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Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete, also called ferroconcrete, is a
Reinforced concrete
composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile
strength and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of
reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The
reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel bars
(rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete
before the concrete sets. However, post-tensioning is also
employed as a technique to reinforce the concrete. In terms of
volume used annually, it is one of the most common
engineering materials.[1][2] In corrosion engineering terms,
when designed correctly, the alkalinity of the concrete protects
the steel rebar from corrosion.[3]
A heavy, reinforced concrete
column, seen before and after the
Description concrete has been cast in place
Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile around its rebar frame
stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause Material type Composite
unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern material
reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials
Mechanical properties
made of steel, polymers or alternate composite material in
conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be Tensile Stronger than
strength (σt) concrete
permanently stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement
in tension), so as to improve the behavior of the final structure
under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as
pre-tensioning and post-tensioning.

For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following
properties at least:

High relative strength

High toleration of tensile strain
Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar factors
Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses (such as expansion or contraction) in
response to changing temperatures.
Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for
example.

History
François Coignet used iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building
structures.[4] In 1853, Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house
at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris.[4] Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete
suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in
monolithic construction from overturning.[5] The Pippen building in Brooklyn stands as a

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testament to his technique. In 1854, English builder William B.

Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-
story house he was constructing. His positioning of the
reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he
had knowledge of tensile stresses.[6][7][8]

Joseph Monier, a 19th-century French gardener, was a pioneer

in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced
concrete, having been dissatisfied with the existing materials
available for making durable flowerpots.[9] He was granted a
patent for reinforcing concrete flowerpots by means of mixing a The novel shape of the Philips
wire mesh and a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted Pavilion built in Brussels for Expo 58
another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing was achieved using reinforced
concrete
concrete columns and girders, using iron rods placed in a grid
pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew that reinforcing
concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is not clear whether he even knew how much the
tensile strength of concrete was improved by the reinforcing.[10]

Before the 1870s, the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire, and
having been reintroduced in the early 19th century, was not yet a proven scientific technology.
Thaddeus Hyatt, published a report entitled An Account of Some Experiments with Portland-
Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of
Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking
Surfaces, in which he reported his experiments on the behavior of reinforced concrete. His work
played a major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science.
Without Hyatt's work, more dangerous trial and error methods might have been depended on for
the advancement in the technology.[5][11]

Ernest L. Ransome, an English-born engineer, was an early innovator of reinforced concrete

techniques at the end of the 19th century. Using the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed
during the previous 50 years, Ransome improved nearly all the styles and techniques of the earlier
inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar,
thereby improving its bond with the concrete.[12] Gaining increasing fame from his concrete
constructed buildings, Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in
North America.[13] One of his bridges still stands on Shelter Island in New Yorks East End, One of
the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States was a private home designed by
William Ward, completed in 1876. The home was particularly designed to be fireproof.

G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete construction.
In 1879, Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and, in 1884, his firm, Wayss &
Freytag, made the first commercial use of reinforced concrete. Up until the 1890s, Wayss and his
firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing, established it as a
well-developed scientific technology.[10]

One of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-story Ingalls Building in
Cincinnati, constructed in 1904.[8]

The first reinforced concrete building in Southern California was the Laughlin Annex in downtown
Los Angeles, constructed in 1905.[14][15] In 1906, 16 building permits were reportedly issued for
reinforced concrete buildings in the City of Los Angeles, including the Temple Auditorium and 8-

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story Hayward Hotel.[16][17]

In 1906, a partial collapse of the Bixby Hotel in Long Beach killed 10 workers during construction
when shoring was removed prematurely. That event spurred a scrutiny of concrete erection
practices and building inspections. The structure was constructed of reinforced concrete frames
with hollow clay tile ribbed flooring and hollow clay tile infill walls. That practice was strongly
questioned by experts and recommendations for "pure" concrete construction were made, using
reinforced concrete for the floors and walls as well as the frames.[18]

In April 1904, Julia Morgan, an American architect and engineer, who pioneered the aesthetic use
of reinforced concrete, completed her first reinforced concrete structure, El Campanil, a 72-foot
(22 m) bell tower at Mills College,[19] which is located across the bay from San Francisco. Two
years later, El Campanil survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake without any damage,[20]
which helped build her reputation and launch her prolific career.[21] The 1906 earthquake also
changed the public's initial resistance to reinforced concrete as a building material, which had been
criticized for its perceived dullness. In 1908, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors changed the
city's building codes to allow wider use of reinforced concrete.[22]

In 1906, the National Association of Cement Users (NACU) published Standard No. 1[23] and, in
1910, the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete.[24]

Use in construction
Many different types of structures and
components of structures can be built using
reinforced concrete elements including slabs,
walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and
more.

Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast

or cast-in-place concrete.

Designing and implementing the most efficient

floor system is key to creating optimal building
structures. Small changes in the design of a
floor system can have significant impact on
material costs, construction schedule, ultimate Rebars of Sagrada Família's roof in construction
(2009)
strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and
end use of a building.

Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be
possible.

Reinforced concrete elements

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When reinforced concrete elements are used in construction,

these reinforced concrete elements exhibit basic behavior when
subjected to external loads. Reinforced concrete elements may
be subject to tension, compression, bending, shear, and/or
torsion.[26]

Behavior

Materials
Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine
(generally sand and/or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio
of binder material (usually Portland cement) and water. When de Janeiro, Brazil. It is made of
reinforced concrete clad in a mosaic
cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to
of thousands of triangular soapstone
form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and
tiles.[25]
locking the aggregate into a rigid shape.[27][28] The aggregates
used for making concrete should be free from harmful
substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite, etc. Typical concrete mixes have high
resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension
(e.g., due to bending) will break the microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation
of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent
the development of tension.

If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite
material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct
tensile actions. A composite section where the concrete resists compression and reinforcement
"rebar" resists tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.

Key characteristics
Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties:

1. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating large
internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction.
2. When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details of the
steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually
steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the
concrete and steel.
3. The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and the
portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement paste causes a passivating
film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would
be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste is exposed to the air and meteoric
water reacts with the atmospheric CO2, portlandite and the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) of
the hardened cement paste become progressively carbonated and the high pH gradually
decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water in equilibrium with calcite (calcium
carbonate) and the steel is no longer passivated.
As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11
but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical
conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride
ingress are amongst the chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete.

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The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite
small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are
normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes
have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity.

Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along the cross-section
of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous.[29]

Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete

The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or
deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the
two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the
concrete and steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to
change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by
means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity
of the steel-concrete interface. The reasons that the two different material components concrete
and steel can work together are as follows: (1) Reinforcement can be well bonded to the concrete,
thus they can jointly resist external loads and deform. (2) The thermal expansion coefficients of
concrete and steel are so close (1.0 × 10−5 to 1.5 × 10−5 for concrete and 1.2 × 10−5 for steel) that the
thermal stress-induced damage to the bond between the two components can be prevented. (3)
Concrete can protect the embedded steel from corrosion and high-temperature induced softening.

Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications

Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension,
current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than
bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient
extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield
stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual
available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as
cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length [30]
mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to
maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone.

Anticorrosion measures
In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other
structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant
reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip
galvanized or stainless steel rebar. Good design and a well-chosen concrete mix will provide
additional protection for many applications.

Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack
of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can
be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish.
Epoxy-coated rebar can easily be identified by the light green color of its epoxy coating. Hot dip
galvanized rebar may be bright or dull gray depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar
exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing

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bar. Reference ASTM standard specifications A1035/A1035M Standard Specification for

Deformed and Plain Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A767
Standard Specification for Hot Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for
Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain
Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.

Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars is coating them with zinc phosphate.[31] Zinc phosphate
slowly reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and
forms a stable hydroxyapatite layer.

Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint,
plastic foams, films and aluminum foil, felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of bentonite
clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds.

Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO2)2], can also be added to the water mix before
pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO2)2] with respect to cement weight is needed to
prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the soluble and
mobile ferrous ions (Fe2+) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to
precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3). This causes the passivation of steel at the
anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate, which is a less
powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron.

Reinforcement and terminology of beams

A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small
curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the
concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face
(compressive face) it experiences compressive stress.

A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete

element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the
reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the
tension.
Two intersecting beams integral to
A doubly reinforced beam is the section in which besides the parking garage slab that will contain
both reinforcing steel and the wiring,
tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced
junction boxes and other electrical
near the compressive face to help the concrete resist components necessary to install the
compression and take stresses. The latter reinforcement is overhead lighting for the garage
called compression steel. When the compression zone of a level beneath it.
concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment
(positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if
the architect limits the dimensions of the section.

An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is
smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-
reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending
moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As
the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile
manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the
yield stress of the steel governs the design.

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An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension

capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined
compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel
(over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced
concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone
concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does
not provide any warning before failure as the failure is
A short video of the last beam being
instantaneous. placed on a raised road, part of a
new road near Cardiff Bay, Wales
A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the
compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same
imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same
time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is
sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little
warning of distress in tension failure.[32]

Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-

reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.

The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen
shows lower strength.

The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-
safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress
design.

The ultimate limit state is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated
under factored loads and factored resistances.

Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or
recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD
methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can be
carried out by using linear or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes
normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see the
examples of a non-linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references:[33][34]

Prestressed concrete
Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete
beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile
forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured around it. Once the
concrete has hardened, the tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built-in
compressive force on the concrete. When loads are applied, the reinforcing steel takes on more
stress and the compressive force in the concrete is reduced, but does not become a tensile force.
Since the concrete is always under compression, it is less subject to cracking and failure.[35]

Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete

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Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to

mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion
and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed
reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products
(rust) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding Concrete spalling from the
the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability ceiling of an office unit
problems are discussed below. (interior) in Singapore,
possibly due to rebar
corrosion.
Mechanical failure
Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent;
however, the size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate
reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow
moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state
design. Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too
great a distance. The concrete cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as
early thermal shrinkage while it cures.

Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing the concrete, which occurs when
compressive stresses exceed its strength, by yielding or failure of the rebar when bending or shear
stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete and the
rebar.[36]

Carbonation
Carbonation, or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between
carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated
calcium silicate in the concrete.

When a concrete structure is designed, it is usual to specify the

concrete cover for the rebar (the depth of the rebar within the
object). The minimum concrete cover is normally regulated by
design or building codes. If the reinforcement is too close to the
surface, early failure due to corrosion may occur. The concrete
Concrete wall cracking as steel
reinforcing corrodes and swells. cover depth can be measured with a cover meter. However,
Rust has a lower density than metal, carbonated concrete incurs a durability problem only when
so it expands as it forms, cracking there is also sufficient moisture and oxygen to cause
the decorative cladding off the wall electropotential corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
as well as damaging the structural
concrete. The breakage of material
One method of testing a structure for carbonatation is to drill a
from a surface is called spalling.
fresh hole in the surface and then treat the cut surface with
phenolphthalein indicator solution. This solution turns pink
when in contact with alkaline concrete, making it possible to
see the depth of carbonation. Using an existing hole does not suffice because the exposed surface
will already be carbonated.

Chlorides

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Chlorides can promote the corrosion of embedded rebar if

present in sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions
induce both localized corrosion (pitting corrosion) and
generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. For this reason,
one should only use fresh raw water or potable water for
mixing concrete, ensure that the coarse and fine aggregates do
not contain chlorides, rather than admixtures which might
contain chlorides.

It was once common for

calcium chloride to be used
as an admixture to promote
rapid set-up of the
concrete. It was also
mistakenly believed that it
Detailed view of spalling probably
would prevent freezing.
caused by a too thin layer of
concrete between the steel and the
However, this practice fell
surface, accompanied by corrosion into disfavor once the Rebar for foundations and walls of a
from external exposure. deleterious effects of sewage pump station.
chlorides became known. It
should be avoided
whenever possible.

The use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to lower the

freezing point of water, is probably one of the primary causes of
premature failure of reinforced or prestressed concrete bridge
decks, roadways, and parking garages. The use of epoxy-coated
reinforcing bars and the application of cathodic protection has
mitigated this problem to some extent. Also FRP (fiber-
reinforced polymer) rebars are known to be less susceptible to The Paulins Kill Viaduct,
chlorides. Properly designed concrete mixtures that have been Hainesburg, New Jersey, is 115 feet
allowed to cure properly are effectively impervious to the (35 m) tall and 1,100 feet (335 m)
effects of de-icers. long, and was heralded as the
largest reinforced concrete structure
Another important source of chloride ions is sea water. Sea in the world when it was completed
in 1910 as part of the Lackawanna
water contains by weight approximately 3.5% salts. These salts
Cut-Off rail line project. The
include sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, Lackawanna Railroad was a pioneer
and bicarbonates. In water these salts dissociate in free ions in the use of reinforced concrete.
(Na+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO2− −
4 , HCO3 ) and migrate with the water into
the capillaries of the concrete. Chloride ions, which make up
about 50% of these ions, are particularly aggressive as a cause of corrosion of carbon steel
reinforcement bars.

In the 1960s and 1970s it was also relatively common for magnesite, a chloride rich carbonate
mineral, to be used as a floor-topping material. This was done principally as a levelling and sound
attenuating layer. However it is now known that when these materials come into contact with
moisture they produce a weak solution of hydrochloric acid due to the presence of chlorides in the

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magnesite. Over a period of time (typically decades), the solution causes corrosion of the
embedded rebars. This was most commonly found in wet areas or areas repeatedly exposed to
moisture.

Alkali silica reaction

This a reaction of amorphous silica (chalcedony, chert, siliceous limestone) sometimes present in
the aggregates with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) from the cement pore solution. Poorly crystallized
silica (SiO2) dissolves and dissociates at high pH (12.5 - 13.5) in alkaline water. The soluble
dissociated silicic acid reacts in the porewater with the calcium hydroxide (portlandite) present in
the cement paste to form an expansive calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). The alkali–silica reaction
(ASR) causes localised swelling responsible for tensile stress and cracking. The conditions required
for alkali silica reaction are threefold: (1) aggregate containing an alkali-reactive constituent
(amorphous silica), (2) sufficient availability of hydroxyl ions (OH−), and (3) sufficient moisture,
above 75% relative humidity (RH) within the concrete.[37][38] This phenomenon is sometimes
popularly referred to as "concrete cancer". This reaction occurs independently of the presence of
rebars; massive concrete structures such as dams can be affected.

Conversion of high alumina cement

Resistant to weak acids and especially sulfates, this cement cures quickly and has very high
durability and strength. It was frequently used after World War II to make precast concrete
objects. However, it can lose strength with heat or time (conversion), especially when not properly
cured. After the collapse of three roofs made of prestressed concrete beams using high alumina
cement, this cement was banned in the UK in 1976. Subsequent inquiries into the matter showed
that the beams were improperly manufactured, but the ban remained.[39]

Sulfates
Sulfates (SO4) in the soil or in groundwater, in sufficient concentration, can react with the Portland
cement in concrete causing the formation of expansive products, e.g., ettringite or thaumasite,
which can lead to early failure of the structure. The most typical attack of this type is on concrete
slabs and foundation walls at grades where the sulfate ion, via alternate wetting and drying, can
increase in concentration. As the concentration increases, the attack on the Portland cement can
begin. For buried structures such as pipe, this type of attack is much rarer, especially in the eastern
United States. The sulfate ion concentration increases much slower in the soil mass and is
especially dependent upon the initial amount of sulfates in the native soil. A chemical analysis of
soil borings to check for the presence of sulfates should be undertaken during the design phase of
any project involving concrete in contact with the native soil. If the concentrations are found to be
aggressive, various protective coatings can be applied. Also, in the US ASTM C150 Type 5 Portland
cement can be used in the mix. This type of cement is designed to be particularly resistant to a
sulfate attack.

Steel plate construction

In steel plate construction, stringers join parallel steel plates. The plate assemblies are fabricated
off site, and welded together on-site to form steel walls connected by stringers. The walls become
the form into which concrete is poured. Steel plate construction speeds reinforced concrete

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construction by cutting out the time-consuming on-site manual steps of tying rebar and building
forms. The method results in excellent strength because the steel is on the outside, where tensile
forces are often greatest.

Fiber-reinforced concrete
Fiber reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-
reinforced normal concrete is mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can also be
considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations, etc.), either alone or
with hand-tied rebars.

Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass, plastic fibers) or cellulose polymer
fiber is less expensive than hand-tied rebar. The shape, dimension, and length of the fiber are
important. A thin and short fiber, for example short, hair-shaped glass fiber, is only effective
during the first hours after pouring the concrete (its function is to reduce cracking while the
concrete is stiffening), but it will not increase the concrete tensile strength. A normal-size fiber for
European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length—steel or plastic) will increase the concrete's
tensile strength. Fiber reinforcement is most often used to supplement or partially replace primary
rebar, and in some cases it can be designed to fully replace rebar.[40]

Steel is the strongest commonly available fiber, and comes in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in
Europe) and shapes (end-hooks). Steel fibers can only be used on surfaces that can tolerate or
avoid corrosion and rust stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced with other materials.

Glass fiber is inexpensive and corrosion-proof, but not as ductile as steel. Recently, spun basalt
fiber, long available in Eastern Europe, has become available in the U.S. and Western Europe.
Basalt fiber is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically has not resisted the alkaline
environment of Portland cement well enough to be used as direct reinforcement. New materials
use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the cement.

The premium fibers are graphite-reinforced plastic fibers, which are nearly as strong as steel,
lighter in weight, and corrosion-proof. Some experiments have had promising early results with
carbon nanotubes, but the material is still far too expensive for any building.

Non-steel reinforcement
There is considerable overlap between the subjects of non-steel reinforcement and fiber-
reinforcement of concrete. The introduction of non-steel reinforcement of concrete is relatively
recent; it takes two major forms: non-metallic rebar rods, and non-steel (usually also non-metallic)
fibers incorporated into the cement matrix. For example, there is increasing interest in glass fiber
reinforced concrete (GFRC) and in various applications of polymer fibers incorporated into
concrete. Although currently there is not much suggestion that such materials will replace metal
rebar, some of them have major advantages in specific applications, and there also are new
applications in which metal rebar simply is not an option. However, the design and application of
non-steel reinforcing is fraught with challenges. For one thing, concrete is a highly alkaline
environment, in which many materials, including most kinds of glass, have a poor service life. Also,
the behavior of such reinforcing materials differs from the behavior of metals, for instance in terms
of shear strength, creep and elasticity.[41][42]

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Fiber-reinforced plastic/polymer (FRP) and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) consist of fibers of

polymer, glass, carbon, aramid or other polymers or high-strength fibers set in a resin matrix to
form a rebar rod, or grid, or fiber. These rebars are installed in much the same manner as steel
rebars. The cost is higher but, suitably applied, the structures have advantages, in particular a
dramatic reduction in problems related to corrosion, either by intrinsic concrete alkalinity or by
external corrosive fluids that might penetrate the concrete. These structures can be significantly
lighter and usually have a longer service life. The cost of these materials has dropped dramatically
since their widespread adoption in the aerospace industry and by the military.

In particular, FRP rods are useful for structures where the presence of steel would not be
acceptable. For example, MRI machines have huge magnets, and accordingly require non-
magnetic buildings. Again, toll booths that read radio tags need reinforced concrete that is
transparent to radio waves. Also, where the design life of the concrete structure is more important
than its initial costs, non-steel reinforcing often has its advantages where corrosion of reinforcing
steel is a major cause of failure. In such situations corrosion-proof reinforcing can extend a
structure's life substantially, for example in the intertidal zone. FRP rods may also be useful in
situations where it is likely that the concrete structure may be compromised in future years, for
example the edges of balconies when balustrades are replaced, and bathroom floors in multi-story
construction where the service life of the floor structure is likely to be many times the service life of
the waterproofing building membrane.

Plastic reinforcement often is stronger, or at least has a better strength to weight ratio than
reinforcing steels. Also, because it resists corrosion, it does not need a protective concrete cover as
thick as steel reinforcement does (typically 30 to 50 mm or more). FRP-reinforced structures
therefore can be lighter and last longer. Accordingly, for some applications the whole-life cost will
be price-competitive with steel-reinforced concrete.

The material properties of FRP or GRP bars differ markedly from steel, so there are differences in
the design considerations. FRP or GRP bars have relatively higher tensile strength but lower
stiffness, so that deflections are likely to be higher than for equivalent steel-reinforced units.
Structures with internal FRP reinforcement typically have an elastic deformability comparable to
the plastic deformability (ductility) of steel reinforced structures. Failure in either case is more
likely to occur by compression of the concrete than by rupture of the reinforcement. Deflection is
always a major design consideration for reinforced concrete. Deflection limits are set to ensure that
crack widths in steel-reinforced concrete are controlled to prevent water, air or other aggressive
substances reaching the steel and causing corrosion. For FRP-reinforced concrete, aesthetics and
possibly water-tightness will be the limiting criteria for crack width control. FRP rods also have
relatively lower compressive strengths than steel rebar, and accordingly require different design
approaches for reinforced concrete columns.

One drawback to the use of FRP reinforcement is their limited fire resistance. Where fire safety is a
consideration, structures employing FRP have to maintain their strength and the anchoring of the
forces at temperatures to be expected in the event of fire. For purposes of fireproofing, an adequate
thickness of cement concrete cover or protective cladding is necessary. The addition of 1 kg/m3 of
polypropylene fibers to concrete has been shown to reduce spalling during a simulated fire.[43]
(The improvement is thought to be due to the formation of pathways out of the bulk of the
concrete, allowing steam pressure to dissipate.[43])

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Another problem is the effectiveness of shear reinforcement. FRP rebar stirrups formed by
bending before hardening generally perform relatively poorly in comparison to steel stirrups or to
structures with straight fibers. When strained, the zone between the straight and curved regions
are subject to strong bending, shear, and longitudinal stresses. Special design techniques are
necessary to deal with such problems.

There is growing interest in applying external reinforcement to existing structures using advanced
materials such as composite (fiberglass, basalt, carbon) rebar, which can impart exceptional
strength. Worldwide, there are a number of brands of composite rebar recognized by different
countries, such as Aslan, DACOT, V-rod, and ComBar. The number of projects using composite
rebar increases day by day around the world, in countries ranging from USA, Russia, and South
Korea to Germany.

See also
Anchorage in reinforced concrete
Concrete cover
Concrete slab
Corrosion engineering
Cover meter
Falsework
Ferrocement
Formwork
Henri de Miffonis
Interfacial transition zone
Precast concrete
Reinforced concrete structures durability
Reinforced solid
Structural robustness
Types of concrete

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Further reading
Threlfall A., et al. Reynolds's Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook – 11th ed. ISBN 978-
0-419-25830-8.
Newby F., Early Reinforced Concrete, Ashgate Variorum, 2001, ISBN 978-0-86078-760-0.
Kim, S., Surek, J and J. Baker-Jarvis. "Electromagnetic Metrology on Concrete and Corrosion."
(https://web.archive.org/web/20180603010800/https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/116/3/V11
6.N03.A02.pdf) Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Vol.
116, No. 3 (May–June 2011): 655–669.
Daniel R., Formwork UK "Concrete frame structures." (https://web.archive.org/web/201611040
12738/http://formworkuk.co.uk/2016/concrete-frame-structures/).
Materials principles and practice (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19553645). Charles Newey,
Graham Weaver, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, England: Materials
Dept., Open University. 1990. ISBN 0-408-02730-4. OCLC 19553645 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/19553645).
Structural materials (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20693897). George Weidmann, P. R. Lewis,
Nick Reid, Open University. Materials Department. Milton Keynes, U.K.: Materials Dept., Open
University. 1990. p. 357. ISBN 0-408-04658-9. OCLC 20693897 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/
20693897).
Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35233292).
C. L. Page, P. B. Bamforth, J. W. Figg, International Symposium on Corrosion of
Reinforcement in Concrete Construction. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, Information
Services. 1996. ISBN 0-85404-731-X. OCLC 35233292 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/352332
92).
Reinforced concrete (https://santiyede.com/betonarme-nedir-avantajlari-ve-betonarme-yapinin-
olusturulmasi/). June 19, 2020.

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