EDU 101 – Foundation of Education

Hand-outs + Notes for Mid Term Exams

Topic: 01 – Introduction:
Ideology is the common understanding and believes that people in a group have accepted by
which to live their lives. Here Islamic ideology will be discussed in this course below because
we are Pakistani and many people living here are Muslims.
Islamic Perspective:
“A continuous process that nurtures the natural potentials of human beings from the
intellectual, behavioural, spiritual and physical aspects in an integrated and balanced manner
so as to produce righteous human beings who will bring goodness to this world and
hereafter.”
Islamic Philosophers in this perspective:
According to the scholar ‘Abd Halim Hj. Mat Diah’, 1989:
“Islamic education is a process for all under the purposeful guidance of educators who will
shape Muslims based on the teachings of Islam.”
According to the scholar ‘Abdul Halim El-Muhammady, 1993’:
“The purpose of education is to produce the righteous individuals who are willing to take on
the responsibility of the caliphs (successors of Prophet Muhammad) entrusted by Allah to
lead us to happiness in this world and in the next.”

Topic: 02 - Aims of educating people:

- To inculcate a noble character
- To educate the soul to be refined and perfect
- To teach students to do good, respectful and noble deeds
- To train students to be courteous and be good human beings
- To inculcate cleanliness, purity and sincerity as well as noble practices in students.

Topic: 03 - Areas of Islamic Education:

1. Character Building: Character building
is the teaching of values and morals.
How to lead a good life, treat yourself
 and others? Moral education is critical because it helps you to become a better individual,
citizen and a better person in the long run.

2. Physical Education: We would like to have healthy and active people who are
constructive contributors to the society. People who are slow, unhealthy and not well are
not good contributors to the society. So, if we want individuals to live a healthy life, they
must be physically fit. This encompasses sports, games, athletics and any other physical
activity that people are involved in. What this all teaches them is sharing and cooperation
because many sports are played in teams. Some sports are played as individuals events
but most of them are not and so there is a lot of good learning that happens here.

3. Mental Education: It is the development of the mind and is the basis of education. How
does an individual develop his capacity to think and use his brain? It happens when in
education we make the individual be embedded in creative, natural and analytical
thinking and thinking outside the box through activities that enable the individuals to
solve problems, come to decisions, give their opinions and recommendations, share their
ideas etc. only when we force students to think for themselves then this mental education
proves to be meaningful and fruitful.

4. Life Education: Education is not a morning to afternoon activity, it happens outside the
school and classroom also. It happens both formally and informally. Learning through
other informal experiences such as gatherings and markets is also essential for young
people. If you only limit education to what happens in a classroom, people will never
learn as much because a classroom in its true sense is an artificial setting.

5. Social Education: We cannot live on our own alone. We will not be able to survive
because we will not be able to do all everything for us, we need other people to help us in
our life and so that social interaction is important. Social education teaches us
cooperation, sharing, tolerance, listening, not only thinking about you but others as well.
With the virtual world becoming more and more of a reality today and the world
shrinking to a global village scenario, it is more important for the individuals today to be
socially adapt at how to interact with individuals in your own cultural setting and other
cultural settings.

6. Sex Education: This education is not in the sense of love and romance, this is the
education of how you will deal with the individual of opposite gender. When you are with
friends who are all girls and all boys, you behave differently. But when you are in mixed
gathering, you behave differently. Sex education teaches you how to behave in such
gatherings with the individual of opposite gender.

7. Muslim Faith Education: This really is religious education. We need people to

understand what their religion helps them learn, understand and do. So in the Islamic
perspective, it involves the teaching of Quran, Hadiths, dealing of the Caliphs and other
Muslims, philosophers and all that should be taught to young people.
Topic: 04 - Islamic Philosophy-1:
Islamic Philosophers
1. Ibnu Rushd (520-595 Hijrah)
He put many good and new ideas not only in the field of Philosophy but also in
Medicine and Islamic Legislation.
His great works:
 Kulliyah fit-tibb: 16 volumes in general medicine
 Foundations of Philosophy (Malbadil Falsafah)

2. Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
 Produced more than 400 literary works in Theology (Study of Religion),
Philosophy, Science and Sufism (a mystic tradition within Islam)
His great works:
 Ihya al-Ulum al-Din: a broad field of Islamic Science, Jurisprudence, Logic,
Sufism

Topic: 05 - Islamic Philosophy-2:

1. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)
- Major contribution was in the History of Philosophy and Sociology.
- Wrote about the History of the world.
His great works:
 Universal History
 Summary of the result (religion)

2. Al-Frabi (870-950 AD)

- Major contribution was in philosophy, Logic and Sociology
His great works:
 Kitab al-ihsa al ulum: explains the classification and principles of basic
science.
 Kitab al-Musiqa: a book on music
Information or Knowledge or Much More…..
- Our condition: “we are drowning in information and starving for knowledge.”
- Hikmah is an abundant and huge gift of Allah. It shows us how to use the knowledge.

Topic: 06 - Concepts I (Ontological Concepts)

- The only ontological reality is God himself.

 - God is external and the universe and man’s existence is a reality but it is an apparent
reality.
- The creation of the universe and man is not a futile thing but it has an aim.

Epistemological Concept

- The ultimate source of knowledge is revelation from God.

- The five senses and reason are also sources of knowledge but those should be under
the theological teachings. (Theology: the study of the nature of God and religious
belief.)

Topic: 07 - Concepts II (Axiological Concept)

 Since Islamic values are dependent on orders from God, so values have been devised by
Almighty God, the creator of the universe.
 These are, therefore, permanent, eternal and heavenly.
 Whatever are the ways of passing or living our lives, these are accountable and good will
be rewarded and vice will be punished.
There are four areas of philosophical inquiry:
Metaphysics: concerned with questions about the nature of reality. In other words,
metaphysics deals with the real. What is real? Everything that we see, touch, feel, hear, taste
are all real. Everything in this universe is real. So, according to metaphysics, if everything
was real then man should be involved in finding out about everything and that basically is
education.
Epistemology: concerned with the nature of knowledge. Now we can’t study, learn or
explore possibly everything therefore, what is the truth, what needs to be finding out from
what exists? This differentiation is made in epistemology. It is humanly impossible to study
everything. What I think is true is what I am going to teach. According to this area of
philosophical inquiry, no two teachers even if they teach the same grade level and same
subject matter will teach the same way. Because their beliefs and philosophies differ.
Axiology: concerned with the nature of values (The moral learning). We want our children to
develop their mind, body, spiritually but we also want them to develop morally. So, what
moral basis exists? What values should we teach to our young people today? Values are
universal. They ran across subject matters and discipline. Every teacher should be teaching
values and morals, no matter what subject or grade level she is teaching to. For example,
when a student cheats, a student is late or student is not in class with his/her homework, it is
an opportunity for teacher to teach some values and teachers across disciplines could do that.
Instead of simply relying that the Islamiyah teacher will teach all the values and morals.
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality, as
well as the basic categories of being and their relations.
Aims of Education

 The aim education is to seek the will of God and to have the fear of Day of Judgment.
 An individual should be made God-fearing so that he may become and prove a pious
person for the society.
 Islam stresses material development provided it is according to the dictates of God.
 Islam stresses the welfare of human society.
 Islam holds the life of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as model for all human beings.

Topic: 08 - Curriculum

- Quran, Hadith and Fiqa have a prime place in the curriculum.

- Islam urges to conquer the universe and it includes sciences and technology, industry,
banking, space science. Modern medical facilities and research in different fields.
- The study and pursuits of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Computers should not
turn an individual into a secular minded person.

Topic: 09 - Method of Teaching

- Islam does not confine itself to a particular method of teaching rather it encourages
any method through which the students are able to understand the subject matter.
- According to Islamic philosophy any method may be adopted according to the need of
a topical lesson.
- For example, problem solving, debate, research, experimental, demonstrative, lecture,
practical, group or an individual method may be used according to the need of the
topic.

Topic: 10 - The Teacher

- A teacher in the Islamic system of education holds a place of mother/father.

- He/she should be an exemplary individual and should have a high moral character.
- He/she should be an expert in his/her field of knowledge.

Topic: 11 - The Student

- A student should think his/her teacher is a spiritual father/mother and show respect to
them.
- A student has the right to get the advice.
- Student should be an active participant in the classroom.
 - It is the duty of every man and woman to get education.

Topic: 12 - The Institution

- Islam is against conservativeness and retrogression.

- It stresses the establishment of good schools and institutes which should have the
facility for modern scientific and skilled education in addition to religious education.
- It should be able to give modern arts and humanities education also.

Topic: 13 - Administration/Management

- According to Islamic philosophy, the orders of a supervisor or head of the institution

in administrative matters should be carried out.
- Islam recognizes democracy and freedom but to a reasonable and suitable extent. It
does not allow such freedom or democracy which is injurious or damaging for the
administration of an institution.
The different groups of students should NOT rule or influence the rule of the head of an
institution.

Topic: 14 - Definition of Islamic Philosophy:

Al-Kindi Al-Farabi Ibn Sina

 Consists of 3 aspects:  Can be seen from 2  Categorized into 2

 Physics angles: types of knowledge:
 Mathematics  Theory – knowledge  Revelation of God
 Attributes of God about existing delivered through
things. messengers
 Practice – things that  The hereafter.
exist in action.

Topic: 15 - Comprehensive Education

 Allah’s Word (Direct studies)

 Allah’s World (Supporting studies)
 To live in Allah’s World
 And handle it according to Allah’s Word……
 To become true Khalifah….
 To get HIS PLEASURE
Comprehensive education means a complete picture. Allah’s word is the Quran, Hadith,
Fiqa, Teachings of the Prophet (S.A.W) are all Allah’s word and direct studies. They won’t
change but they need to be taught to generation after generation. It is important that as one
generation leads into another, this word of God is not lost. So, religious education becomes a
strong focal point of education under the Islamic perspective.
Allah’s world which is supporting studies. God created the world and he created it in 7 days.
He created it for man to use the world wisely. If we are to use the world wisely for our
benefit and advantage, it is important that we understand what the world is made of and that
really is an essence of this piece of comprehensive education. These supporting studies
include:
Ayyamilla which is history and culture, tradition, geography will then leads to other Social
Sciences.
Allah’s World is science and technology. Allah’s world is made up of matter and energy,
and that is what science teaches weather its plant life, animal life, materials, energy etc . All
that is created by God. We need to study it, harness its advantages to help us understand the
world better and live a better life in the world.
God’s kingdom includes laws and economics. These are given to us that how we do
business, trading or banking. So you can see that education in Islamic perspective is very
integrated and all this together will be you language arts. Because without language you
won’t be able to do any of this. So, Islam proposes a very comprehensive education system
for all our students in which students learn what is unique for them, pleases them, interests
them and become what they want to become in the future.

Topic: 16 - Introduction
The Meaning of Philosophical Inquiry
“Whenever people choose to embrace, if their choices are made in a logical, rational manner,
they are engaged in the process of doing philosophy”.
Four specific areas of philosophical inquiry:

- Metaphysics concerned with questions about the nature of reality.

- Epistemology concerned with the nature of knowledge.
- Axiology concerned with the nature of values.
- Logic concerned with the nature of thinking and reasoning.

Topic: 17 - Tools of Philosophy-1

 - Metaphysics is somewhat related to epistemology and asks the question “What is
real?”
- Are the things that are real only the things that can be touched and measured?
- Behaviourists vs. existentialists.
- Epistemology- “How do we know what is true?”
- This is a live question today – Do we listen to standardized test results to determine
how much students know, or read their portfolios?

Topic: 18 - Tools of Philosophy-2

- Axiology is the study of values; it asks the question of “What is good?” From
axiology we arrive at an understanding of “What is good?”
- We get the ethics from the study of axiology.
- Logic has to do with thinking, reasoning and problem solving.
- Leeds to decision making.
- Thinking can be:
Inductive or Deductive

Topic: 19 - What is philosophy of education

 All teachers have a personal philosophy that colors the way they teach.
 Who they are or intend to be.
 Why they do or propose to do what they do.
Eric Berne’s three important questions:
 Who am I?
 Why am I here?
 Who are all these other people and what do they want of me?
Philosophies of Education

Topic: 20 - Idealism
Ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. Ideas are generated in the hand
and these need to be translated as these are only thoughts. So, as people develop ideas, old
ideas lead to newer ideas, lots of ideas and information is created and that brings us to know
how many of these new ideas do we need.
Focus: Mind
Originators:
  Plato
 Socrates

Topic: 21 - Goal of Education

 Educators are interested in the search of truth through ideas rather than through the
examination of the false shadowy world of matter.
 They encourage students to search for truth as individuals.
 Education is transformation: ideas can change lives.

Idealism
Topic: 22 - Role of Teacher
 Dealing with abstract notions through dialectic method and connecting analysis with
action.
 Active, posing questions, selecting materials and establishing an environment to
ensure the desired outcomes.
 A role model to be imitated by students.

Topic: 23 - Methods of Instruction

 Teachers active in students’ learning.

 Through questioning, students encouraged to discuss, analyse, synthesize and apply
what they have read.
 Lecturing but particularly using dialectic approach.
 Students encouraged to work in groups/ individually on research projects both oral
and written.

Topic: 24 - Curriculum
Examining the roots of contemporary problems in the past (great literature/classics etc)
 Education at any level should teach students to think.
 Subject- matter curriculum
 Back-to-basics approach in education
“Perennialism” Related Educational Philosophy to Idealism
Topic: 25 - Perennialism
Focus: Teach ideas that are everlasting. Seek enduring realities which are constant, through
great literature, art, philosophy, religion.
Key Proponents
Robert Hutchins
Jacque Maritain
Mortimer Adler
Allan Bloom

Topic: 26 - Realism
Reality exists independent of the human mind. World of physical object is ultimate reality.
They say that reality is something that exists. The ultimate reality is the physical objects so
everything that you can see, touch and feel is real.
Focus: Body
Originator: Aristotle

Topic: 27 - Goal of Education

 Develop intellectual abilities
 To equip students with information to understand current events (Tabula Rasa)
Tabula Rasa means a blank slate

Realism
Topic: 28 - Role of Teacher

 Having a social grounding in science, math and the humanities

 Relying on test scores to place students (competency testing of students with various
methods)
 Readily adopting new technology
 Enabling students to learn objective methods of evaluating the works above
 Teacher’s responsibility is to teach skills and disciplined knowledge
 Teacher should be competent in a specific subject matter
 Teacher presenting ideas in a clear and consistent manner and demonstrating that
there are definite ways to judge works of art, music, poetry and literature..
Topic: 29 - Methods of instruction
 Lecture, question and answer (formal ways of teaching)
 Inductive and scientific reasoning
 Competency-based assessments as a way of ensuring that students learnt what they
are being taught
 Emphasis on critical reason aided by observation (our experiences) and
experimentation
 Stressing, precision and accuracy in math, science, social studies and writing
 Emphasizing realistic novels such as Oliver Twist, Great Expectations, For Whom the
Bell Tolls etc. to give life’s laws and principles and such novels are the keys for
students to reach the ideal world through material world

Topic: 30 - Curriculum
 Curriculum consists of the basics- math, science, reading etc.
 Attention is given to didactic and object studies in education (use of pictures, TV,
videos in educational process)
 Use of objects in education (Montessori)
 Emphasis is on subject matter (highly organized and systematic in approach)
Criticism
Empirical facts always subject to change

Topic: 31 - Essentialism
Related Educational Philosophy to Realism
Focus: Teach the common core, “the basics” of information and skills (cultural heritage)
neede for citizenship. (Curriculum can change slowly)
Key Proponents
 William Bagley
 Arthur Bestor
 E.D. Hirsch
 Chester Finn
 Diane Ravitch
 Theodore Sizer

Topic: 32 - Pragmatism
Universe is dynamic and evolving. Purpose of thought is action. Truth is relative. The key
term here is evolving which means that when you evolve you change. So, when you change,
nothing can be permanent. Things change, nothing is permanent is the pragmatism approach.
Focus: Experience
Originators

 Pierce
 Dewey

Topic: 33 - Goals of Education

 Primary goal of education is growth

 Education should not be looked upon merely as schooling and the acquisition of
academic subject matter but as a part of life itself
 School should balance the needs of the society and community on the one hand and
the needs of the students on the other
 Helping people direct, control and guide personal and social experience (self-
actualization)
 Schools should foster habits of thought, invention and initiative
 Education should promote our true individualism (self-directed learning)
 Education has a moral influence and should play a vital part in helping us become the
kind of moral persons who are interested not only in promoting our own growth but
also in promoting the growth of others

Topic: 34 - Role of Teacher

 Applies democratic methods
 Classroom is a community of learners
 Teacher encourages, offer suggestions, questions and helps plan and implement the
courses of study
 Teacher is facilitator no authoritarian
 Teacher writes curriculum and must have a command of several disciplines to create
and implement curriculum

Topic: 35 - Methods of Instruction

 Problem solving. experiential learning, inquiry methods, field trips, projects (not all
students can learn in the same way-vary strategies)
 Formal instruction is abandoned (flexible methods are used) moveable chairs,
freedom in class etc.
 Lockstep, rote memorization of traditional schools are replaced with individualized
studies
 Action-oriented education (activity oriented approach to curriculum)
 Learning in groups and individually.
Topic: 36 - Curriculum
 Learner cantered curriculum
 Pragmatist curriculum is composed of both process (experience) and content
(knowledge)
 All academic and vocational disciplines in an integrated and connected way
 Problem cantered learning/project method: such approaches to curriculum start with a
central question, core/problem. Students attack the problem in diverse ways according
to interest and need. They work independently or in groups. They evaluate their
growth and development.
 Child interest to be considered in the curriculum. Varied needs, interests leading to
different curricula.

Topic: 37 - Progressivism
Related Educational Philosophy to Pragmatism
Focus: ideas should be tested by active experimentation. Learning rooted in questions of
learners in interaction with others. Experience3 and student cantered.
Key Proponents
 John Dewey
 William Kilpatrick

Topic: 38 - Reconstructionism Critical pedagogy: Analysis of world events, controversial

issues and diversity to provide vision for better world and social change.
Focus: Freedom
Originators
 George Counts
 J. Habermas
 Ivan Illich
 Henry Giroux

Topic: 39 - Goal of education

 Education is an activity liberating the individual from a chaotic, absurd world.
 Individuals are responsible for consequences. Individuals should be given credit for
the creation of concepts like peace, truth and justice. So, focus is n humans and their
ideas.
 Good education would encourage individuals to ask such questions: ”Who am I?”,
“Where am I going?”, “Why am I here?”
 AIM: to make the world better.
  Good education is one that”
 Emphasizes individuality through intellectual journeys so that we can see and
understand ourselves.
 Helps individuals to examine the abnormal/corrupted side of life, the irrational
as well as the good side. (Life/death, wars, peace …..)

Topic: 40 - Role of the Teacher:

- Emphasizes individual choices (there is no common way of viewing the world).
- Teachers must take risks; expose themselves to resistant students; and work
constantly to enable their students to become ‘wide awake’.
- Due to greater experience and knowledge, it is the teacher’s responsibility to develop
an educational environment that promotes awareness of the past and present, and of
the future possibilities.
- Teachers help students become sensitive to human possibility and understand that
they themselves are both necessarily and fully determined by the past (every present
is conditioned by the past) but every present is pregnant with future possibilities for
change and new direction-individuals can change the future.

Topic: 41 - Methods of Instruction:

- Stressing individual freedom.
- Empowering students to make choices about what and how they will learn.
- Buber “I-thou approach”- Student and Teacher learn cooperatively from each other in
a non-traditional, nonthreatening friendship. (Posing questions, generating activities,
and working together).
- Educational methods which help teacher in rediscovering the excitement of learning
and opening up a whole new world of possibilities for students.
- Students become more articulate and capable of comprehension and self-expression
with the help of teacher’s approach.

Topic: 42 - Curriculum:
- Stressing arts and literature, little emphasis is given on math and science.
- The humanities are considered because they deal with the essential aspects of human
existence, such as the relations between people, the tragic side of human life as well
as the happy, the absurdities as well as the meaning.
- Through humanities, try to awaken modern individuals to the dangers of being
swallowed up by the megalopolis and runway technology (wide awaken)
- Do not have definite rules about what the curriculum should compromise. Believe that
the Student-In-Situation making a choice should be the deciding factor. (Curriculum
from the standpoint of the learner rather than as a collection of discrete subjects).

Topic: 43 - Existentialism:
Focus:
- Reality is subjective, within the individual. Individual rather than external standards.
Key Proponents:
- Sartre
- Kierkegaard

Topic: 44 - Eclecticism:
- There is a way of dealing with all the various models.
- Eclecticism is not a philosophical system or model, but rather is the synthesizing and
personal interpretation of various models to draw out the best components for you.
- Thus, you pull the best from various models in an effort to build your own statement
of personal philosophy.

Topic: 45 - Humanistic School-1:

- Show respect to students
- Considerations of students’ needs, expectations, feelings, values.
- Accepting students as they are
Topic: 46 - What things happen in a humanistic classroom?
- Active learning strategies
- Conflict resolution
- Incorporating whole class

Topic: 47 - Characteristics and beliefs of humanistic approach:

- Meaning: intellect distinguishes humans from animals
- What is reality? Humans have potential and innate goodness
- Nature of Humanness: Autonomy, dignity, and freedom are sacred.
- Educational aim: Individual potentiality; self-actualization
- Educational Methods: Facilitation, self-direction; team work
- Educational content: Any curriculum is a vehicle for meeting needs
- Main criticism: Important societal goals can be missed
- Key proponents: Maslow, Knowles, Elias/Merriam, Tough
Topic: 48 - Programs/Practices-1:
- Individualized instructional process
- Learning projects
- Sensitivity training
- Teacher effectiveness training
- Active listening
 Topic: 49 - Programs/Practices-2:
- Conflict resolution
- Invitational learning
- Values clarification
- Moral education
- Multi-ethnic educational approaches

Topic: 50 - A Comparison:

Education School

 Broad  Specific
 Take place anywhere anytime, anyplace  Particular location; limited definition
 Behaviour change processes  Place for education collective body of pupils
 Lack of formalization  Formalized
 No assessment processes  Assessment
 Non-official  Official
 Lack of system  Systemic
 No need for certified person  Certified person
 No specific time limit for learning  Compulsory period for attendance

Topic: 51 - Idealism/Perennialism:
Axiology:
- Values, ethics, and athletics.
- Changeless
- Determined by the very nature of reality
Logic:
How we think? Inductive and deductive.
- Rationality, especially deductive thought is developed by studying classics and
through the Socratic dialectic

Topic: 52 - Applications to Education:

Metaphysics:
What is real? Does it have meaning?
The meaning of life is the search for unchanging truth found in the collective wisdom of the
great books.
Epistemology:
Knowledge and knowing---- What is truth?
Truth and knowledge are changeless, revealed through guided reflection and in literature of
the classics.

Topic: 53 - Role of the teacher under Idealism and Perennialism:

- Teacher is expert of content knowledge
- Passes on to next generation the accumulated wisdom of the past
The student:
- Is there to learn what is taught

Topic: 54 - Realism-Essentialism Application to Education:

Metaphysics:
What is real? Does it have meaning?
- What are relevant are what helps an individual lives well and what benefits humanity.
Epistemology:
Knowledge and knowing --- What is truth?
Truth exists in the classics and modern science. Students must learn process and content.
Knowledge is gained through the interaction of experiences and rational thought.
Topic: 55 - Realism/Essentialism:
Axiology:
Values, ethics and athletics
Determined by the natural order of things. Values exist in the best of culture.
Logic:
How we think? Deductive and Inductive.
Rationality is best developed through interplay of deductive and inductive thinking.
Topic: 56 - The teacher:
- Teacher is expert of content knowledge.
- Teaches essential knowledge
- Maintains task-oriented focus
The students:
- Is there to listen and learn
Topic: 57 - Pragmatism/Progressivism:
Applications to Education:
Metaphysics:
What is real? Does it have meaning?
Reality is in flux and ever-changing, so meaning is in the context of the individual, who is a
“problem-solver.”
Epistemology:
- Knowledge and knowing---- What is truth?
- Knowledge is gained via individual experience. Truth is individually defined so that
emphasis is on learning how to learn.

Topic: 58 - Axiology:
- Values, ethics and athletics.
- Determined by each individual in interaction with his/her culture, based on the shared
values of the community or culture.
Logic:
- How we think? Deductive and Inductive
- Emphasis is on inductive thinking and problem solving

Topic: 59 - The teacher’s role:

- Teacher is facilitator of student learning; provides resources for students’ problem-
solving abilities. Develop students’ problem solving abilities. Helps students to do
what they want to do.
The student:
- Learns by doing and discovering

Topic: 60 - Reconstructionism/ Existentialism:

Applications to Education:
Metaphysics:
- What is real? Does it have meaning?
- Reality is stable; the meaning of life is derived primarily through self-development
away from society.
Epistemology:
Knowledge and knowing---- what is truth?
- Knowledge is gained through sensory experiences and interaction with one’s
environment.

Topic: 61 - Axiology:
- Values, ethics and athletics
- Determined by the individual
Logic:
- How we think? Deductive and Inductive
- Emphasis is primarily on inductive thought, because learning starts with experiences
and moves to hypothesis.

Topic: 62 - The teacher:

- The teacher responds to the learner’s requests for knowledge, does not initiate
learning in the students.
The Student:
- Is naturally good and must be protected from the evils of society.

Topic: 63 - Modernism:
- God, reason and progress
- Progress is based upon knowledge, and man is capable of discerning objective
absolute truths in science and the arts.
- Modernism is linked to capitalism-progressive economic administration of world
- Modernization of 3rd world countries (Imposition of Modern Western values)
Language and truth:
- People are the same everywhere.
- There are universal laws and truths
- Knowledge is objective, independent of culture, gender etc.
- Language is a man-made tool that refers to real things/truths
- I have a discernible self
- The self is the center of existence

Topic: 64 - What is postmodernism?

 - Postmodernism means literally ‘after the modern era’. The modern era was the time of
certainty and stretched from the 18th century to the late 20th century.
- Post modernists believe that this era was far more predictable than the times we live
in today, e.g. jobs were for life and class was major source of identity.
- Since around the 1970’s we have been living in times characterized by risk and
diversity.
- Consequently, this has had huge implications for education.
- Continuation of modernist view
- Does not mourn loss of history, self, religion, and centre.
- A term applied to all human sciences ---anthropology, psychology, architecture,
history etc.
- Reaction to modernism; systematic scepticism
- Anti-foundational

Topic: 65 - Postmodernism: Basic Concepts

Life just is:
- Rejection of all master narratives
- All “truths” are contingent, cultural constructs
- Scepticism of progress; anti-technology bias
- Sense of fragmentation and decentred self
- Multiple conflicting identities
- Mass mediated reality
- Language is a social construct that “speaks” and identifies the subject.
- Knowledge is contingent, contextual and linked to POWER
- Truth is pluralistic, dependent upon the frame of reference of the observer
- Values are derived from ordinary social practices, which differ from culture to culture
and change with time.

Topic: 66 - Postmodernism (Critical Theory):

- An educational philosophy contending that many of the institutions in our society,
including schools, are used by those in power to marginalize those who lack power.
- History/Classics examined for power issues, struggles of marginalized groups.
- Criticized for using schools for political purposes.

Topic: 67 - Postmodernism and Knowledge:

- Societies that have computer knowledge are at the forefront in the transformation
process to postmodernity.
- Advancing technology has a direct effect on knowledge (economically powerful
nations have exerted their will on less-developed nations).
- Knowledge and power are the two sides of the same question: Who decides what
knowledge is, and who knows what needs to be decided?
Topic: 68 - Postmodernism: Proponents
- Fredrick Jameson
- Jean Baudrillard
- Michel Foucault
- Jacques Derrida
- Gilles Deleuze
- Felix Guattari
Postmodernists:
The hope of Postmodernist:
- The deconstruction of foundational views will lead to a recognition and acceptance of
a pluralistic worldview.
- Create a truly global civilization

Topic: 69 (Psychological Foundations of Education: Introduction)

What is psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of mental functions and behaviours including:
- Perception
- Cognition
- Behaviour
- Emotion
- Personality
- Interpersonal relationships

Topic: 70 (What is Psychology-1)

The major theories of learning have been classified into three groups:
1. Behaviorist Theories:
- Focuses on stimulus response and reinforcers
- Studies conditioning, modifying or shaping behavior through reinforcement and
rewards
2. Cognitive Theories: Topic: 71
- Focuses information processing in relation to the total environment
- Studies developmental stages, understanding, multiple forms of intelligence, problem
solving, critical thinking, and creativity.
3. Phenomenological and Humanistic theories: Topic: 72
- Focuses on the whole child, their social, psychological and cognitive development
- Studies focus on human needs, attitudes, feelings and self-awareness.
Topic 71: What is psychology-2

The major theories of learning have been classified into three groups:

2. Cognitive Theories:

- Focuses information processing in relation to the total environment

- Studies developmental stages, understanding, multiple forms of intelligence, problem

solving, critical thinking, and creativity.

Topic 72: What is psychology-2

The major theories of learning have been classified into three groups:

3. Phenomenological and Humanistic theories:

- Focuses on the whole child, their social, psychological and cognitive development

- Studies focus on human needs, attitudes, feelings and self-awareness.

Topic 73: Behaviroism

Behaviorism

Key players:

- Thorndike – Connectionism (what students learn today must be connected with what they
have learnt previously)

- Pavlov & Watson – Classical conditioning (individuals learn automatic responses. These
are basic emotional or physiological responses that people show)

- Skinner – Operant Conditioning

- Bandura – Observable Learning and Modelling

- Gagne – Hierarchical Learning

Topic: 074 (Edward Thorndike)

Thorndike is said to be the Father of Modern Educational Psychology and founder of
Behavioral Psychology.
- Started his research with animals using stimulus-response (Classical Conditioning)
and develop the idea of Connectionism.
- In 1928 – Thorndike conducted his first major study with adults
Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism:
- Defined learning as a connection or association of an increasing number of habits.
More complicated association’s means higher levels of understanding.
- Three laws of learning

Topic: 075 - Three Laws of Learning-1:

1. Law of Readiness:
- Often misinterpreted as educational readiness
- Deals with attitudes and focuses on “Why Should I do this?”
- If nervous system is ready, conduction is satisfying and lack of conduction is
annoying.

Topic: 076 - Three Laws of Learning-2:

2. Law of exercise:
- Strength of connections is proportional to the frequency, duration and intensity of its
occurrence.
- Justifies drill, repetition and review.
- Seen today in behaviour modification and basic skill instruction.

Topic: 077 - Three Laws of Learning-3:

3. Law of Effect:
- Responses that cause satisfaction, strengthen connections and discomfort weakens
connections.
- Justifies use of rewards and punishments, especially Skinner’s Operant Model.

Topic: 078 - Thorndike’s Influence:

Thorndike and other followers believed that rote memorization does not necessarily
strengthen connections.
- There has to be some sort of meaning associated with it in order to be transferred to
other situations.
Thorndike broke the traditional thinking about the hierarchy of subject matter.
- One subject was no more important to meaningful learning than other.
- Until then, maths and science were seen as more important to teaching structure.
Topic: 079 – Ivan Pavlov
- Pavlov was the first behaviourist to demonstrate Classical Conditioning.
- He is best known for his experiment with salivating dogs
Classical Conditioning:
- Eliciting an unconditioned response by using previously neutral stimuli.
- Unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that are not “learned,” but are instinctual.
 - Neutral and unconditioned stimuli are introduced at the same time. Unconditioned
stimuli are gradually removed, and the neutral stimuli elicit the same reflex.

Topic: 080 – Pavlov’s Dog:

 Pavlov’s experiment with salivating dogs best demonstrated the principal of
Classical Conditioning.
 Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a bell
- Dogs naturally salivated with food. (Unconditioned response)
- A bell (neutral stimuli) was rung every time the dogs were fed over a period of time
creating the association/connection of bell with food.
- After time the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell alone.

Topic: 081 – James Watson

 Watson took Pavlov’s findings to another level.
 Emphasized that learning was observable or measureable, not cognitive
 Believed the key to learning was in conditioning a child from an early age based
on Pavlov’s methods.
 Nurture vs nature
- Watson’s theories strengthened the argument for the influence of experiences as
opposed to genetics.

Topic: 082 – B. F. Skinner

 B. F skinner was one of the most influential American Psychologists.
 He began his research with rats at Harvard and pigeons during WWII.
 His work led to the development of Theory of Operant Conditioning.
- The idea that behaviour is determined or influenced by its consequence.
 Respondent vs Operant behaviour
- Respondent behaviour is the elicited response tied to a definite stimulus.
- Operant behaviour is the emitted response seemingly unrelated to any specific
stimuli.

Topic: 083 – Operant Conditioning-1

 Types of rein forcers (stimuli)
- Primary – Stimuli fulfilling basic human drives such as food and water.
- Secondary – personally important such as approval of friends or teachers, winning
money, awards or recognition. Secondary rein forcers can become primary. Due to the
wide range of secondary rein forcers, Skinner referred to them as generalized.
Topic: 084 – Operant Conditioning-2
 Operant behaviour will “extinguish” without reinforcement.
- Positive reinforcement – presenting a reinforcing stimulus.
- Negative reinforcement – removing/withdrawing a stimulus or reinforce but it is not
punishment.
Topic: 085 – Operant Conditioning-3
 Operant behaviour will “extinguish” without reinforcement.
- Punishment – presenting harmful stimuli (rejected by Skinner because he felt it
inferred with learning)
- “Rein forcers often strengthen behaviour”
- “Punishment is used to suppress behaviour”

Topic: 086 – Operant Conditioning-4

 Desired operant behaviours must be reinforced in a timely manner. Delay of
reinforcement hinders performance.
 By selecting, which behaviour to reinforce, we can direct the learning process in
the classroom.
 Learners can acquire new operands.
- As behaviour is shaped, new and more complex concepts can be introduced and
desired behaviour again reinforced.
- “Education is what survives when what has been learned as been forgotten”

Topic 87:

Topic: 088 – Robert Gagne

 Gagne’s hierarchy of learning notes the transition from behaviourism to cognitive
psychology.
 The hierarchy of learning is an arrangement of 8 behaviours ranging from simple to
complex.
 He also describes 5 observable and measureable learning outcomes.
  The hierarchy of learning is an arrangement of 8 behaviours ranging from
simple to complex.
- The first five behaviours are Behaviourist, the nest 2 are both behaviourist and
cognitive and the last (highest form) is cognitive.
- The hierarchy suggests a “bottom-up” approach to learning where general
principles/concepts must be learnt before advanced learning can take place.

Topic: 089 – Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning-1

1. Signal learning (behavioural) Classical conditioning – response to a signal. Students
have to be trained what a signal means and what they are required to do. It is very
similar to what Pavlov was trying to do. So, this is learning by association
2. Stimulus response: (behavioural) Operant Conditioning – response to a given
stimulus. This is the learning through reinforcement because your behaviour is
reinforced.

Topic: 090 – Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning-2

1. Motor chains (behavioural) Linking two or more stimulus responses connections to
form a more complex skill.
2. Verbal association (behavioural) Linking two or more words or ideas.

Topic: 091 – Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning-3

1. Multiple discriminations (behavioural) Responding in different ways to different
items in a set.
2. Concept (Behavioural - Cognitive) Reacting to stimuli in an abstract way

Topic: 092 – Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning-4

1. Rules (behavioural - Cognitive) Chaining two or more stimulus situations or
concepts
2. Problem solving (Cognitive) Combining known rules/principles into new situations
to solve a problem

Topic: 093 – Robert Gagne’s Learning outcomes-1

 Five learning outcomes (observable and measureable)
 1. Intellectual skills: “knowing how” to organize and use verbal and mathematical
symbols, concepts and rules to solve a problem.
2. Information: “knowing what” – knowledge and facts

Topic: 094 – Robert Gagne’s Learning outcomes-2

1. Cognitive strategies: “learning strategies” needed to process information
2. Motor skills: Ability to coordinate movements.

Topic: 095 – Robert Gagne’s Learning outcomes-3

1. Attitudes: feelings and emotions developed from positive and negative experiences.
Mental operations needed for each outcome differ. Gagne’s Instructional Events lead into
cognitive psychology.
Classroom Implications under Gagne’s theory, the teachers need to observe and relate
lessons to student’s interests so it is easier for the students to understand. Teachers then
need to gain attention and this can be done by showing PowerPoints, diagrams, videos,
etc. to help inform the students of what they will be learning. The teacher will then
present the stimulus and this can be done by demonstrating how to perform the task
(example: how to create a diagram). The teacher will be there for guidance and then will
assess the performance of the students.
The students will be active listeners and will learn how to perform various tasks. The
student will have established an interest and will use their prior knowledge to perform a
new task. The students will complete the task and then give feedback as to what they have
learned. The students will then be able to apply their new acquired skills into their
everyday lives on their own so they can actually have a learning experience.

Topic: 096 – Cognitive Psychology

Replaced behaviourism as dominant philosophy in 1960s
1. Criticism of behaviourism:
Did not explain
- language and learning
- why people respond differently to the same stimulus
- reinforcement can reduce motivation
2. Popularity of newly discovered theories of Piaget and Vygotsky in the 50’s and
60’s
Topic: 097 – Cognitive Psychology: Basic Characteristics
- Focus on how individuals process information
- Emphasis on memory (storage, retrieval, types) chunking can aid working memory,
which is limited. Successful learners transfer information to long term memory ---
“infinite” in capacity.
Topic: 098 – Behaviorism vs Cognitivism

Attribute Behaviourism Cognitivism

Behaviours The end in themselves ---the Evidence pointing to brain

only observable truth activity --- learning

Activation of prior Irrelevant Essential

knowledge

Teachers role Provide stimulus Prepare environment

Topic: 098 – Behaviorism vs Cognitivism

Attribute Behaviorism Cognitivism

Behaviors The end in themselves ---the Evidence pointing to brain

only observable truth activity --- learning

Activation of prior Irrelevant Essential

knowledge

Teachers role Provide stimulus Prepare environment

Topic: 099 – Cognitive Psychologist (Maria Montessori)

Rationale for including her:
- Authors do not place her with progressive child-cantered. Approaches --- Lack of
“free-play” vs. freedom within structure
- Opposed behaviourist focus only on “doing” but focused also on looking and listening
- Focus on how sensory stimulation from the environment shapes thinking
Topic: 100 – (Maria Montessori’s Legacy)
What she did:
 Psychiatrist Clinic at the University of Rome --- taught “difficult” children to read at a
normal level.
 1906 asked to start a progressive school for slum children of Italy --- Casa dei
Bambini (Children’s House)
Why she was important?
 Pioneer of child advocacy --- for exceptional children, low SES children.
 Discuss Tyler and Taba’s Traditional vs. Progressive study (1920 ---- 30% HS)
 Modern Irony --- Expense of Montessori School.