Numbers, Variables,

Functions & Equations

Math for Electronics 1
Andrew Thangaraj
Electrical Engineering, IIT Madras
Problem Solving
Examples
Mathematical approach to problem solving

1. Identify the numerical quantities in the problem

2. Assign variables to these quantities, if they are unknown

3. Identify basic relationships between the

quantities/variables using physical laws, rules and
assumptions/definitions

4. Starting with the basic relationships, use logic and math

to derive more involved relationships and compute
unknowns, if possible
Various mathematical techniques are involved here
Example: Shopping & Linear Relationships
A shopper needs to buy a total of 5 Kgs of apples and oranges
with a budget of Rs. 1000. Apples cost Rs. 250 per Kg and
oranges cost Rs. 125 per Kg. How many Kgs of apples and how
many Kgs of oranges can the shopper purchase?
Example: Farming & Quadratics
A farmer borrows Rs. 50000 to grow a crop in a square-shaped
field with an electric fence around it. The fencing costs Rs. 100
per feet of the perimeter of the field. The earning is Rs. 50 per
square feet of the area of the field. Find the size of the field
that will result in a final profit (after repayment of borrowed
money) of Rs. 10000.
Example: Banking & Exponentials
On a deposit of Rs. 100000, compare the returns at the end of
1 year under
(a) 10% simple interest per annum and
(b) 1% compound interest compounded quarterly.
What rate of quarterly compound interest is better than 8%
simple interest?
Relationships are expressed as equations
Problem solving: define quantities, denote unknowns as
variables and look for basic relationships between the
quantities
Expressions: using variables and constants, derive
expressions for new quantities
Equations: relationships between quantities resulting from
physical laws and imposed/assumed conditions

Examples: V = IR, Distance = Speed × Time etc.

More complex problems result in more involved equations

Finding and solving equations: most useful and

important of all math techniques!
Constants, Variables and Algebra

Algebra: Manipulating expressions involving numbers and

variables (denoting unknowns) under operations such as
addition/subtraction and multiplication/division

(1 + 2x + 3y)(x − y) = x + 2x2 + 3xy − y − 2xy − 3y 2

= 2x2 + xy − 3y 2 + x − y

1 1 2
− =
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

(1 − x)(1 + x + ⋯ + xn−1 ) = (1 − xn )
Visualising Expressions
and Equations
Where is the treasure exactly?
y

200m

500m
x
Cartesian coordinate system
y
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1

origin
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/rdglesuejh?embed
x

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Showing relationships/equations on graph
y
6 Example: y = 2x
5

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1

Another −2

example −3

−4
Relationships and
−5
equations are visualised
−6
as lines and curves on
x − y plane
Linear relationships
y = mx
y

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/zw2o7hco m: slope
mi?embed x

Slope: parameter
High slope - line climbs steeply
Low slope - line climbs slowly
Example: Distance = Speed × Time
d

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/hvacrzrj2j?
d = vt
embed t v : slope

At a constant speed v metres/sec, an object travels a

distance d = vt metres in a time of t sec
Example: Voltage = Resistance × Current
V

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/hvacrzrj2j?
V = IR
embed I R: slope

Through a resistance of R Ohm, voltage drop is

V = IR volts when current is I amperes
Equation of a straight line
y = mx + b

m: slope
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/om6xxokyvn?
embed b: y intercept

Slope: changes "angle" of the line

Intercept: raises or lowers the line
Quadratics
y = ax2 + bx + c

Parabolic shape

Examples

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/d
MOSFET current
kwrlpe2ne?embed Area computations
Distance under
constant acceleration

a, b, c: parameters
Exponentials
y = P (1 + r)x

Examples
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/k Diode current
jhhesi1aw?embed
Compound interest
Iterative computations

P , r: parameters
Functions of one real
variable
What is a function of one real variable?

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/zrxci9p9bb?embed

Function of x: For every x, specify a unique function value.

Typically, an expression involving x and some parameters
Specifying the function value

Through an expression involving x and parameters

Constant function
Same value c for every x
Linear function
Value mx for x
Quadratic: ax2 + bx + c
Exponential: P (1 + r)x
Above expressions can be combined to create
newer functions!
Functions can be specified directly on the graph
without any expression!
Functions from graphs

relationship, but
function not function

Science experiments
Relationships are plotted as graphs
and expressions are derived to fit
the graph!
Notation and definition

Function f

Takes a real number x to a unique real number f (x)

Real numbers: denoted R

Function f taking a real number to a real number is
denoted f : R → R

Typically, functions are called f , g, h, …

Examples: f (x) = c, f (x) = 3x, f (x) = 2x2 − 30x + 50,

f (x) = 1.5x etc
Operations with functions

Addition Subtraction

f (x) + g(x), f (x) − g(x)

Examples: 1 + x, 2 + 3x + x2 , x10 + 10x , …

Multiplication Division

f (x)
f (x)g(x),
g(x)
3+x
Examples: 3x, x2 , x10 10x , 2
,…
2 + 3x + 4x
 Problems and
Graphical solutions
Problems: Graphical solution
1. A shopper needs to buy a total of 5 Kgs of apples and oranges with a
budget of Rs. 1000. Apples cost Rs. 250 per Kg and oranges cost Rs. 125 per
Kg. How many Kgs of apples and how many Kgs of oranges can the shopper
purchase?

2. A farmer borrows Rs. 50000 to grow a crop in a square-shaped field with an

electric fence around it. The fencing costs Rs. 100 per feet of the perimeter of
the field. The earning is Rs. 50 per square feet of the area of the field. Find the
size of the field that will result in a final profit (after repayment of borrowed
money) of Rs. 10000.

3. On a deposit of Rs. 100000, compare the returns at the end of 1 year under
(a) 10% simple interest per annum and
(b) 1% compound interest compounded quarterly.
What rate of quarterly compound interest is better than 8% simple interest?

Graphical solutions do not always provide precise answers.

Need analytical methods.
Straight Lines
Two points on a straight line and slope

y = mx + b

(x2 , y2 ) (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )

(x1 , y1 ) y2 − y1 y1 = mx1 + b
x2 − x1
(0, b) y2 = mx2 + b

y2 − y1 = m(x2 − x1 )
y2 − y1
=m
x2 − x1
Line through two points

(x2 , y2 )
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
(x1 , y1 ) y2 − y1
(0, b) Slope m =
x2 − x1

(x1 , y1 ) and (0, b)

b − y1 b − y1
m= =
0 − x1 −x1
y2 − y1 y2 − y1
y=( )x − ( ) x1 + y1 y2 − y1
=m=
b − y1
x2 − x1 x2 − x1 x2 − x1 −x1
y2 − y1
y − y1
=
y2 − y1 b = −( ) x1 + y1
x − x1 x2 − x1 x2 − x1
Examples
Find the equation of a line through each pair of points.
1. (3, 4) and (5, 10)
2. (−5, 0) and (0, 5)
3. (−3, −4) and (1, 1)
Intersection of two straight lines

y = m2 x + b2 y = m1 x + b1

Logic: Intersection point is

(x0 , y0 ) on both lines
y0 = m1 x0 + b1
y0 = m2 x0 + b2

m1 x0 + b1 = m2 x0 + b2
b2 − b1 m1 b2 − m2 b1
y0 = m1 ( ) + b1 =
b2 − b1
x0 =
m1 − m2 m1 − m2 m1 − m2
Examples
Find the intersection of each pair of lines.
1. y = 3x + 4 and y = 4x + 5
2. 2x + 3y = 4 and 3x + 4y = 5
3. x − 3y = 4 and 2x − 6y = 6
4. 3x − y = 4 and 6x − 2y = 8
Example: Shopping & Linear Relationships
A shopper needs to buy a total of 5 Kgs of apples and oranges
with a budget of Rs. 1000. Apples cost Rs. 250 per Kg and
oranges cost Rs. 125 per Kg. How many Kgs of apples and how
many Kgs of oranges can the shopper purchase?
Quadratics
Techniques involving functions
Given function f : R → R
Eg: f (x) = 3x − 8, f (x) = x2 − 3x + 6, f (x) = 2.5x etc

Given x, find the value of f (x)

Use calculator, if needed
Plot f (x) versus x
Can be done exactly using graphing software
General trend - can be done manually
Given y0 , find x0 such that f (x0 ) = y0
This is an inverse problem
Important in many applications
Affine functions (straight lines)

f (x) = mx + b
b = 0: linear function
 0: affine function
b=

Given x, find the value of f (x)

Easy
Plot f (x) versus x
Slope: m, Intercept: b
Find two points on line, join them and extend
Given y0 , find x0 such that f (x0 ) = y0
x0 = (y0 − b)/m
Quadratics

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
a = 0: affine function
We will assume a =
0

Given x, find the value of f (x)

Easy
Plot f (x) versus x
Can use graphing software to get parabolic plot
Manually??
Given y0 , find x0 such that f (x0 ) = y0
??
Plotting quadratics: Easy case
f (x) = ax2
b = 0, c = 0: only square term left
Assume a > 0, a is positive
Plot f (x) versus x
Parabola
Looking upwards
Non-negative
Touching (0, 0)
Larger a ax2 (x, ax2 )
Steep rise
x
Smaller a
Shallow rise
Plotting quadratics: Easy case
f (x) = ax2
b = 0, c = 0: only square term left
Assume a < 0, a is negative

Plot f (x) versus x x

Parabola ax2 (x, ax2 )

Looking downwards
Non-positive
Touching (0, 0)
Inverting quadratics: Easy case

f (x) = ax2
b = 0, c = 0: only square term left
Plot is for a > 0
Given y0 , find x0 such that
f (x0 ) = y0
If y0 is not the same sign
as a, no such x0
If y0 is same sign as a, two y0
possibilities
x0 = y0 /a − y0 /a y0 /a
x0 = − y0 /a
Quadratics: Easy case shifted along x

f (x) = a(x − x1 )2
Assume a > 0, a is positive

Plot f (x) versus x

Parabola
Looking upwards
Non-negative
Touching (x1 , 0)
Larger a
Steep rise x1
Smaller a
Shallow rise
Quadratics: Easy case shifted along x

f (x) = a(x − x1 )2

Given y0 , find x0 such that f (x0 ) = y0

If y0 is not the same sign as a, no Steps
such x0 y0 = a(x0 − x1 )2
If y0 is the same sign as a, two (x0 − x1 )2 = y0 /a
possibilities
x0 = x1 + y0 /a
x0 = x1 − y0 /a
Quadratics: Easy case, shifted along x, y

f (x) = a(x − x1 )2 + y1
Assume a > 0, a is positive

Plot f (x) versus x

Parabola
Looking upwards
f (x) ≥ y1
Touching (x1 , y1 )
y1
Larger a (x1 , y1 )
Steep rise x1
Smaller a
Shallow rise
Quadratics: Easy case shifted along x, y

f (x) = a(x − x1 )2 + y1
Assume a > 0, a is positive

Given y0 , find x0 such that f (x0 ) = y0

If y0 < y1 , no such x0 Steps
y0 = a(x0 − x1 )2 + y1
If y0 > y1 , two possibilities
(x0 − x1 )2 = (y0 − y1 )/a
x0 = x1 + (y0 − y1 )/a
x0 = x1 − (y0 − y1 )/a
Quadratics: Easy case shifted along x, y

f (x) = a(x − x1 )2 + y1
Assume a < 0, a is negative

Given y0 , find x0 such that f (x0 ) = y0

If y0 > y1 , no such x0 Steps
y0 = a(x0 − x1 )2 + y1
If y0 < y1 , two possibilities
(x0 − x1 )2 = (y0 − y1 )/a
x0 = x1 + (y0 − y1 )/a
x0 = x1 − (y0 − y1 )/a
Quadratics: General case

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

ax2 + bx + c = a (x2 + x) + c
b
a
2
b2
= a (x + ) + c −
b
2a 4a

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )2 + y1

−b b2
where x1 = , y1 = c −
2a 4a

General case: same as easy case shifted along x, y

Examples

Plot the following.

1. 2x2 + 5x + 7
2. 2x2 − 5x + 7
3. −2x2 + 5x + 7
4. 2x2 − 5x − 7
Quadratics: General case
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )2 + y1
−b b2
where a > 0, x1 = , y1 = c −
2a 4a

Given y0 , find x0 s.t. f (x0 ) = y0 Steps

If y0 < y1 , no such x0 (y0 − y1 )/a = (y0 − (c −
If y0 > y1 , two possibilities b2
))/a − 4ac + b2 )/(4a2 )
=4a(4ay0
x0 = x1 + (y0 − y1 )/a
x0 = x1 − (y0 − y1 )/a = (b2 − 4a(c − y0 ))/(2a)2

−b b2 − 4a(c − y0 )
x0 = ±
2a 2a

y0 = 0: quadratic roots formula!

Example: Farming & Quadratics
A farmer borrows Rs. 50000 to grow a crop in a square-shaped
field with an electric fence around it. The fencing costs Rs. 100
per feet of the perimeter of the field. The earning is Rs. 50 per
square feet of the area of the field. Find the size of the field
that will result in a final profit (after repayment of borrowed
money) of Rs. 10000.
Roots of an equation

Function f : R → R
Roots of f : values of x such that f (x) = 0

Recall: Given y0 , our problem was to find x0 such that

f (x0 ) = y0 . How is this related to roots?
Define a function g(x) = f (x) − y0
x0 s.t. f (x0 ) = y0 are roots of g(x) because g(x0 ) = 0

f (x) g(x)=f (x)−y0

Roots: where graph
y0 cuts the x axis

x0 x0
Roots of a quadratic
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )2 + y1
−b 4ac − b2
where x1 = , y1 =
2a 4a

a > 0, upwards a < 0, downwards

y1 > 0 y1 < 0 y1 > 0 y1 < 0

no roots 2 roots no roots

−b b2 − 4ac y1 = 0
Roots: ± if b2 − 4ac ≥ 0 −b
2a 2a 1 root:
2a