Deborah number, in general, has no relation with two considered base fluids. However,
the magnetic field plays an important role as shown in Eq. (8) of proposed model. Hybrid nanofluid in case of
kerosene oil has greater velocity than water-based fluid (hybrid) as discussed in Fig. 2. The impression of S on
f ′ (η) is exhibited in Fig. 4. From this figure it obvious that growth in S reduces f ′ (η). The reason is that the
increasing suction factor reduces width of momentum layer at the boundary which results reduction in f ′ (η).
Additionally, it is found that the suction factor has greater velocity for kerosene oil-based nano-liquid (hybrid)

Grubka and Present

Pr Khan and ­Pop50 Wang51 Gorla and S
­ idawi52 Devi and ­Devi53 ­Bobba54 Gowda et al.55 Dawar et al.45 results
0.01 – – – – 0.0099 0.00978 0.01566480561 0.01566480
0.07 0.0656 0.0656 0.0656 – – 0.06562257644 0.06562257
0.2 0.1691 0.1691 0.1691 – – 0.16908861990 0.16908861
0.7 0.4539 0.4539 0.4539 – – 0.45391742750 0.45391742
0.72 – – – – 0.4631 0.46273 0.46314470980 0.46314470
1.0 – – – – 0.5820 0.58193 0.58197690060 0.58197690
2.0 0.9114 0.9114 0.9114 0.91135 – – 0.91136139280 0.91136139
7.0 1.8954 1.8954 1.8905 – – – 1.89542020000 1.89542020

Table 2.  Comparison of our results with established work for varying values of Pr and keeping other factors as
zeros.

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Figure 2.  Impact of M on f ′ (η).

Figure 3.  Impact of β on f ′ (η).

Figure 4.  Impact of S on f ′ (η).

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in contrast of water-base fluid (hybrid nanofluid). The effects of Ec on thermal distribution (θ(η)) is exposed in
Fig. 5. The higher Ec increases θ (η). This number characterizes the relative importance of heat transmission to
the kinetic energy. The reason is that the higher Ec increases the kinetic energy of the hybrid nanofluid flow
which results higher temperature boundary layer. As a results the temperature distribution augments θ(η). In
comparison to kerosene oil, water has higher than conductivity. So, the temperature of the water-based hybrid
nanofluid flow is obviously higher. Also, specific heat and density of the water and kerosene oil are other factors
which also depends the heat transfer rates of the fluids. But the thermal conductance is the dominant reason for
the present case. The impression of Bi on θ(η) is displayed in Fig. 6. Escalation in Bi is responsible for upsurge
in θ(η). By definition, thermal Biot number is in direct relation with heat transfer coefficient which means that
as we increase Bi , so as coefficient of thermal flow. In general, the fluid which has lower thermal conductivity
will have greater temperature at the sheet’s surface. Since water has lesser thermal conductivity than that of kero-
sene oil, so hybrid nanofluid in case of water has greater temperature than kerosene oil based fluid (hybrid).
Figure 7 depicts impression of Nt on θ (η). It is perceived that the higher Nt increases θ(η). A phenomenon in
which the fluid particles migrate from high temperature region to lower temperature region is called thermo-
phoresis. Thus, the higher temperature boundary layer thickness is perceived and so as temperature distribution.
In comparison to kerosene oil, water has higher conductivity. So, the temperature of the water-based hybrid
nanofluid flow is obviously greater. The impression of Nt is demonstrated in Fig. 8 on φ(η). It perceived that
higher Nt increases φ(η). The greater Nt increases the concentration boundary layer which results higher con-
centration profile. Hybrid nanofluid in case of water has greater concentration than kerosene oil based fluid
(hybrid). The impact of Nb on φ(η) is exhibited in Fig. 9. It is perceived that upsurge in Nb reduces φ(η). Hybrid
nanofluid in case of water has greater concentration than kerosene oil based fluid (hybrid).Figure 10 depicts

Figure 5.  Impact of Ec on θ (η).

Figure 6.  Impact of Bi on θ(η).

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Figure 7.  Impact of Nt on θ(η).

Figure 8.  Impact of Nt on φ(η).

Figure 9.  Impact of Nb on φ(η).

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Figure 10.  Effect of Sc on φ(η).

impression of Sc on φ(η) with a reducing trend in concentration. Physically, the kinematic viscosity increases
and mass diffusivity reduces with the increasing Sc . This means that greater Sc reduces the mass diffusivity which
results reduction in the concentration profile. Comparing water and kerosene oil, water has higher mass diffusiv-
ity and lower kinematic viscosity which means that the water has greater mass diffusion compared to momentum
transmission. On the other hand, kerosene oil has lower mass diffusivity and higher kinematic viscosity which
means that kerosene oil has lower mass diffusion compared to momentum transmission. Combining these effects,
water has smaller Sc in comparison of kerosene oil. Hybrid nanofluid in case of water has lower concentration
than kerosene oil based fluid (hybrid). Figure 11a and b show the streamlines of a water-based and kerosene-
oil-based Newtonian hybrid nanofluids flows over a stretching surface. We know that the viscosity of water is
lower than that of kerosene oil which means that the kerosene oil shows greater resistance to deformation than
that of water. From these two Fig. 11a and b, we see that the streamlines of a kerosene oil-based hybrid nanofluid
flow is more stretched than that of water-based hybrid nanofluid flow. The reason is that the kerosene oil shows
greater resistance to deformation when compared to water. Figure 12a,b portrays the streamlines of fluid flow
on stretching surface. As discussed in Fig. 11a and b that the kerosene oil has greater resistance to deformation
than that of water, same is here. Actually, the value of non-Newtonian factor (Deborah number) is considered
to be constant and equal in both Figures. Figure 13a and b show the streamlines of fluid flow on stretching surface
when the flow is not magnetized. Again we have the same for the two different base fluids. So, the streamlines
of the hybrid nanofluid based on kerosene are much closer than that of water-based nanofluid (hybrid). Fig-
ure 14a and b show the streamlines for both types of non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluids flow over a stretching

Figure 11.  (a) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO /water when β = 0. (b) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO kerosene oil
when β = 0.

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Figure 12.  (a) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO /water when β = 1.0. (b) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO/kerosene oil
when β = 1.0.

Figure 13.  (a) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO /water when M = 0. (b) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO / kerosene oil
when M = 0.

surface when the flow is magnetized (magnetic field is considered). Again we that, the streamlines of the hybrid
nanofluid based on kerosene are much closer than that of water-based nanofluid (hybrid). Additionally, here,
we have considered the impact of magnetic field factor on the streamlines behaviors for the two hybrid nanofluids
flows while considering two different base fluids. When comparing the two different base fluids, velocity is much
higher for hybrid nanofluid based on kerosene oil than water-based nanofluid (hybrid) which means that there
is more resistive force at the sheet’s surface for the flow of a kerosene oil-based hybrid nanofluid flow. Therefore,
we have experienced that the streamlines of a kerosene oil-based hybrid nanofluid flow are closer to each other
1/2
than that of water. Table 3 portrays impression of M and β on Rex Cfx for both types of fluid flow. From this
1/2
Table, we observe that the increasing M and β increases Rex Cfx for both type of fluids. The physical reasons for
each factor have been discussed in the relative Figures. Table 4 depicts the impacts of Ec , Nt and M on Rex Nux
−1/2

for both types of fluid flow. From this Table, we observe that the increasing Ec , Nt and M increases Rex Nux
−1/2

for both type of fluid. The physical reasons for each factor have been discussed in the relative Figures.

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Figure 14.  (a) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO /water when M = 1.0. (b) Streamlines for the Cu–CuO kerosene
oil when M = 1.0..

M β Water Kerosene
0.1 1.445274326 1.277500956
0.2 1.485248773 1.312072588
0.3 1.523913496 1.345536623
0.4 1.561389179 1.377992858
0.1 0.988653324 0.872959859
0.2 1.119700222 0.988930075
0.3 1.271039103 1.123016462
0.4 1.445274326 1.277500956

1/2
Table 3.  Impacts of M and β on Rex Cfx for both water-based and kerosene oil-based hybrid nanofluids
flows.

Ec Nt M Water Kerosene
0.1 0.3779389807 0.4024913888
0.2 0.3982271383 0.4235701619
0.3 0.4185865224 0.4447244990
0.4 0.4390193899 0.4659723174
0.1 0.4591429341 0.4870499559
0.2 0.4593227192 0.4871194630
0.3 0.4594971537 0.4871856880
0.4 0.4596664899 0.4872488488
1.0 0.4589481136 0.4869544393
2.0 0.4590357871 0.4870250457
3.0 0.4591720805 0.4871138057
4.0 0.4592407210 0.4872147572

Table 4.  Impacts of Ec , Nt and M on Rex Nux for both water-based and kerosene oil-based hybrid
−1/2

nanofluids flows.

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Conclusion
Hybrid nanofluid flow on an extending surface that contains copper and copper oxide nanoparticles has been
examined in this article. Kerosene oil and water considered as pure fluids. In this analysis, thermal convection
and zero mass flux constraints are employed with impacts of magnetic, suction, chemical reaction, Brownian
motion, and thermophoresis. This investigation compared the impacts of these variables on the hybrid nanofluid
flow via stretching surface. After the present study is complete, the following observations are made:

• Velocity distribution weakened with upsurge in suction and magnetic variables. Hybrid nanofluid in case of
kerosene oil has greater velocity than water-based fluid (hybrid).
• The higher Deborah number reduces the velocity profile. When compared the two different base fluids, it is
found that the Deborah number, in general, has no relation to the two considered base fluids.
• The temperature profile increased due to the greater thermal Biot number, Eckert number, and thermophore-
sis factors. Hybrid nanofluid in case of water has greater temperature than kerosene oil based fluid (hybrid).
• Brownian motion factor and Schmidt number diminish the larger thermophoresis factor, which raises the
concentration profiles. Hybrid nanofluid in case of water has greater concentration than kerosene oil based
fluid (hybrid).
• Compared to both water-based Newtonian and non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluid flows, the streamlines of
kerosene oil-based flows are more stretched.
• In comparison to the water-based hybrid nanofluid flow, the streamlines of the kerosene-oil-based hybrid
nanofluid flow are closer to one another for both magnetised and non-magnetized flows.

Future recommendations
It is recommended for future work to investigate nanofluids and hybrid nanofluid flows over an extending surface
by considering different base fluids and nanoparticles and compare the obtained results with past results to get
a collective conclusion. For example, the flow of sodium alginate-based hybrid nanofluid containing Cu and
CuO will give different results from this study, and one can conclude the most effective results. With the same
assumptions, one can also consider the thermal convective and zero-mass flux conditions.

Data availability
All data used in this manuscript have been presented within the article.

Received: 10 November 2023; Accepted: 26 January 2024

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Acknowledgements
This study was supported by project no. 129257 implemented with the support provided from the National
Research, Development and Innovation Fund of Hungary, financed under the K 18 funding scheme.

Author contributions
All authors equally contributed.

Funding
Open access funding provided by University of Miskolc.

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to G.B.
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