Bs Eurocode1 Part2 4

DRAFT FOR DEVELOPMENT DD ENV
1991-2-4 : 1997
Eurocode 1:
Basis of design and
actions on structures
Part 2.4 Actions on structures-
Wind actions
(together with
United Kingdom
National Application
Document)
ICs 91.010.30;91.080.01
NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPTAS PERMIITXD BY COPYRIGHT LAW
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

Licensed by Information Handling Services
Committees responsiblefor this
Draft for Development
The preparationof this Draff for Development was entrusted byTechnid
Committee W525,Building and civil engineeringstructures, to Subcommittee
Bß25/1, Actions (loadings) and basis of design, upon which the following
bodies
were represented:
British Constructional Steelwork Association

British Ironand Steel Producers' Association
British Masonry Society
Concrete Society
Department of the Environment (Buildmg Research Establishment)
Department of the Environment (Property and Buildings Directoral")
Highways Agency
Institution of Structural Engineem
National House-building Council
Royal Instituteof British Architects
Steel Constsuction Institute
This Draft for Development,

having been prepared under the
direction of the Sector Board for
Building and Civil Engineering,
was published under the
authority of the Standards Board
and comes into effect on 15 June
I997
Q BSI 052000 Amendments issued sincepublication

Amd No.
I Date I
10671 I May 2000 I Addition of Nalional Application Document Part B.
The followingBSI references

relate to the work on this
Draft for Development:
Committee reference B/525/1
ISBN O 580 26758 X I l

Contents
cover front Committees

Inside responsible
National foreword ii
ofText National Application Document Part A Buildings iii
ofText National Application
Document Part B. Bridges lvii
Text of ENV 1991-2-4 2
Q BSI 052000
i
J
STD-BSI D D ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL L977 m 1b2qbb9 0851517 52T m

DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
National foreword
This Draft for Development was prepared by Subcommittee B/525/1 and is the English
language version ofENV 1991-24 : 1995E u m & 1: Basis of design and actions m
structures -Part 2.4:Actions m s t m t u m - Wind actions as published by the
European Committee forStanbdization (CEN). This Draft for Development also
includes the United Kingdom (UK) National Application Document (NAD)to be used
with theENV in the design of buildings and bridgesto be c o n s t r u d in the UK or in
UKloading.
ENV 1991-24 : 1995 results froma programme of work initiated bythe European
Commission to make availablea common set of rules for windaction.
This publication should not be regarded as a British Standard.
the of a
An ENV is made a d a b l e for provisional application, but does not havestatus
European Satn- The aim is to use the experience gainedto modify theENV so that
it can be adoptedas a European Standard(EN).
The values for certain parametersthein ENV Eurocode may be set by CEN members
so to asmeet the requirements of national reguhons. These parameters are
designated by boxed valuesin the E N , the valuesto be used inthe UK are tabdated
in the NAD.
During the ENV period reference shouldbe made to the supporting documents listed
in the National Application Document (NAD).
The purposeof the NAD is to provide essential information particularly in relation to
safety to enable theENV to be used for buildings and bridges constructedthe in UK.
The NAD takes precedence over corresponding provisions in ENV. the
For buildings,limited calibration exercises have been undertaken on the use of
ENV 1991-2-4 whichtend to show that use of the ENV may provide wind effects lower
than the use of BS 6399 : Part 2. Therefore caution should be exercised in design when
applying loads derived from the ENV document. Itis recommended that in conjunction
with Part A of the NAD a check is undertaken using the principlesof BS 6399 : Part 2
in definingthe wind structure. A relatively simple procedure for incorporating these
principles intoENV 1991-24is outlined in Part A of the NAD.
Annex B ofENV 1991-24 has not been calibratedagainst current UK practice and
therefore it should be used with caution.
Part A of the NAD is applicable to wind actions on buildings. Part B of the NAD is
applicable to wind actions on bridges.A separate NAD for wind actions on towers,
masts and chimneyswill be produced underENV 199M1)in due course.
Compliance withENV 1991-2-4: 1995 and theNAD does notof itself conferimmunity
from legal obligations.
Users of this document are invited to comment on itstechnicalcontent, ease of use
and any ambiguhes or anomalies. These commentswill be taken into account when
prep- the UK national response to CEN on the question of whether the ENV can
be convertedto an EN.
Comments should besent in writing to the Secretaryof Subcommittee B/525/1,
BSI, 389 Chiswick €IRoad,
@ London, W4 4AL quotingthe document reference, the
relevant clause and where possible, a proposed revisionwithin two yeam of the issue
of this document
Summary of pages
This document comprisesa front cover, an inside front cover,pages i to lx,
the ENV title page, pages2 to 154, an inside back cover and a back cover.
The BSI copyright notice displayed thisin document i n d i a when the documentwas
last issued
Jn preparation
ii 8 BSI 05-2000
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
National Application Document

Part A. Buildings
for use in the UK with

ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
O BSI 1997
iii
Contents of
Part A. Buildings

Introduction vii
1 Scope vii
2 References vii
3 Partial safety factors, combination factors and other values vii
4 Notation vii
5 Additional
recommendations viii
Annexes
A (normative)Photographs'diagmmsof terrain categories xi
B (normative) Treatment of transition between terrain categories xv
C (normative) Treatment of minimum heght and effect of obstructions XXiV
D (normative) Directional pressure coefficients for buildhgs xxv
E (normative) Wind structure inco~porating the principlesof BS 6399 : Part 2 IV
Tables
B.1 Values of transition factor xv
D.l Dynamic pressure, qrepin Pa @/m2) xxvi
D.2 Internal pressure coefficients for enclosed buildings xxvi
D.3 Internal pressure coefficients for buildings with dominant openings xxix
D.4 Internal pressure coefficients for open sided buildings xxk
D.6 External pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectanguhr-plan
buildings
D.6 Reduction factors for zone A on vertical wallsof polygonal-plan buildings
D.7 Pressure coefficients for vertical gable wallsa a c e n t to non-vertical walls
and roofs
D.8 Pressure coefficients for windward-facing non-vertical walls &V
D.9 External pressure coefficients forflat roofs with sharp eaves xli
D.10 Reduction factor for zones A to D of flat rook with parapets xli
D.ll External pressure coefficients for flat roofs with curved eaves xliii
D.12 Extemal pressure coefficients for flat roofs withmansard eaves xliii
D.13 Extemal pressure coefficients for pitched roof zones A to J XlV
D.14 Extemal pressure coefficients for pitched roof zones K to S Xlviii
D.15 Extemal pressure coefficients for pitched roof zones U to Y of hipped
roofs li
D.16 Reduction factor for multi-bay roofs lii

Figures
1 UnitedKingdom -Wind map
A . l Terrain category O zo= 0.003
A.2 Terrain category I zo= 0.01
A.3 Terrain categoryII zo= 0.05
A.4 Terrain category III zo= 0.3
A.5 Terrain category N zo = 1.0
B.l M i t i o n zones at change of roughness category
B.2 Determination of v,,,(2)after change of roughness
B.3 c, (2)values for transition from category O to category 1
B.4 c, (2) values for transition from category1 to category 2
B.5 c, (z) values for transition from category 2 to category 3
B.7 c, (z) values for transition from category1 to category 3
C.l Effectiveheights
D. 1 Wind directions fora rectangularplan building
D.2 Sizeeffect factor
D.3 Defintion of dngonal of loaded areas
D.4 Key to global forceF,
D.5 Key for verticalwalls of buildings
D.6 Key to vertical gable walls
D.7 Key for walls of buildings with re-entmntcorners
D.8 Key for walls of buildings with recessed bays
D.9 Key to flush irregular walls
D.10 Key for walls of inset storey
D.ll Key to general method forflat roofs
D.12 Examples of zones of flat roof of arbitrary planshape
D.13 Definitions of crosswind breadth, inwind depth and wide angle
D.14 Key to eave details forflat roofs
D.15 Additional zones around inset storey
D.16 Key to monopitch roofs
D.17 Symmetries for pitched roofs
D.18 Key for duopitch roofs
D.19 Key for hipped roofs
D.20 Key for mansard and multipitch roofs
D.2 1 Types of multi-bay roofs
D.22 Key to multi-bay roofs
List of references 1Vi
V
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997

Part A. Buildings
Introduction Whilst this NAD can be used for the structural

This National Application Document(NAD) has been appraisal and assessment of existing construction,
prepared by Subcommittee B/525/1. It has been for assessing repairs and modifications, or for
developed from: assessing change of use, it will need to be used in
conjunction with other appropriate documentation.
a) a textual examination of ENV 1991-2-4;
b) a limited parametric calibration against
BS 6399 : Part 2 and CP 3 : Chapter V : Part 2; 2 References
c) trial calculations. 2.1 Normative references
This NAD encompasses wind actions as covered by This National Application Documentincorporates, by
ENV 1991-2-4. Specific UK requirements relating to dated or undated reference, provisions from other
loads resulting from densities, self weight and publications. These normative references are made
imposed loads (ENV 1991-2-l), fire actions at the appropriate places in the text and the cited
(ENV 1991-2-2), snow loads (ENV 1991-2-3),thermal publications are listed on page lvii. For dated
actions (ENV 1991-2-5), loads and deformations references, only the edition cited applies; any
imposed during execution (ENV 1991-2-6) and subsequent amendments to or revisions of the cited
accidental actions (ENV 1991-2-7) are given publication apply to this Part of DD ENV 1991 only
separately in the appropriate NADs for ENV 1991-2. when incorporated in the reference by amendment
During the ENV period of provisional application, it or revision. For undated references, the latest edition
has been assumed that the design codes to be used of the cited publication applies, together with any
should be the relevant British Standards appropriate amendments.
to the structure. 2.2 Informative references
Care should be exercised if the wind action derived This National Application Documentrefers to other
from ENV 1991-2-4 is used in conjunction withother publications that provide information or guidance.
design codes. Where other documents are used for Editions of these publications current at the time of
design aspects, the values given will not necessarily issue of this NAD are listed on page lvii, but
produce the required level of reliability. Departure reference should be made to the latest editions.
from any of the requirements given in the NAD
should be agreed with the relevant Authority.
NOTE. The UK NADs for Eurocodes as already published
3 Partial safety factors, combination
(e.g ENV 1992, ENV 1993) do not permit the use of ENV 1991-24 factors and other values
in cor\junction withthose ENVs; but they recommend the use of
CP 3 Chapter V with modifications. If trial use of ENV 1991-24 is a) The values for partial safety factors on wind
to be undertaken in conjunction with the already published design actions for buildings y should be those given in
Eurocodes, modifications may be necessary. table 9.2 of ENV 1991-1: 1994 as modified by the
NAD for that Part.
1 Scope b) The values for combination and reduction
factors Y for buildings should be those given in
This NAD provides information to enable table 9.3 of ENV 1991-1: 1994 as modified by the
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995 to be used for the design of the NAD for that Part.
following structures to be located in the UK or to be
designed for UK loading: c) For different levels of reliability the partial
safety factors on wind action, y, given in table 9.2
a) building structures up to a height of 200 m, their of ENV 1991-1: 1994 would need to be factored.
components and appendages; For example, for nuclear installations y would
b) cantilevered structures; need to be multiplied by 1.6.
c) highway and railway bridges up to 200 m span
and for cycle track footbridges up to 30 m span. 4 Notation
ENV 1991-2-4 does not at present provide sufficient
mformation for wind actions on lattice towers, guyed ENV 1991-24 uses some notation that differs from
masts and chimneys. that adopted in BS 6399 : Part 2 and other British
Standards. The ENV notation should be adopted
NOTE. Thm is being developed in ENV 19933l).
when using this NAD.
Specific information on wind actions on bridges is
contained in Part B').
'1 III preparation.
O BSIStandards
COPYRIGHT British 1997 Institute on ERC Specs and Standards vii
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STDOBSI DD ENV 3991-2-4-ENGL 1997 3b2rlbb9

0853522 997 W
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
6 Additional recommendations Appropriate procedures, incorporatingthe recent

advances in wind engineering, are set out in
5.1 General BS 6399 : Part 2 : 1995 and a relatively simple
It is recognized that there are several alternative procedure for incorporatingthese provisions is
methods of deriving the application rules provided in outlined in annex Eof this NAD.
ENV 1991-24. It is recommended that during the If structures are designed usingENV 1991-24, it is
ENV period, the procedures as set out in informative recommended that an additional check is undertaken
annexes B and C of ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995 are followed. using the procedure given in annex Eof this NAD. If
5.2 Meteorological information this results in more onerous loading the designer
5.2.1 Section 7. Reference wind should be satisfied that there is adequate safety,by
either usingthe higher loads or using appropriate
a) Clause 7.1 measures in conjunction withthe ENV loads.
The air density to be used for structures designed
in the United Kingdom should be takenas 5.5 Pressure coefficients
p = 1.225 kg/m2. 5.5.1 Section 10. Aerodynamic eo-cients
5.2.2 Annex A. Meteorological irlformation and a) Clause 10.2.1 (2)
national wind maps
The coefficientsare upper bound valuesas they
a) Figure A. 11 have to account for any higher coefficients which
The wind map should be replacedby figure 1 for may occur whenthe wind blows other than
the design of structures in the United Kingdom. normal or parallel to a face. They have been
For structures to be built in Northern Irelandthe simplified, for codification purposes, to be
data provided in A.9 of ENV 1991-2-4 should not applicable over relatively large surface areas; this
be used. inevitably leadsto some conservatism.
NOTE. It should be noted that the map wind speeds are identical b) Tables 10.2.1 to 10.2.5
to those in BS 6399 : Part 2 despite the fact that the values
are 10 min averages as opposed to hourly mean values in the The pressure coefficients given intables 10.2.1
British Standard. This is due to the mugher terrain usedas the to 10.2.5 for 1 m2 areas are upper bound values.
standard category in ENV 1991-24(zo= 0.05) compared with that
in BS 6399 : part 2 (z0= 0.03).
For normal cladding elementsthe loading can be
based on the 10 m2 values.
5.2.3 Section 8. Wind parameters
Values given for monopitch and duopitch roofsin
a) clause 8 tables 10.2.3 and 10.2.4 are, for 90" wind directions,
ENV 1991-2-4 provides four categoriesof terrain as particularly onerous andfor such cases the
defined in8.2 and given in table8.1, To assist in directional coefficients should be used (see 5.5.2).
the selection of the appropriate terrain category c) Clause 10.2.9
photograpWdiagmm of typical terrains are
provided in annex A of this NAD. The internal pressure coefficients only apply to
enclosed buildings with openingsin only one wall.
For circumstances wherethere are changes in For situations with more than one wall witha
terrain category closeto the site, the simplified
procedure set down in 8.3 (2) and (3) should not dominant opening, reference should be madeto
clause 2.6 of BS 6399 : Part 2.
be used for structures higher than [15]m. In such
circumstances the procedure set down in annexB d) Clause 10.2.1O
may be followed. This clause should not be followed for tiling and
This necessitates the introduction of a further slating. In such circumstances the methodology
terrain category O, which represents opensea and given in BS 5534 : Part 1 should be used.
has the parameters zo = 0.003, h = 0.16. e) Chuse 1O.14
5.3 Obstruction heights The limitations of '/b < or > 70 are unclear. They
Advantage can be taken of the shelter effect of are intended to indicate the ranges within which
buildings upwind in towns, Le. incategories III or IV the slenderness reductionfactor Y X can be used
by using the procedures set down in annexC of this (see figure10.14.1). Therefore, for items 2, 3 and 4
NAD. O f table 10.14.1, if '/b > 70, Y A should be taken
5.4 Limitations on use of ENV 1991-2-4 as 1.0. For item 5 of table 10.14.1 if l/b < 70, Y! X
should be takenas 1.0.
As the majority of UK is within 100 km of a coast,
the wind characteristics at mostsites will be 5.5.2 Direction pressure eo-cients
influenced by the sea and so for buildingsfor which To provide more accurate valuesof pressure
wind loading is a governing condition,the wind coefficients, and values appropriateto the specific
parameters needto be defined more precisely thanis wind direction being considered,tables of directional
necessary on mainland Europe. Forsuch buildings coefficients are given in annexD covering all wind
the wind structure defined inENV 1991-2-4 is not directions, generally in15"segments.
adequate for the unique conditions inthe UK.

DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
5.6 Wind actions on bridges

Specific rules for wind actions on bridges will be
published as Part B of this NAD.
5.7 Wind actions on lattice towers, masts and
chimneys
For lattice towers, guyed masts and chimneys the
procedures set out in ENV 1991-2-4 are inadequate.
SpecMc rules are being developed for such
structures in ENV 199332)and it is recommended
that for lattice tower and guyed masts design, the
relevant clauses in ENV 19933 which are being
based on the principles of ENV 1991-2-4 are followed
when they become available together with specific
rules for the United Kingdom NAD.
2, JJI preparation.
O BSI
COPYRIGHT British 1997
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards ix
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
QQ QR
QW
OA OB
OIL
OQ OR
OW OW
Figure 1. United Kingdom - Wind map (reference velocity)
COPYRIGHT
X British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards
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S T D - B S I DD ENV 1991-2"i-ENGL L997 m L b 2 4 b b 9 085L525 bTb m
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
Annex A (normative)
Photographdiagrams of terrain categories
Figure A.1 Terrain category Oz, = 0.003
COPYRIGHT BritishO BSI 1997

Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xi
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
"
" I
Figure A.2 Terrain category I zo = 0.01

DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
Figure A.3 Terrain category II zo = 0.05
O BSI 1997
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xiii
DD ENV 1991-24: 1997
Figure A.4 Terrain category III zo = 0.3
xiv British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

COPYRIGHT O BSI 1997
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
Figure A.5 Terrain categoryIV z, = 1.0
Annex B (normative) The general equation forthe transition factorfor an

increase in roughness by one category is given by:
’Ikeatment of transition between terrain
categories
B.l Wansition coefficient x is the distance in km from the site to the
To account for sites which are located close tothe location of the increase in roughness
transition betweentwo (or more) terrain categories,a (upwind) (x< 10 km).
transition coefficient c, (x)is introduced appropriate Values of &(x) based on equation B.l are given in
to a site x km from the edge of a category change. table B.l, from which valuesmay be interpolated.
The wind characteristics donot change abruptlyat a
change of roughness. Rather,the wind velocity N usts
gradually to the new roughness in a transition zone
which grows upwards from the ground,as shown by
figure B.la).
B.2 A single increase of roughness by n
Within the transition zonethe wind speed is given by categories
multiplying the value for the new roughness by the
transition factor,c,@). Downwind of the transition To determine whether a location lies aboveor within
zone the wind speed has a u s t e d to the new the transition zone, values of vm(.z) should be
roughness andthis is taken to occur after 10 km from calculated for both cases and the smaller values should
the change in roughness. be used (illustrated in figureB.2). Therefore for change
of roughness:
After a change to a rougher tenrain, the assumption
that the wind speed decreases abruptly would not be from A t o B
safe, so adoption of &(x) is required in a region
extending for 10 km from the increase of roughness,
and corresponding valuesof +(x) are given below.
After a change to a smoother terrain,the assumption
that the wind speed increases abruptlyis safe and
values of c,@) for this case are not to be used.
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xv
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
10 km
Transition zone
I
I
A
a) One change of roughness category
4
10 km H
-
4
10 km b
Firsttransition \
zone transition / Second
zone
Wind
I
A B ' c
b) Two changes of roughness category

Figure B.l. Transition zones at change of roughness category
vt"I,A \
7
Category A B
Figure B.2. Determination of v,&) after change of roughness

STD*BSI DD E N V 3991-2-4-ENGL 1,997 m l b 2 4 b b 9 0853533 9TT m
DD ENV 1991-24: 1997
B.3 Two successive increases in roughness B.4 Graphical presentation of appropriate

within 10 km values of ce(z) for transition zones
Figure B.lb) shows the transition zones fortwo For ease of use appropriate valuesof ce(z) are given in
successive changes of roughness. Within the first figures B.3 to B.8 for sites on effectively level terrain,
transition zone, but beforethe second change of that is where = 1.0, based on equations B.l to B.3
category, the result is the same as for a single change. above and equation 8.4of ENV 1991-2.4. The figures
Similarly, in the second transition zone, but further give values of c, at different heights (2) for distances
than 10 km from the first change of roughness, the (x)in km downwind from the smoother terrain. The
result is the same as for a single change. These zones following transitions are covered in these figures:
are shown by the hatched areas.
However, in the common region shownin figure B.lb) Figure B.3 Category O to category 1
by the solid shading, account should be takenof both Figure B.4 Category 1to category 2
roughness changes. Therefore for changesof
roughness: Figure B.5 Category 2to category 3
Figure B.6 Category 3 to category 4
from A to B to C V,@) = V,&) Figure B.7 Category 1to category 3
or Figure B.8 Category 1to category 4
Category I to II to III V,(Z) = z)~,~(z)
or II to m to IV = cx(xB) Z)mce(z)
03-31
where
xB is the distance from the change to roughness

B downwind to the site; and
xc is the distance from the change to
roughness C downwind to the site.
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xvii
o i 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 io
Figure B.3 c&) values for transition from category O to category 1
O BSI 1997
~~
~
STD.BS1 DD ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL 1997 l b 2 q b b 9 0851533 772

DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
1O00
5.0
4.5
1O0 4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
10
2.0
1.5
1
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 i 8 9 10
x, km
Figure B.4 c&) values for transitionfrom category 1 to category 2
O BSI 1997
xix
”
4-
”“
.- .- -
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x, km
Figure B.6 c&) values for transition from category 2 to category 3

DD ENV 1991-24 : 1997
O i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x, km
Figure B.6 c,(x) values for transition from category 3 to category 4

1O00
100.
10-
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x, km
Figure B.7 ce@) values for transition from category 1 to category 3
xxi O BSI 1997

STDOBSI DD ENV 1991-2-9-ENGL L997 m Zb29bb9 0853537 338
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
1O00 1
-
-
-
:5 ¡.O
-
r4 p . 5
- 4..O
- 31.5
1O0
- 3.O
:2.5
12.o
:1 .5
10
- 1.O
1-
1
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x, km
Figure B.8 c,@) values for transition from category1 to category 4
O BSI 1997
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xxiii
Annex C (normative) lkeatment of The displacement height reduces with separation
distance between buildings,X , particularly across open
minimum height and effect of spaces within, or at the edge of,a built up area. Rules
obstructions to account forthis effect are given below andare
C.l General illustmkd in figure C.1.
The effect of buil- and other ohstructionsis It should be emphasizedthat these rules are direction
generally to modify the wind flow near ground level, dependent, and the most onerous loading direction
creating anartificial ground level below which the needs to be considered. The criteriaset out in these
logarithmic variationin wind speed may not be proposals clearly depend onthe continued existence of
considered applicable. In ENV 1991-24it is assumed the buildings around the site. Care shouldbe exercised
that the wind speedremains constant belowa height to ensure that the loading is not sensitiveto the
z h ,increasing with increasing terrain category dependency on the continuing existence of one or two
(increasing roughness). Forthe United Kingdom this adjacent buildings.
assumption is deemed to be too conservative and a CS Allowance for spacing of obstructions
constant valueof 2 m forz h should be used
independent of terrajn categoq.However this could Where the spacing to the upwind sheltered buildingor
lead to nonconservative results for low-rise buildings permanent obstruction:-
close to tall structures dueto accelerated flow a ) X s UZ,
(see C.4). then&isthelesserof&=0.8h,,orhd=0.6h
C.2 Displacement height and effective height b ) X 5 Sh,,
As noted in C.l in rough terrain suchas towns and then & is givenby =O
cities the windtends to behave as if the ground level c)intherange2h,,<Xc6ho
was raised to a height just below the average roof then & is the lesserof 1.2 h, - 0.2 X or hd = 0.6 h
height, h,,, (obstruction height) leaving an
indeterminate region below whichis often sheltered. In the absence of more accurate information the
This displacement height, &, is a function of the plan obstruction height,h,,, may be taken as:
area densityand general heightof the buildings or Category III IV
obstructions. A value of & = 0.8 h, can be assumed. 8 16
However this is not applicable where the building to h,,
be designed is a similar height or lower than its C.4 Wind around tall buildings
surroundmgs. In these circumstances a displacement Accelerated wind speeds occur close to the base of
height of 0.6h has been assumed. buildings whichare signilïcantly tallerthan the
To allow for this effect the height2 defined in displacement height When considering low-rise
clause 4.2 of ENV 1991-2-4 as the helght above ground buildings which are close to other tall buildings the
should be replacedby an effective heightzeg given by: rules for effective heightw inot necessarily leadto
l
l
zeetp= z - h d conservative values and specialist advice should be
A minimum value of z,ff of 0.4h should beused. sought.
-
Wind
c
/
/
Figure C.l Effective heights
XXiV British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

COPYRIGHT o BSI 1997
STD.BSI DI) ENV L99L-2-4-ENGL L997 m L b 2 4 b b 7 0853539 L90 H
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
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Annex D (normative) D.1.2 Additional symbols

For the purpose of this annex, the following additional
Directional pressure coefficientsfor symbols apply:
buildings a largestdiagonaldimension of theloaded area
D.l General principles and rules envelope (figureD.2)
b, building width, crosswind breadth
D.l.l Scope
ENV 1991-24 providesa method for deriving b, SC- lengthforexternal pressure coefficient
directional windspeeds through the operation of the zones
direction factor,cm on the reference wind velocity, c, sizeeffectfactor
vref, in 7.2. In addition, the site exposure and the E length of eaves
lnfluence of topography may differ by wind direction,
leadlng to different valuesby direction of the G gap acrossrecessedbay or well
roughness coefficient,c, and the topography H buildingheight,eavesheight
coefficient, q,in 8.4. However, the external pressure h height of a parapet above the roofeavelevel
coefficients for buildingsare given in 10.2 'for
orthogonal wind directionsO', go", Ho", but represent L length,longerhorizontaldimension of building
the highest values obtained ina range of wind r radius of curvedeaves
direction O = 445"either side of the relevant
W width, shorter horizontal dimension of building
orthogonal direction'.
This annex gives directional pressure coefficientsto W width ofwedgein reentrant comers
match the directional wind speed given in X distance inwind directionfor
ENV 1991-2-4 and a method for deriving loadson the fetch,
building or component, providing itis not sensitive to building spacing, or
dynamic response (cd < 1.2, see 9.2), in accordance from crest of topographic feature
with the method of wind forces from pressures in 6.1. a pitchangle (from horizontal) of roof or
non-vertical walls
P cornerangle of walls
p direction in degrees east of north
O directionfromnormal to buildingface
Other symbols appear as defined in ENV 1991-24 (and
in the same typeface, e.g.c&r)
Face 3
Cu d
Q)
o
cd
LL
e2=
1
Figure D.l Wind directions for a rectangular-plan building
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xxv
D.1.3 W¿nd direction D.1.5.3 Equation D.l implies an equivalence between
the standard 10 mz area defined in 10.2.1 of
D.1.3.1 The directional wind load method requires ENV 1991-24 : 1995 and thedatum diagonal dimension
knowledge of the wind direction intwo forms: a = 5 m. Note that figure D.3 shows thesize effect
a) in degrees east of north, represented by +, used factor remains constant at Ca = 1 for diagonal lengths
to determine wind speeds and dynamic pressure; leSS than 5 m. This is because trial calculations have
and shown that the valueof Ca does not needto increase
b) in degrees relativeto normal to each building face for diagonal lengths less than 5 m in the main zones
(or around the periphery of a circular-plan building), and because highertabulated values, correspondingto
Cpe,l, have been given inthe peripheral zones.
represented by O, used to determine the pressure
coefficients. D.1.6 Directional internal pressure co&Tcients
D.1.3.2 In practice, it is usually most convenient to
r
e
” both Q, and the vasious valus of O for each
face, 11, a,m, etc., to a standard value of O,
D.1.6.1 For most typical building forms, internal
pressure coefficients do notvary sufficiently with wind
direction to warrant an extension of ENV 1991-24, and
corresponding to a principal axis or reference face of the method given in 10.2.9 should be used. This
the building. This is illustrated in figure D.l for the includes conventional enclosed buildings and buildings
case of a rectangular-plan building. with dominant openings. However, some advantage
D.1.4 Dgnamic pressure may be gained by accounting forthe time taken forthe
int~rnalpressure of large enclosed buildingsto
D.1.4.1 The valueof the dynamic pressureof the respond to changes in windspeed as defined below.
directional method %f(p) in Pa (Nh> is given in 7.2
can the roughness
using values for the direction factor, D.1.6.2 In enclosed buildings, containing external
coefficient, c, and the topography coefficient,q, doors and windowswhich may be kept closed, and
appropriate to the wind direction b e i considered. where any intemal doorsare generally open or are at
least three times more permeable than the external
D.1.4.2 Values of dynamic pressure forvarious values doors and windows, the internal pressure can be taken
of wind speed aregiven in tableD.1. as uniform and appropriateinternal pressure
coefficients are given in table D.2. The relevant
D.1.6 Directional external pressure comcients diagonal dimension a for theintemal pressure may be
D.1.5.1 Directional extemal pressure coefficients are taken as:
given in D.2 to D.4 for a range of building formsin a = 10 X terna^ volume of storey (D.2)
terms of the wind angle, O, relative to the building.
The values in the local zones around the periphery
may be takenas equivalent to the standard values, Table D.2 Internal pressure coefficients for
$e,l, corresponding to an area of 1mz, while the
enclosed buildings
values in the remaining zonesmay be taken as Type of walls
equivalent to the standard values, %,JO, corresponding Cpi,lo
to an area of 10 m2, defined in10.2.1 of ENV 1991-24: ltvo opposite wallsequally permeable, otherfaces
1995. impermeable
D.1.5.2 The effectof size of a loaded area may be Wind normal to penneable face + 0.2
accounted for more precisely bythe use of a size
effect factor, G,where: Wind normal to impermeable face -0.3
Cpe = Cacpe,10 (D.1) Four walls equally permeable; roof -0.3
impermeable
and valuesof the size effect factor,Ca, is given in
figure D.2 in terms of the diagonal, a,of theloaded
area, defined in figureD.3.
D.l Iable Dynamic pressure, qmr,in Pa ( N M ) I

+o +1.0 +2.0 +%O +4.0 +6.0 +6.0 +7.0 +8.0 +9.0
61 74 88 104 120 138 157 177 199 221
245 270 297 324 353 383 414 447 481 516
552 589 628 668 794 751 839
709 885 932
981 1030 1080 1130 1190 1300 1240
1350 1410 1470
1530 1720 1660 1590 1850 1790
1920 1990 2060 2130
2210 2360 22802430 2590 2510
2670 2920 2830 2750
xxvi Q ES1 1997

1 10 1O0 1O00
Diagonal dimensiona (m)
Figure D.2 Size effect factor
Key to lines on figure D.2 1

Effective height Site in country: closest distance to sea Site in town: closest distance to sea
He km km
m o to c2 2 to <lo 10 to cl00 2100 2 to c10 10 to c100 2100
52 A B B B C C C
>2to5 A B B B C C C
>5 to 10 A A B B A C C
>30to50 1A A IA B A IA B
>50 IA A \A B A IA B
D.1.6.3 Where an enclosed building is subdivided D.1.6.4 Where an external opening, such as a door,
into rooms with internal doors not three times more would be dominant when openbut is considered to be
permeable than the external doors, the internal closed in the ultimate limit state, the condition with
pressure may differ between rooms.This will result in door open shouldbe considered as a serviceabiity
net wind loads on internal walls. For external walls, limit state, and the loads assessed using the
provided there are no dominant openings, the internal appropriate partial load factors for serviceab~ty.
pressure coefficient shouldbe taken as either
Cpi,lo = - 0.3 or Cpi,lo = + 0.2, whichever gives the
larger net pressure coefficient acrossthe wall. The
rnaxknum net pressure Coefficient across internal walls
should be takenas ~ i . 1 = 0 0.5. The relevant dmgonaJ
dimension a for the h i e r d pressure may be taken as:
a = IO X vintemal volume of room @-3)
O BSI 1997
a) Diagonals for load on b) Diagonal for total load on
individual faces combined faces
For shear at base of shaded part
m 5
M For cladding panel
c) Diagonals for load on elements of faces
c7
d) Diagonal for total load on gable e) Diagonal for total load on pitch roof
Figure D.3 Definition of diagonal of loaded areas
xxviiiBritish Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards Q BSI 1997

COPYRIGHT
D.1.6.6 An opening will be dominant, and control the represented by an overall loadingof 2.2 divided equally
internal pressure coefficients, when its area between each wall by using a net pressure coefficient
is equal to,
on each sidewall of C ~ ~ , J -
or greater t h a n , twice the sum of the openings in other O cpi,~= ~1.1acting
faces which contribute porosityto the internal volume simultaneously.
containing the opening. Internal pressure coefficients D.1.7 Directional global forces
G ~ ~are
, ~given
o in table D.3 as a fraction of the average
external pressure at the dominant opening$e,l0 D.1.7.1 The global force,F,, on a building may be
obtained from D.2, D.3 or D.4 as appropriate. The taken as the sum of the loads on individual surfaces,
relevant diagonal dimension a depends on the size of providmg it is not sensitive to dynamic response
the dominant opening relativeto the internal volume (cd < 1.2, see 6.1(1) of ENV 1991-24 : 1995). However,
and may be taken as the greater OE since peakloads on each faceof buildings do notact
simultaneously, the resulting summation would be
a = dmgonal dimension of dominant opening (D.4) conservative.
or
D.1.7.2 Accordingly, the overall load on a building of
a = 0.2 X vinte&
volume @a51
arbitrary shape may be represented by the cases
where the internal volumeis the volume of the storey shown in figure D.4 in which all windward-facing walls
or room contauung the dominant opening. are categorized as 'front' and all leeward-facing walls
as 'rear', when the global force, F,, in the wind
Table D.3 Internal pressure coefficients for direction may be taken as:
buildings with dominant openings
F, = 0.85qref G ($e Aref cos2 @)front +
Ratio of dominant opening Internal pressure + %$e Aref COS @)rear 1 P.6)
area to sum of remaining Coefficient
openings and distribution where O is the angle of the wind from normal to the
cpi,lo
of porosity wall andthe factor 0.85 accounts for the
2 0.75 x Cpe,lO non-simultaneous actionof wind pressures.
D.1.7.3 In the case of reentrant corners and recessed
3 0.9 XCp,,lO bays, defined later inD.2.5 and D.2.6, the boundary of
D.1.6.6 Tnternal pressure coefficients c p o for the 'wedge' should betaken as a solid surface normal
open-sided buildings are given in table 4 according to to the flow (cos2@= 1) as indicated in figure D.4b).
the form of the building. The relevant diagonal D.1.7.4 The above procedure implies:
dimension a for use with these coefficients is the a) that the positive pressure acting oneach
diagonal dimension of the open face. In table D.4,a windward-facing wall reduces with wind angle
wind direction of O = O" corresponds to wind normal normal to the wall in proportion to cos O;
and blowing intothe open face, or the longer face in b) the negative pressure actingon leeward-facing
the case of two or three open faces. walls is taken as constant with wind angle;
D.1.6.7 For buildings with two opposite open faces, c) that face loads are resolved vectoriallyto give the
wind skewed at about O = 45" to the axis of the overall load in the wind direction.
building, blowingthrough the building, increasesthe Walls ahgned exactly parallel to the wind give no
overall side force.This load case should be resolved componentin the wind direction.
Table D.4 Internal pressure coefficients for open sided buildings

Wind One open face Two or more adjacent open faces
direction Shorter face Longer face open Longer') and Longer') and
o open one shorter both shorter
Upwind third Downwind Middle third
third face open faces open
~
O" ~ +Ö.85- + 0.68 + 0.68 + 0.68 + 0.77 + 0.60

f 30" + 0.71 + 0.54 + 0.70 + 0.80 + 0.77 + 0.50
f 60" + 0.32 I + 0.38 I + 0.44 I + 0.54 + 0.77 + 0.30
f 90" -0.60 I -0.40 I -0.40 I -0.40 + 0.77 or -0.38 O
If 120" I -0.46 1 -0.46 1 -0.46 I -0.46 I -0.53 I -0.63 I
f 150" -0.31 -0.40 -0.40 I -0.40 -0.60 -0.49
180" -0.16 -0.16 -0.16 I -0.16 -0.33 -0.39
Two values are given for 'Longer and one shorter': the positive values corresponding to the short face downwind the negative value
corresponding to the short face upwind.
Apply values for the case 'Longer and both shorter' to underside of roof only. For the single wall, use pressure coefficients for walls
given in table D.5.
~~
O BSI 1997
xxk
~~
STD-BSI DD ENV 199L-2-9-ENGL 1997 D lb29bb7 0853594 5 5 8 m '
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
&
No resolved
component in
wind direction
Smallest
enclosing
rectangle
a) General case for arbitmty4aped buildmg
A
\
Rear
b) Building with reentrant comer (see figure D7)

Figure D.4 Key to global force, F
'
'
xxx Q BSI 1997

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~
~-
S T D - B S I D D ENV L773-2-4-ENGL L997 W Lb24bb9 0853545 494 m

DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
D.2 External pressure coefficients for walls of D.2.1.2 The wind direction O is defined as the angle
buildings of the wind from normal to the wall being considered
as defmed in D.1.2. The reference height,x,, is the
D.2.1 Vertical walls of rectangular-plan buildings height above ground of the top of the wall, including
D.2.1.1 Pressure coeffkients for walls of any parapet, or the top of the part if the building has
rectangular-plan buildmgsare given in table D.5 for the been divided intoparts according to the provisions
zones as defined in the key, figure D.5. Zones A and B given in 10.2.2 of ENV 1991-24: 1995. For the
should be defined, measuring their widthfrom the crosswind breadth, b,, inwind depth, d, and budding
upwind edge of the wall. If zones A and B do not height, H, see ENV 1991-24. The scaling length,bs, for
occupy the whole of the wall, zoneD should be defining the zones is given by:
defined from the downwind edge of the wall. If zone D
does not occupy the remainderof the face, zoneC is b, = b, or 0.7)
then defined as the remainder of the face between
b, = Z i , whichever is thesmaller. (D.@
zones B and D.
' NOTE 2. When the result of interpolating between positive and negative values is in the range - 0.2 < c ~ ~< + , ~ the coefficient
, 0.2,
should be taken as c,, = i 0.2 and both possible values used.
edge
Upwind
,
7 1 :{Downwind
edge
Figure D.5 Key for vertical walls of buildings
BSI 1997
COPYRIGHT BritishO Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xxxi
D.2.1.3 Where walls of two buildmgs face each other D.2.2.2 Provided the lengthof the adjacent upwind
and the gap between them is less than bs and greater face is greater than bJ5 the peak suction coefficients
than bJ4, some funnelling of the flowwill occur for zoneA (given in tableD.5) can be reduced by
between the buildings. Themaximum effect occursat multiplying them by the reduction factor appropriate to
a spacingof b& and is maintained over a rangeof the aajacent corner angleß given in table D.6. Note
wind angles f 45" from normal to the axis of the gap. that a rectangular corner,ß = go', gives the highest
In this c i r c w c e , the following rules apply. local suction in zone A.
a) Over the range of wind angle - 45" < O < + 45",
the windward-facing wallis sheltered by the "hble D.6 Reduction factors for zoneA on
leeward-facing wall ofthe other building. The vertical walls of polygonal-plan buildings
positive pressures in tableD.5 apply where the wall 60" 90" 120" 150"
is directly exposedto the wind, but conservative Corner angleß
values should be given forthe whole wall. Reduction factor 0.7 1.0 0.6 0.2
b) Over the ranges of wind angle -135" O < - 45" NOTE. Interpolation is allowed in the range 60" < /3 c 150".
and + 45" O <+ 135", funnelling occurs. Values for
zone A at O = f 90"shouldbe multiplied by 1.2. D.2.2.3 Whenever the value of pressure coefficientfor
Values for zoneB at O = k 90" should be multiplied peak suction in zonesB and C are more negative than
by 1.1 and applied to all parts of zones B to D which A, the
the reduced pressure coefficient in zones
face the other building over these ranges of wind reduced zoneA values shouldbe applied to these
angle. These funnehg factors give the maximum zones also.
effect which correspondsto a gap width of b& and
interpolation is permitted in the rangeof gap width D.2.3 Piangular gable walls
from bs/4 to b,. D.2.3.1 Pressure coefficients for thetriangular gable
c) Over the ranges of wind angle -180" < O < +135" walls formed by steep duopitch roofsor non-vertical
and + 135" < O < +180", the values of pressure walls (A-frame buildings) in the range 30" 5 (Y 5 75"
coefficient remain the sameas given in table D.5. are given in tableD.7 for zonesH to K as defined in
figure D.6. For the gable walls formed by duopitch
D.2.2 W t i c a l walk O f p O l ~ g O ~ l -buildings
pl~ roofs of pitches less than a = 30" or by non-vertical
D.2.2.1 The pressure coefficients given in table D.5 walls of pitches greaterthan a = 75" (nearly vertid)
should also be used for the vertical wallsof the general method given inD.2.1 should be used
polygonal-plan buildings. In such cases there may be D.2.3.2 The wind direction O is defined as the angle
any number of faces greaterthan or e qd to 3. of the wind from normalto the wall being considered
However, the wind direction, principal dimensions and The reference height,Xe, is the height of the peak of
scaling length remainas defmed in D.2.1.2. Instead of the gable.
calculating the crosswind breadth,b,, and inwind
depth, d, for the complex building plan at every wind
angle, these dimensions may be determined from the
smallest rectangleor circle which enclosesthe plan
shape of the building.
Table D.7 Pressure coefficients for verticalgable walls adjacentto non-vertical walls and roofs
Wind Pitch of adjacent wall or roof
30' 5 a 5 75'
direction dlH dH24
a
H I J K H I J K
0" + 0.25 + 0.80 + 0.80 + 0.26 + 0.18 + 0.57 + 0.57 + 0.18
f 30" + 0.70 + 0.75 + 0.50 0.2f + 0.50 + 0.54 + 0.36 f 0.20
f 60" + 0.50 + 0.40 k 0.2 -0.25 + 0.36 + 0.29 f 0.20 f 0.20
f 90" -1.10 -0.80 -0.70 -0.60 -1.10 -0.80 -0.70 -0.60

f 120" -1.30 -0.60 -0.75 -0.50 -1.30 -0.75 -0.60 -0.50
f 150" -0.30 -0.25 -0.25 -0.18 -0.18 -0.18
-0.21 -0.25
f 180" -0.25 -0.25 -0.25 -0.25 -0.18 -0.18 -0.18 -0.18
NOTE 1. Interpol&on may be used between given wind directions and for dlH in the range 1 d/H < 4.
NOTE 2. When the result of interpolating between positive and negativevalues is in the mage -0.2 < cpe,lo < + 0.2, the coefficient
*
should be taken as Cpe 10 = 0.2 and both possible values used.
xxxii British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

COPYRIGHT O BSI 1997
STD-BSI DD ENV 3993-2-4-ENGL
3997
3b24bbS
0853547 2b7 m
DD ENV 1991-24: 1997
I-
a) Duopitch roof
w/2
I
D C B A
r
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
b) Monopitch roof
Figure D.6 Key to vertical gable walls
D.2.3.3 Where gables of two buildings face each other b) Over the ranges of wind angle -135"~O -45"
and the gap between themis less than b, some and +45" < O +135", funnehg occurs. Values for
funnelling of the flow will occur between the buildings. zone H at O = f 90"should be multiplied by 1.2.
The maximum effect occurs at a spacing of b& and is Values for zoneI at O = f 90" should be multiplied
*
maintained over a range of wind angles 45" from by 1.1 and applied to a l l parts of Zones I to K which
pamllel to the axis of the gap. In this circumstance, the face the other building over theseranges of wind
following rules apply. angle. These funnellingfactors give the maximum
a) Over the range of wind angle -45"~O < +45", effect which correspondsto a gap width of b,/2 and
the windward-facing gableis sheltered by the interpolation is permitted in the range of gap widths
leeward-facing gable of the other building. The from b,/4 to b,.
positive pressures in table D.7 apply where the gable c) Over the ranges of wind angle -180" O c
is directly exposed to the wind, but @ve - 135" and +135"< O < +180", the values of pressure
conservative valuesfor the whole gable. coefficient remain the same as given in table D.7.
O BSI 1997 XxXiii

D.2.4 Non-vertical walls D.2.6 Buildings with re-entrant corners
D.2.4.1 Pressure coefficients for windward-facing The procedure ofD.2.1 should be used for the vertical
non-vertical wallsin the range O = f 90" are given in walls of buildings contaming re-entrant corners,such
table D.8 for the zones A to D defmed in figure D.5. For as L, T, X and Y shaped buildings in plan. The
all other wind angles, pressures on non-vertical walls defhition of the zones and their extentis given below,
should be taken as the same as for verticalwalls. using figure D.7 as reference.
D.2.4.2 The wind direction O is defined as the angle a) For the facesof the upwind wing,the crosswind
of the wind from normal to thewall being considered breadth and the heightof the wing should be used
*
and is limited here to the rangeO = 90". The pitch to determine thescaling parameter b,. For all other
wings the overall crosswind breadthof the building
angle CY is defined as the angle from horizontal, hence
CY = 90" for vertical walls. The reference height,Ze, is should be used. However,instead of calculating the
the height above groundof the top of the wall. crosswind breadth, b,, and inwind depth,d, for the
complex builcllng plan at every wind angle, these
D.2.4.3 The pressure coefficients for non-vertical dimensions may be determined fromthe smallest
walls in table D.8 are essentially identicalto the rectangle or circle which enclosesthe plan shape of
pressure coefficients for steep pitched roofs D.3,in the upwind wing, or of the whole building,
allowing for the differences in defhition of zones, respectively.
therefore at large pitch angles (CY> 45") the distinction
between 'wall' and 'roof' is irrelevant. Steeppitched b) For faces withtwo external corners, zonesA, B,
surfaces which meetalong the top edgeto form a C and D are defmed in accordance with D.2.1.
ridge, e.g. 'A-frame' buil-, are better interpreted as c) For faces with one upwind (external) corner and
'duopitch roofs', f a h g under the provisionsof D.3.4. one downwindreentrant corner, zonesA, B and C
are defined (zoneD does not apply).
Table D.8 Pressure coefficients for
windward-facing non-vertical walls d) For faces with one upwindreentrant corner and
Wall (or roof) pitch c1 = 30"
one downwind external corner, zones C and D are
defined (zonesA and B do not apply).
B C D
e) In reentrant comers that face directly into the
0" + 0.31 + 0.46 + 0.51 + 0.46 wind a wedgethat extends from the internal corner
f 30" + 0.42 + 0.42 + 0.39 + 0.20 with the faceof the wedge normalto the wind
fo.20 ko.20 direction is defined. The width ofthe wedge W
f 60" -0.88 kO.20
f. 90" -1.26 -0.55 *0.20 * 0.20 should be taken as:
W = bs,
Wind Wall (or roof)pitch Q = 45"
direction A IB IC ID or
le I I I I W = the width of the wedge limited by an external
O" (+O.@ (+O.@ (+0.68 (+O.@ corner (marked limitof wedge),
30" I +O.& I +O.63 I+O.M I +0.44 whichever is the smaller.
f soo- I + 0.20 I + 0.38 I + 0.30 I + 0.22
f 90" -1.27 I -0.57 I 0.20 1 0.20 * f) The pressure coefficients for the zonesso defined
should be obtainedfrom table D.5, appropriate to
Wind Wall (or roof) pitchc1 = 45" the wind angle O measured from normal to each
direction A IB IC ID Wall.
g) The pressure coefficients forthe zones that lie
O" I + 0.50 I + 0.57 + 0.80 I + 0.57 within the defined wedge should be taken for zone C
30" I + 0.77 I + 0.59 + 0.62 I + 0.39 at O = 0" from tableD.5.
If 60" I +a59 I + 0.37 I + 0.35 I +x20
90" I -1.21 I -0.44 I f 0.20 I f 0.20 D.2.6 Build'ings with recessed balls
Wind 1 Wall (or roof) pitch a = 30' D.2.6.1 Buildings where there are recessed openings,
direction A B C D
8 such as porches, balconies, or betweenthe wing3 of a
O" + 0.58 + 0.81 + 0.81 + 0.81 building, should be treatedas follows, usingfigure D.8
as reference.
f 30"
f 60" + 0.78 + 0.55 + 0.41 + 0.32 a) The parameterb, should be determinedin
accordance withD.2.1.2. However, instead of
f 90" calculalhg thecrosswind breadth,bc, and inwind
NOTE 1. Interpolation between given wind directions may be
depth, d, for the complexbujldmg plan at every
NöTE 2. For pitches between a = 75" and 9o'(vertical) wind angle, these dimensionsmay be determined
interpolation may be used using TableD.5 for which a = 90" from the smallest rectangle or circle which encloses
NOTE 3. When the result of interpolating between positiveand the relevant plan shape defined in b) or c), below.
negative values is in the range -0.2 < c,,lo < +0.2, the
*
coefficient should be takenas c,,lo = 0.2 and both possible
values used.

DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
AB C
i
A
Wind B
direction shown
( e,< 450)
C
C
D
A B C C cc D
]i
D D
AB C D
Figure D.7 Key for walls of buildings with re-entrant corners
b) If G <b,/2 the recess is categorized as narrow. The D.2.8 Irregular faces and inset walls
wall in which the recess occurs should be assessed
as if the recess did not existas shown in D.2.8.1 IrregzLEar~mhfaces
figure D.8 a). The pressure coefficient corresponding External pressure coefficients forthe flush walls of
to the position of the recess should be appliedto all buil- with corner cut-outs in elevation,as
the walls insidethe recess. For peak cladding loads illustrated in figureD.9, which include, for example,
at the mouth of the m o w recess, additional local buildings with a lower wingor extension built flush
zone A at the external edgeof the walls of the recess with the main builcimg, should be derived as follows:
should be defined as indicated in Figure D.8 a). The a) Cut-out downwind,as in figun D. 9 u) and c)
relevant planshape for calculatingb, is that of the
whole building. The loaded zones onthe face should be dividedinto
vertical strips from the upwind edge of the face with
c) If G >bs/2 the recess is categorized as wide. The the dunensions shown in figureD.5, in terms of the
procedure in D.2.5 for buildings with reentrant scaling length b,, making no special allowance for
corners should be applied as indicated in the presence of the cut-out. Thescaling length, b,,
figure D.8 b). The relevant plan-shape for calculating should be determined fromthe height, H, and
b, is that of any upwind wing, or of the whole
building, respectively. crosswind breadth,b,, of the windward face.
D.2.6.2 Where the recessed bay is limited in height by b) Cut-out upwind, as in Figure D.9 b) and d)
a floor or a soffit, the pressure in the recess should be The loaded zones onthe face are divided into
taken to act on the floor and soffit in addition to the vertical strips immediately downwind of the upwind
Walls. edges of the upper and lower part of the face
D.2.7 Buildings with internal wells formed by the cut-out. The SC- length, bs,l, for
the zones of the upper part is determined from the
D.2.7.1 For buildings with internal wells, the pressure height, H l , and crosswind breadth, bc,l, of the upper
coefficient forthe external walls are unaffected by the inset windward face. The scaling length,bs,z, for the
well and should be derived in accordancewith the zones of the lower part should be determined from
preceding rules, as appropriate. the height, Hz, and crosswind breadth, b , , ~ of
, the
D.2.7.2 Pressure in the well is dominated by flow lower windward face. The reference height for the
over the roof and should be derived as follows: upper and lower partis the respective height above
a) When the gap across the well, G, is smaller than ground forthe top of each part.
bs/2 the pressure in the well may be taken as The pressure coefficients for zonesA, B and C should
uniform and equal to the pressure on the roof then be obtained from tableD.5.
containing the well.
b) When G >b& the procedure for reentrant
corners in D.2.5 should be used.
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards
-
D A
4
G > bJ2
1
D
C B A
J
b) Wide recess
Figure D.8 Key for walls of buildings with recessed bays
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards O BSI 1997
x'
II
N@
/
A
/ /
B
/ / / /
C
/ / / / / / /
-
Wind
C
/ / / / /
a) Cutmt downwind tall part long
I
b) Cut-out upwindtall part long
I T
z- Wind
It".@ Wind
c) Cut-out downwind tall part n m w Cut-out

d) upwind tall part
narrow T
Figure D.9 Key to flush irregular walls
O BSI 1997 xxxvii

D.2.8.2 Walls of inset storeys b>Edge of facejlush with edge of lower-stmeg, as in
Extemal pressure coefficients for the walls of inset Figure D.10b)
storeys, as illustrated in figure D.10 should be derived Where the upwind edgeof the wall is flush, or inset
as follows. less than 0.2bS,l from the upwind edge of the lower
a) Edge of face insetfimnedge of lower stony, as storex the procedurein a) above should be
in figure D.10a) followed, butan additional zoneE should be
included as defined in figure D.lOb) with an external
For the inset walls, providedthat the upwind edge pressurecoefficientof 10 = -2.0. The reference
of the wall is inset a distance at least 0.2bs,1 from the height for zoneE shoul de taken as the top of the
upwind edge of the lower storey (wherebS,1is the lower storey The greater negative pressure (suction)
scaling parameter for the upperstorey), the loaded determined for zoneE or for the underlying zone A
zones are defined from the proportionsof the upper in a), above, should be used.
storey, assuming the lower roof to be the ground
plane. However, the reference height,ze, is taken as The pressure coefficientsfor zones A, B and C may
the actual height of the top of the wall above then be obtained from table D.5.
ground.
from edge of lower storey

a) Edge of face inset
b) Edge of face flush with edge of lower storey

Figure D.10 Key for walls of inset storey

DD ENV 1991-24: 1997
D.3 External pressure coefficients for flat roofs D.3.2.2 The wind direction O is defined as the angle
of buildings of the wind from normalto the eaves of the section of
roof being considered, as defined in figure D.ll. The
D.3.1 Choice of method reference height,4 , is the height above ground of the
D.3.1.1 A general method for determinhg the wind top of the roof. The crosswind breadth,b,, and inwind
pressures on flat, or nearly flat roofs of buildings with depth, d, are defined in figure D.13. However, instead
any arbitrary plan shape is given in D.3.2. This general of calculathg the crosswind breadth, b,, and inwind
method also accounts forthe variations in high local depth, d, for the complex building plan at every wind
suction aroundthe periphery of the roof caused by angle, these dimensionsmay be determined fromthe
various common forms of eaves detail. smallest rectangle or circle which enclosesthe plan
shape of the building. The scaling length,b,, defining
D.3.1.2 A simpler method, restricted to the zones is given by:
rectangular-plan buildingsonly, is given in D.4.3
Monopitch roofs, assuming the flat roof to be a
monopitch roof with zero pitch angle. The general bs = be, or
method may be used forall roofs of pitch less than b, = 2 H , whichever is the smaller.
o = 5".
D.3.2 General method D.3.2.3 Application of the zones in accordance with
the definition of figure D.11 should be repeated for
D.3.2.1 The roof should be subdivided into sections every section of the roof until pressure coefficientsfor
by lines drawn in the wind direction through each all zones overthe whole roof have been defined.
upwind-facing corner. Zonesof pressure coefficient are F'igure D.12a) shows the completed assignment for the
defined for each section from the upwind corner as arbitrary shape and wind directionused in figure D.11.
given by the key figureD.11. The shape of the roof in Figure D.12b) shows the zones for the same shaped
figure D.ll represents a t y p i c a l arbitmy roof plan. roof, but a different wind direction. The examples of
figure D.12 cover most conditions likelyto be
encountered.
Figure D . l l Key to general methodfor flat roofs
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xxxix
D.3.3 Flat m f s with sharp eaves D.3.4 Flat roofs with parapets
External pressure coefficients for each zone offlat D.3.4.1 A parapet along any eaves or edgewill reduce
roofs with sharp eaves are @en in table D-9-sharp the pressurec&ficients in zones A to D immediately
eaves reprent the Onerous loading COnditiOn @went to that eaves, but thep r e m e s in zones E, F
(most negative pressure). Pressure coefficients for and G will be d m .The external pressure
other common types of eaves are given in D.3.4 coefficients for zonesA to D in table D.9 should be
to D.3.7. multiplied by the appropriate reductionfactors given in
table D.lO, dependent on the height ofthe parapeth, as
defined in Sgve D.l4a), and the eaves height,H, or
crosswind width, be Note that the reference height,ze,
is the height above groundof the top of the parapet.
a) Assignment of zones for arbitrary shape according to wind directionof Sgure D11
b) hsignment of mnes for arbitmy shape accordingta a diff'erent wind direction

Figure D.12 Examples of zones of flat roof of arbitrary plan shape
O BSI 1997
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
Plan
u/ / I
General case Orthogonal cases

Figure D.13 Definitions of crosswind breadth, inwind depth, wide angle
Table D.10 Reduction factorfor zonesA to D of D.3.6 Flat roofs with mansard eaves
flat roofs with parapets For flat roofs with mansard eaves,as defined in
Local Parapet height ratio Wb,
figure D.14c), the zones start from the edge of the flat
wind part of the roof. Extemal pressure coefficients for each
O 0.5 0.10 2 0.20
direction zone are given in table D.12 dependent on the pitch of
e the mansard eaves, a.
O" 0.76 1.00 0.67 0.56 D.3.7 Flat roofs with inset storeys
* 30" 1.00 0.90 0.88 0.70 For flat roofs with inset storeys, pressure coefficients
* 60" 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.74 for boththe upper and lower roof shouldbe derived as
* 90" 1.00 0.84 0.60 0.60
follows.
I NOTE. Interpolation may be used. I a) For the upper roof the appropriate procedure
of D.3.3 to D.3.6, depending on the form of the
eaves, should be used,talung the reference height,
D.3.4.2 Loading of the parapet walls should be ze, as the actual height to theupper eaves, butH
determined in accordance with 10.4.1 of ENV 1991-2-4 : should be taken as the height of the inset storey
1995 for freestanding boundary W& and, forthe (from the upper eaves to the lower roof level) for
downwind parapets,the procedure for shelter. determining the scaling length6,.
D.3.5 Flat roofs with curved eaves b) For the lower roof the appropriate procedure
of D.3.3 to D.3.6, depending on theform of the
For flat roofs with curved eaves,as defined in eaves, shouldbe used, wherex, = H, the actual
figure D.l4b), the zones start from the edge of the flat height of the lower storey, ignoringthe effect of the
part of the roof. Extemal pressure coefficients foreach inset storeys. In addition, two further zones, X and Y,
zone are given in table D.ll dependent on the ratio of around the base of the inset storeys are defined in
the eaves corner radius,r, to the height of the eaves. figure D.15 where the scaling parameter,bs, is based
on the dimensions of the upper, inset storey.
O BSI 1997 xli

ì
DD ENV 1991-24: 1997
Parapets a) b) Curved eaves C ) Mansardeaves
Figure D.14 Key to eave details for flat roofs

I
Plan
J
X
Lbs12
storey
Upper
Lower storey
I
i
Figure D.16 Additional zones around inset storey
c) In zones X and Y the p r e m e s should be taken as the Merences in definition of zones. Therefore at
the presfllres appropriateto the wall mnes A to D large pitch angles (a > 451 the distinction between
on each adiacent insetstorev wall from D.2.
v
'wall' and 'roof' is irrelevant Steep&ched surfaces
D.4 External pressure coefficients for pitched attached
interpreted the topof vertical w&'areunder
to as falling
better
the
roofs of buildings
provkions of D.4. Steeppitched surfaces springing
O BSI 1997
I Table D.ll External pressure coefficients for flat roofs with curved eaves
O BSI 1997 xlii

DD ENV 1991-24: 1997
D.4.2 Scaling length and n$erence height D.4.4.2 When all wind directions are considered,
symmetry leads to four possible patternsof zones for
D.4.2.1 Two d u e s are required
for the scaling each form of roof, as shown in figure D.17b). Wind
length, b,: normal to either theeaves (O = 0") or the verge
(O = 90") provides special cases where eitherof two
bs,L = L or, Because of the
patterns in figure D.17b) could apply.
=W whichever is smalleq fluctuations of wind direction found in practice, both
patterns shouldbe considered, in order to give the
and expected range of asymmetric loading.
= W or,
D.4.4.3 When a c lo"and W < b,, zones E and F
bs,w = W whichever is smaller. should be considered to extend for a distance b&!
downwind from the windward eave, replacing zonesL,
Where L and Ware the longer and shorter horizontal MandNandpartofzonesOandP.Thisloadcase
dimensions of the building, respectively. should be compared with the standard load case
defined in figure D.18 andthe more onerous condition
D.4.2.2 The reference height, ze, is the height above should be used.
ground of the highest point on the roof, the high eaves
in the case of monopitch and troughed duopitch roo&, D.4.6 Hipped rosfs
and the ridge inthe caseof ridged duopitch and
hipped roofs. D.4.6.1 The following provisions apply to
conventional hipped roo& on rectangular plan
D.4.3 Monopitch mfs buildings, where the pitch of themain ridged faces
have pitch anglea1 and thetxhguhr side faces have
D.4.3.1 External pressure coefficients for monopitch pitch angle q . Zones of external pressure coefficient
roofs are given in table D.13 for the zonesA to J are defined in figure D.19. Local wind directions 8 1
defined in figure D.16. These zonesare defined from and 02 are defined from normalto the longer and
the upwind corner. Notethat the pitch anglea is taken shorter eaves, respectively, where& = 90" - 81.
as positive when the low eavesare upwind and
negative with the high eaves upwind D.4.6.2 For the main ridged faces, the pitch is 81, the
wind direction is a1 and the zonesare Al to YI,and
D.4.3.2 When all wind directions are considered, for the triangular side faces, the pitchis a2,the wind
symmetq leadsto four possiblepatterns of zones for direction is 02 and the zonesare A2 to Y2,The
each form of roof,as shown infigure D.17a). Wind reference height, ze, is the height ofthe height above
normal to either the eaves(O = o") or the verge ground of the ridge.
(O = 90") provides special cases where eitherof two
patterns in figure D.17a) could apply. Because of the D.4.6.3 External pressure coefficients for zonesA
fluctuations of wind direction found in practice, both to E on the upwind faces are given in table D.13.
patt~rnsshould be considered,in order to give the External pressure coefficients for zones O and P on the
expeded range of asymmetric loadhg.In the special downwind faces are given in table D.14. The size of
case O = o'the two load cases have symmetrically each of these zonesis given in the key to duopitch
identical d u e s , whereas inthe special case 8 = 90" roofs, figure D.N.
the two load cases differ one with the pitch angle
positive and the edge zones along the low eaves; the D.4.6.4 External pressure coefficients for the
other withthe pitch angle negative and the edgemnes additional zonesT to W along the hip ridges and for
along thehigh eaves. zones X and Y along the main ridge are given in
table D.15. The width of eachof these additional zones
D.4.3.3 Loading of rectangular plan flat or nearly flat in plan is shown in figure D.19b). The boundary
roofsintherange-5"ca<B0maybeassessedas between each pair of additional zones,T to U, V to W
monopitch roofs as a simpler alternativeto the general and X to Y, is the mid-point of the respective hipor
method forflat roofs in D.3. In this case, when the main ridge.
roof is long in the wind direction,d > b&, a downwind
zone equivalent to zone G in figure D.ll may be D.4.6 Mixed gabled and hipped m$s
defined for which%,lo = %.2. Roofs with a standard gable at one end anda hip at
the otherare a frequent occurrence.In such c a s e s , the
D.4.4 Duupitch roclfs governing criterionis the form of the upwind comer
D.4.4.1 External pressure coefficients for duopitch for the wind direction being considered.
roofs are given in tableD.13 for the zonesA to J and
table D.14 forthe zonesK to S defined in Sgure D.17.
These zones are defined from the upwind corner of
each face. Note that the pitch angleOL is taken as
positive when the roofhas a central ridgeand negative
when the roof has a central trough.
XliV O BSI 1997

Table D.13 External pressure coefficients for pitched roof zones A to J
Zone -7
. Pressure change rapidly from negative to positive with increasing pitch between OL = 15" and a = 30' and values for both signs
are given.

-
Wind
i t
Pitch angle positive Pitch angle negative
a) General
t
E F
4 bS,L/2
c
b) Keyto zones
Figure D.16 Key to monopitch roofs

DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
Wind
P d
M BI C D
,,iF/
I
Wind f 4 Wind
a) Symmetries for monopitch roofs
Wind1
P d
Wind fb) Symmetries for duopitch roofs

4 Wind
Figure D.17 Symmetries for pitched roofs
COPYRIGHT BritishO Standards

BSI 1997 Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xlvii
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
I-Ïble D.14 External pressure coefficients

for pitched roof zones K to S 1
I Pitch angle
la L
M N O P Q R 5
O" -0.92 -0.92 -0.75 -0.75-0.75-0.92 -0.63 -0.63 -0.63

-45" * 30" -0.52 -1.12
f0.20-1.12 -0.52
-1.12 -0.32 -0.32-0.32
f 60" - 1.04 - 1.04 - 1.04 -0.24 -0.73 -0.24 -1.05 -1.05
f 90" -1.17 -0.96 -0.86 -0.33 -0.88 -0.28 -1.25 -1.08
O"
I
I
-0.78
I
I -0.78
I
I -0.78
I
I -0.66 I
I
-0.47 -0.40
-0.40 -0.66
I*
I
-30" l
f 30" I -0.44
1
I -0.44 I -0.44 I -0.52 I f 0.20 I
f 0.20 -0.52
f 0.20
I 1
- 15"
O"
f
*
60"
90"
f 30"
f 60"
-0.74
-1.13
-0.69
I 0.20
-0.67
*
-0.74
-0.94
I * 0.20
-0.27 -0.74
*
-062
f 0.20
-0.19 -0.77
-0.52 -0.69
-0.26
0.20 -0.67
7 -0.27
-0.19
-0.69 -0.52
-0.65 -0.67f 0.20 -1.03

-1.01
-1.25
-1.01 -1.01
-0.21 -0.21
-0.21
I f 0.20 I f 0.20 f 0.20 f 0.20 I -0.55 I -0.55 I -0.55
-1.03 -1.03
1
I
f 90" -1.20 -0.84 -0.58 I -0.27 -0.64 fO.20 I -1.42 I -1.10 1 -1.30
I
I I I
O" I -0.34 I -0.34 I -0.34 I -0.25 -0.25 -0.25 I -0.28 1 -0.28 I -0.28
-5" f 30" f 0.20 fO.20
f 0.20 kO.20 -0.26
f 60" -0.69 -0.69 -0.66
f 0.20 -0.69
*
90" -1.21 -0.83 -0.55 -0.25 -0.61 f 0.20
O" -0.27 -0.32 -0.28 -0.28

f 0.20 f 0.20
+5" 30"
+_ -0.46 -0.70-0.30 -0.23 -0.31 f 0.20 -0.71 -0.59 -0.46
f 60" -0.52 -0.90 -1.04 -0.56
f 0.20 f 0.20 -0.97 -0.83 -0.73
f 90" I -0.90 I -0.83 I -0.58 I f0.20 -0.60 f 0.20 I -0.89 I -0.89 1 -1.09 I
I O" I -0.8 I -0.81 I -0.80 -0.78 I -0.39 I -0.40 I -0.85 I -0.55 -0.39
+ 15" f 30" -1.14 -1.32-1.11 -0.88 -0.46 -0.34 -1.25 -0.47-0.81
f 60" -1.31 -0.58
-0.72 -0.92 -0.57 -0.23 -1.08 -1.45-0.75
f 90" -0.81 -0.74 -0.54 fO.20 -0.58I I* 0.20 I -0.83 -0.77 -0.92
O" -0.29 %.26 -0.25 -0.30 I -0.30 I -0.30 I -0.31 -0.32 -0.33
+ 30" f 30" -0.43 -0.39 -0.43 -0.76 -0.51 -0.40
f 60" -0.64 -0.58 -0.47 -0.67 -1.02
-0.64
I I I I
-0.21 I -0.49 I f 0.20 I -0.67 I -0.58
I I
-0.69 1
I I O" I -0.21 I -0.21 I -0.21 I M.20 I -0.23 I -0.23 I -0.21 I -0.24 I -0.26 I
f 60" -0.54 -0.54 -0.44
-0.41 -0.51 -0.38 -0.45 -0.47 -0.50
f 90" -0.55 -0.46 -0.38 f0.20 -0.40 f 0.20 -0.60 -0.45 -0.47
O" -0.49 -0.49 -0.40 -0.40 -0.30 -0.30 -0.57 -0.57 -0.57
+ 60" f 30" -0.63 -0.63 -0.71 -0.40
-0.40 -0.69 -0.67 -0.67
-0.67
f 60" -1.00 -1.00 -0.60 -0.63
-0.74 -0.42 -0.91 -0.91 -0.91
f90' 1 -0.72 I -0.72 I -0.24 I f0.20 I -0.60 f 0.20 -1.21 -1.21 -121
O" I -0.54 I -0.54 I -0.43 I -0.43 I -0.30
+ 75" f 30" -0.71 -0.71 -0.64 -0.63 -0.40
f 60" -1.13 -1.13 -0.31 -0.67
-1.15
I f90" 1 -0.79 I -0.79 I -0.42 1 -0.21 I -0.80 I *O20 I -1.21 I -1.21 I -1.21 I
NOTE 1. Interpolation may be used, except between Q = +5" and a = -5'.
NOTE 2. When the result of interpolating between positive and negative values is in the range -0.2 < c,,lo < +0.2, the coefficient
should be taken as c,, = f 0.2 and both Dossible values used.
~-
O BSI 1997
-
STD-BSI DD ENV 199L-2-4-ENGL L997 Lb24bbS

O8515b3 4OT m
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
Ridged,
angle
pitch
positive
Troughed,
angle
pitch negative
a) General
S
O P
-
R
N 5
7
JI E F
ri
A B C D
c
bs,L/4 J
bS,L/2 m
1U
4-
b) Key to zones
Figure D.18 Key for duopitch roofs
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards xlix
a) General
I
L
-m
/'O
I
Wind
b) Key to zones
Figure D.19 Key for hipped roofs

STD-BSI DD ENV 179L-Z-V-ENGL L997 W l b 2 V b b 9 08515b5 282
DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
Table D.15 External pressure coefficients for additional zones U to Y of hipped roofs
Pitch ande I Localwind I Additional zones
D.4.7 Enect of parapets on pitched roofs D.4.7.3 Duopitch roofs:

a) Upwind face
D.4.7.1 The effects of parapets should be taken into
account to determine pressure coefficients on pitched For the part of the roof below the top of the
roofs. Owing to the way that parapets around roofs parapet, the procedureof D.3.2.4 for flat roofs with
change the positive pressures expected on upwind parapets shouldbe followed, i.e.treat as a flat roof
pitches with large positive pitch angles to suction, with parapets, irrespectiveof actual roof pitch. For
neglectmg their effectis not always conservative. any part of the roof that is above the top of the
Pressures onthe parapet walls shouldbe determined parapet, i.e. if the top of the parapet is below the
in accordance with10.4.1 of ENV 1991-24 : 1995 for level of the high eaves, the procedure for duopitch
freestanding walls and, for the downwind parapets, roofs of D.4.4 should be followed as if the parapet
the procedure for shelter shouldbe used. did not exist.
b) Downwind face
D.4.7.2 M m p i t c h roofs: The procedure of D.4.4 for the downwind pitch of
a>Low eaves with parapet upwind duopitch roofs should be followed. The reduction
For the part of the roof below the top of the factors of table D.10 may be used only for the verge
parapet, the procedure of D.3.4 for flat roofs with zones Q to S, with the parapet heighth determined at
parapets should be followed, i.e.treat as a flat roof the upwind corner of each respective zone.
with parapets, irrespectiveof actual roof pitch. For D.4.7.4 Hipped roofs:
any part of the roof that is above the top of the a) Upwind main and hip faces
parapet, i.e. if the top of the parapet is below the
level of the high eaves, the procedure for monopitch For the part of the roof below the top of the
roofs of D.4.3 should be followed as if the parapet parapet, the procedure ofD.3.4 for flat roofs with
d d not exist. parapets should be followed, i.e. treat as a flat roof
with parapets, irrespectiveof actual roof pitch. For
b) High eaves upwind any part of the roofthat is above the top of the
The procedureof D.4.3 for monopitch roofs should parapet, i.e. if the top of the parapet is below the
be followed. The reduction factors of table D.10 may level of the high eaves, the procedure for hipped
be used for upwind eaves and verge zones A to D roofs of D.4.5 should be followedas if the parapet
and H to J with the parapet heighth determined at did not exist.
the upwind corner of each respective zone. Thus for b) Downwind main and hip f i e s
parapets level with the high eaves the parapet height The rules of D.4.5 for hipped roofs should be
should be taken as h = O for zonesA to D and H, so followed as if the parapet did not exist. The
that the reduction factoris less than unity only for reduction factors of table D.10 should not be applied
zones I and J. to any zone.
O BSI
Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards li
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
D.4.8 Pitched roofs with inset storegs eaves of the windward side,as shown in
The procedure inD.3.7 should be followed using the figure D.20a). The eaves zonesA to D should be
appropriate zones for the pitched roofsas derived excluded when the pitch angleis less than that of
from D.4.3 to D.4.5. the pitch belowas shown in figure D.20b).
b) The ridge zonesK to N for gabled roofsor ridge
D.4.9 Multipitch and multi-bag roofs zones X and Y for hipped roofs should be included
D.4.9.1 Multipitch roofs only on the highest downwind face along the actual
D.4.9.1.1 Multipitch roofs are defined as roofs in ridge, as shown in figures D.21a) and b). Ridge zones
which each spanis made up of pitches of two or more on all other downwind faces should be excluded.
pitch angles as shown in figureD.20. The form in c) Verge zonesH to J on gabled roofsor hip zonesU
figure D.20a) is commonly known as a mansard roof. to W on hipped roofs should be included forall
Flat roofs with mansard eavesare dealt with inD.3.6. faces.
D.4.9.2 Multi-bay m f S
D.4.9.2.1 Multi-bay roofs are defined as roofs made
up of a seriesof monopitch, duopitch, hippedor
similar spans as shown in figure D.21a)to c).
D.4.9.2.2 Pressure coefficients on the first span, that
is, the upwind pitch of multi-bay monopitch roofs and
the upwind pair of pitches of duopitch roofs,may be
taken to be the same as for single span roof. However,
these pressures are reduced in value for the downwind
spans.
D.4.9.2.3 Reduced values of external pressure
coefficients may be derived from tableD.13 or
i I ,/ ,I' ;' ///////////// table D.14, as appropriate, using the reduction factors
given in table D.16,as follows:
a) Decreasing pitch multipitch (mansard) a) for monopitch roofs,as shown in figure D.21a),
any positive pressure coefficient obtained from
table D.13 should be replaced onthe second and any
subsequent downwind bays by +,lo = - 0.4;
b) for unequal duopitch roofs,all roof slopes
downwind of the first ridge should betreated as
being troughed (negative pitch angle), even when the
upwind slope is ridged as shown in figure D.21b),so
that the local coefficients behind each ridge are
given by the more onerousA, B and C cave zones
for negative pitch angles;
c) for equal-pitch duopitchroofs, all roof slopes
downwind of the upwind slope shouldbe treated as
alt~rnatelydownwind ridged (positive pitch angle)
and troughed (negative pitch angle) as shown in
figures D.21~)and d), so that the local coefficients
behind each ridgeare given by the less onerousE
and F ridge zones for positive pitch angles
7 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / NOTE. The provisionsof c ) above may be applied to
unequal-pitch roofs when the pitch angles differ by less
than lo'.
b) Increasing pitch multipitch
d) pressure coefficients onthe second and
Figure D.20 Key for mansard and multipitch roofs downwind bays, as defined in Sgure D.22 may be
multiplied by the reduction factor givenin
D.4.9.1.2 External pressure coefficients for each pitch table D.16.
should be derived fromthe proceduresin D.4.4
Table D.16 Reduction factor formulti-bay roofs
or D.4.5, corresponding to the form of the verges, but
omitting the eaves edge zones alongthe change in
slope where indicated in figure D.20.
a) The eaves edge zones A to D on the bottom edge Reduction
of all windward faces should be included when the factor
pitch angle of that face is less than that of the pitch
below, includmg the lowest face forming the actual
-
Wind 8 =Oo
a) Multi-bay monopitch
/
Treat as ridged downwind ,
Wind
Treat
upwind
as Treat
as troughed
downwind
//////////////////////////////////
c ) Multi-bay equal ridged duopitch
Treat as troughed downwind
Treat as upwind
Treat as ridged downwind
d) Multi-bay equal troughed duopitch

Figure D.21 Types of multi-bay roofs
BSI 1997
COPYRIGHT BritishO Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards liii
~~ ~~
"
STD-BSI DD ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL 1997 i b 2 4 b b 9 08515b8 T 9 1 m

DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
of bay
Figure D.22 Key to multi-bay roofs
Annex E (Informative)
Wind structure incorporating the principles of BS 6399 :Part 2
E.l General
To provide a check on the wind structure as defined in the ENV, which may be inappropriate forthe particular
conditions of the UK,the following procedure shouldbe used. I€ this results in more onerous valuesof Ce(Z), the
designer shouldsatisfy himself that there is adequate safety, by either using the higher loads or using appropriate
measures in conljunction withthe ENV loads.
E.2 Wind parameters
Amend section 8 of ENV 1991-24,with the following.
Existing text Proposed

amendment
8.1 Mean
wind
velocity 8.1 Ground roughness categories
[Text of 1.7.2 of BS 6399 : Part 21
8.2 Roughness coefficient 8.2 Obstruction heights
[Modified text of 1.7.3 of BS 6399 : Part 21
8.3 Terrain
categories 8.3 Exposure coefficient
[This w li be as per existing 8.6 but equation will be c&) = S b 2
where is defined in new 8.5 and text appropriately modified]
8.4 Topography
coefficient 8.4 Topography coefficient
[As existing 8.41
8.5 Exposure
coefficient 8.5 Temin and building factorS,,
[Text of 3.2.3.2 of BS 6399 : Part 2 except equations are
a) country Sb = Sc [@t x St) + ct 1
b) towl-lq= SCTC t@t x S1 x Tt> + c, 1
8.6 Mean wind velocity
[As exjsting 8.1 but equations are
a) country Vm(4 = Sc ct VreP
b) tmn-l v,o = %Tc ct Y e t
NOTE 1. In addition cross-references will need to be checked and annex B amended accordingly.
NOTE 2. The expression for g as given in annex B could replace the simplified formula given in 3.2.3.3 of BS fi399 : Part 2 when more
accurate calculations need to be undertaken.
NOTE 3. Note correspondence between Ce and Sb2, e.g. for countxy terrain
ENV 1991-2-4 BS 6399 : Part 2
c, = c," c: [ 1 + 2s I"]
where
Cy corresponds to Sc;
I , corresponds to st
-
tc:r.
Ct
ENV 1991-24 ignores - This can cause anunderestimation of loads of between 0.5 % and 16 M
NOTE 4. It is not appropriate just to refer to the relevant clauses of BSG399 : Part 2 as the referencing is difficult and some of the
equations, as noted above, need to be modified.

List of references(~eeclause 2)
Normative references
CEN and CENELEC publications

EUROPEAN COMMI?TEE FOR STANDARDIZATION (CEN) and EUROPEAN C O M " E E FOR ELECTROTECHNICAL
STANDARDIZATION (CENELEC), Brussels. (All publications are available from Customer Services, BSQ
ENV 1991: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on s.tmctures

ENV 1991: Part 1: 1994 Basis of design
ENV 1991: Part 2.1 : 1995 Densities, selfweìghl and imposed loa&s
ENV 1991: Part 2.2 : 1995 Actions on s W t u m exposed to fire
ENV 1991 : Part 2.3 : 1995 Actions on StrmCtWeS- STWWloads
ENV 1991: Part 2.5 : 1997 í7wrmul actions
ENV 1991: Part 2.6 : 1997 Accidental acthns
ENV 1991: Part 2.71) Cons.tmction loads and d e f m t i o n s imposed during consEmLction
ENV 1991: Part 3 : 1995 l?q@iiloads on bridges
ENV 1997 : Eurocode E Geotechnical design
ENV 1997 : Part 1: 1994 General-
Informative references
BSI publications
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, London
BS 6399 : Loading for buildings:

BS6399:PartZ: 1995 Code of pmctice f o r urìnd loads
BS 5534 : Code of pmctice f o r slating and tilting
BS 5534: Part 1: 1997 Design
CP 3 : code of basic data f o r the design of buildings
CP 3 : Chapter V : Loadi?l@
CP 3 : Chapter V : Part 2 : 1972 wind loads
1) In preparation.
1Vi
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards o BSI 1997
STD.BSI DD E N V 1 9 9 1 - 2 - ~ - E N G L L997 m 1 b 2 V b b 90 0 5 1 5 7 1 58b I
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997

Part B. Bridges
for use in theUK with

ENV 1991-2-4: 1995

DD'ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997

Part B. Bridges
Introduction
This National Application Document (NAD) has been Specific information on windactions on buildings is
prepared by Subcommittee B/525/10.It has been given in Part A.
developed from: Whilst this NAD can be used forthe structural
a) a textual examinationof ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995; appraisal and assessmentof existing construction,
for assessing repairs and modifications,
or for
b) a limited parametric calibration against assessing changeof use, it wineed to be used in
l
l
BS 5400 : Part 2; conjunction with other documentation.
c) trial calculations.
This NAD encompasses wind actionsas covered by
ENV 1991-2-4. Specific UK requirements relating to
2 References
loads resulting from densities, self weight and 2.1 Normative references
imposed loads (ENV 1991-2-l), fire actions This National Application Document incorporates, by
(ENV 1991-%2),snow loads (ENV 1991-2-3), the& dated or undated reference, provisions from other
actions (ENV 1991-2-5), loads and deformations publications. These normative referencesare made
imposed during execution(ENV 1991-2-6) and at the appropriate places in thetext and the cited
accidental actions (ENV 1991-2-7)are given publications are listed in pagelx. For dated
separately in the appropriateNADs for ENV 1991-2. references only the edition cited applies; any
subsequent amendments to or revisions of the cited
1 Scope publications applyto this Part of DD ENV 1991 only
This NAD provides informationto enable
when incorporated in the reference by amendment
ENV 1991-24 1995to be used forthe design of the or revision. For undated references,the latest edition
of the cited publication applies, together with any
following structures to be located inthe UK or to be amendments.
designed forUK loading:
a) building structures up to a height of 200 m, their 2.2 Informative references
components and appendages; This National Application Documentrefers to other
b) chimneys and other cantilevered structures; publications that provide information or guidance.
NOTE ENV 1991-24 does notat present provide sufficient Editions of these publications currentat the time of
information for wind actions on lattice towers, guyedmasts and issue of this NAD are listed on pagelx but reference
guyed chimneys. This is being developed in ENV 1993-3l), which should be made tothe latest editions.
will also contain further requirementsfor chimneys, particularly
with regard to fatigue.
c) highway and railway bridges upto 200 m span 3 Partial factors, combination factors
v and for cycletrack footbridges up to 30 m span and other values
It has been assumed that during theENV period of The valuesof partial factors on wind actions for
provisional application the design codesto be used bridges, y, and the values of combination and
for buildings will bethe relevant British standards reduction factors for bridges, v,should be as defined
appropriate to the structure.However for bridgesit in m e x e s C and G of ENV 19913 : 1995 as modified
has been assumed that the NAD can only be used by the NAD for that Part.
with the relevant design Eurocodes.
Care should be exercisedif the wind action derived 4 Notation
from ENV 1991-2-4is used in conjunction with other
design codes. Whereother documentsare used for ENV 1991-2-4uses some notationthat differs from
design aspects, the values givenwill not necessarily that adopted in BS 5400 : Part 2 and other
produce the required levelof reliability. Departure British Stanwds. The ENV notation should be
from any of the requirements given in the NAD adopted when usingthis NAD.
N U E The UK NADs for Eurocodes as already published (e.g. the
relevant Parts of ENV 1992 and ENV 1993) do not pennit theuse
of ENV 1991-24 in coqiunction with those ENVs; but they
recommend theuse of CP 3 Chapter V with modifícations. If trial
use of ENV 1991-2-4is to be undertaken in Conjunction with the
already published demEurocodes, rnodifídions may be
necessary.
III p r e p d o n

DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
6 Additional recommendations In the light of the above, wind actions on bridges

within the scope of ENV 1991-2-4are unlikely to
6.1 General govern the design and in consequence a relatively
The general recommendations givenin 6.1 of Part A simplistic approach can be adopted without penalty.
are equally applicable forthe design of bridges. The use of 10.11.2(1) of ENV 1991-2-4should enable
The recommendations on meteorological information conservative estimates of the actions due to wind to
given in 6.2 of Part A should be followed forthe be determined forsuch bridges without economic
design of bridges. penalty.
The global forces for bridges should be derivedas: 5.3 Use of ENV 1991-2-4outside the defined
a) characteristic valuesF m = FW scope
It is recognized that codes are frequently used
where F m is defined as such in ENV 19913; outside the scope for which they were written.
Fw is the resultant wind force from If ENV 1991-2-4is used in such circumstances
ENV 1991-24; extreme caution should be exercised and
consideration should begiven to the possibility of
b) nominal valuesFw, derived in accordance dynamic responseof the bridge.
with 10.11.2(1) Of EI" 1991-2-4: 1995; The procedures given in annexes B and C of
c) values for wind with highwaytraffic Fw* ENV 1991-2-4should be followed, considering
derived as FW from equations6.1 and 7.1 with response due to turbulence as well as the aeroelastic
Ce(Ze) @ref = 1225 (m/~)~ at deck level andA,f effects outlined in annex C of ENV 1991-24.
as defined in C.2.1.1(3) of ENV 1991-3: 1995. Comparison of these procedures should be made
When adopting the simplified rule of 10.11.2(1) for with the provisions of BD 49/93.If these provisions
the wind force in the x-direction the corresponding result in more onerous l o w , or the possibility of
values forwind in the y- and z-direction should be instabilities, it is essential that the engineer satisfies
taken as: himself that there is adequate safety eitherby using
f3.0 kN/m2 inthe z-direction applied to the the higher loads or using appropriate measures.
horizontal planarea of the bridge;
f1.5 kN/m2 inthe y-direction for plated bridges;
and
f3.0 kN/m2 in the y-direction for truss bridges,
both applied to the vertical projectedarea of the
bridge.
6.2 Limitations of use
The scope of ENV 1991-24as far as bridges are
concerned is for road and railway bridges up
to 200 m span and for cycle tracldfootbridges up
to 30 m span [see 1.1.'2(4) of ENV 1991-2-4: 19951.
Cable stayed and suspension bridgesare not covered
by the ENV [see 1.12(5) ofENV 1991-2-4: 19951 and
specialist advice should be sought for such
c0~1gurati0ns.
O BSI
COPYRIGHT British 052000 Institute on ERC Specs and Standards
Standards lix
DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
List of references (~eeclause 2)
ENV 1991 : Part 1 : 1994 Eurocode 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 1: Basis of design.
ENV 1991: Part 2.1 : 1995 Eurocode 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-1: Actions on structures -Densàties, sew weight and
imposed loads.
ENV 1991: Part 2.2 : 1995 Eumode 1 -B& of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-2:Actions on structures -Actions on structures exposed to
fire.
ENV 1991: Part 2.3 : 1995 Eumode 1 -Basis of design and actions on strmctures-
Part 2-3:Actions on structures - Snow loads.
ENV 1991 : Part 2.5 : 1997 Eurocode 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures-
Part2-5:Actions on structures -Themzal actions.
ENV 1991: Part 2.6 : 1997 Eurocode 1 -B& of desàgn and actions on structures -
Part 2-6: Actions on structures -Actions durìng execution.
ENV 1991 : Part 2.7 : 1998 Eurocode 1 -Basis of desàgn and actions on structures -
Part 2 - E Actions on struchres -Accidental actions due to
impact and explosions.
ENV 1991 : Part 3 : 1995 Eurocode 1 -Basis of designand actions on structures -Part 3:
%@äc loads on bridges.
ENV 1997: Part 1: 1994 Eurocode 7- Geotechnical design -Part 1: General rmles.
BS 5400 : Part 2 : 1978 Steel, c m t e and composite bridges. Part 2: S M f h t i o n for

loads
CP 3 : Chapter V code of basic data for the design of buaings chapter VLOadings
BD 49/93 Highwags Agency. Design m n d for mads and bridges. Volume 1
Hàghwag structures: appnndprocedures and g d desàgn-
S e c t h 3 General design -Part 3 Design rulesfor aerodynamic
egats on bridges 2).
2)Available from The Stationary office.

moPFAANPRlmlNDm ENV 1991-24
PF¿ÉNOrn EUROPÉENNE
EUROPrnHE vomom May 1995
ICs 91.040.00
Descriptors: Buildings, design, computation, loads: forces, wind resistance, gust loads, wind pressure
Enghsh version
Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures -

Part 2-4: Actions on structures -
Wind actions
Eurocde 1: Bases de calcul et actions sur les Eurocode 1: Grundlagen der Tragwerksplanung
structures - Partie 2-4 Actions sur les und Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke - Teil 2 4
structures - Actions du vent Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke - Einwirkungen auf
Silos und F’ltissigkeitsbeMter
This EuropeanPrestandard (ENV) wasapprovedby CEN on 1993-12-03as a

prospective standard for provisional application. The period of validity of this ENV
is limited initially to three years. After two yeam the membels ofCEN will be
requested to submit their comments, particularlyon the question whetherthe ENV
can be converted into an European Standard(EN).
CEN membem are required to announce the existence of this EIW in the Same
way as for an EN and to make the ENV available promptly at national level in an
appropriate form. It is permissible to keep conflicting national standards in force
( i parallel to the ENV) until the fmal decision about the possible conversion of
the ENV into an EN is reached.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerlandand United Kingdom.
CEN
European Committee for Standardization
Comité Européen de Normalisation
Europäisches Komitee für Normung
Central Secretariat: rue de Stassart 36, B-1060 Brussels
O 1995 AU rights of reproduction and communicationin any form and by any means reserved in all countriesto
CEN and its membels
Ref. NO. ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995 E

Page 2
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
contents Page
Foreword 5
Objectives of the Eurocodes 5
Background tothe Eurocode Programme 5
Eurocode Programme 5
National Application Documents (NAD's) 6
Matters Specificto this Prestandard 7
1 General 9
1.1 9
1.1.1 Scope of ENV 1991-Eurocode 1 9
1.1.2 Scope of ENV 1991-2-4 Windactions 9
1.1.3 Further Parts of ENV 1991 10
1.2 Normative
references 10
1.3 Distinctionbetween principles andapplication rules 11
1.4 Definitions 11
1-5 Symbols 12
2. Classification of actións 17
3 Design situations 17
4 Representation of action 18
4.1 Explanation of thewindactions and the response of
the structures 18
4.2 Modelling of wind actions 19
4.3 Requirementsfor
testing 19
5 Wind pressureon surface 20

, 5.1 Field of application 20
5.2 External pressure 20
5.3 Internal pressure 20
5.4 Net pressure 20
6 Wind forces 22
6.1 Wind forces from pressures 22
6.2 Friction force 23
7 Reference wind 24
7.1
Reference wind pressure 24
7.2 Reference
windvelocity 24
7.3Annualprobabilities of exceedence other than 0.02 25
7.4 Wind maps and meteorological information 26
8 Wind parameters 28
8.1 Mean wind velocity 20
8.2 Roughness coefficient 20

Page 3
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
8.3 Terrain
categories 29
8.4 Topography
coefficient 30
8.5 Exposure
coefficient 33
9 Choice of procedures 35
9.1 General 35
9.2 Criteria
for
the
Choise 35
9.3 Dynamiccoefficientforgustwindresponse 36
9.4Vortexshedding,aeroeiastic instabiiityanddynamic
interference effects 43
9.4.1 General 43
9.4.2 Field ofapplication 43
10 Aerodynamic coefficients 45
10.1 General 45
10.2 Buildings 45
10.2.1 General 45
10.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings 46
10.2.3 Flat roofs 49
10.2.4 Monopitch roofs 51
10.2.5 Ouopitch roofs 53
10.2.6 Hipped roofs 55
10.2.7 Multispan roofs 57
10.2.8 Vautted roofs and domes 58
10.2.9 Internal pressure 60
10.2.10 Pressure on external walls or roofs with more than one skin 61
10.3 Canopy roofs 64
10.4 Free-standing boundarywalls, fences and signboards 68
10.4.1 Solid boundary walls 68
10.4.2 Pressure coefficients for porous fences 69
10.4.3 Shelter factors for walls and fences 69
10.4.4 Signboards 70
10.5 Structural elements with rectangular sections 71
10.6 Structural elementswith sharp edged section 73
10.7 Structural elements with regularpolygonal section 74
10.8 Circular cylinders 76
10.8.1 External pressure coefficients 76
10.8.2 Force coefficients 78
10.9 Spheres 80
10.10 Lattice structures and scaffoldings 81
10.1 1 Bridges 85
10.1 1.1 General a5
10.1 1.2 Force coefficientsin x-direction a5
10.1 1.3 Force coefficientsin 2-direction 80
10.1 1.4 Longitudinal loads for bridges 89
10.12 Flags 89
10.13 Friction coefficients 90
10.14 Effective slenderness h and slenderness reduction factor yh 91

Page 4
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Annexes
A Meteorologicalinformationandnationalwind maps 93
(informative)
B Detailed ptocedure for in-lineresponse 117

(inforfnative)
C Rules for vortex excitation and other aeroelastic 131

effects dynamic characteristics
(informative)

STD*BSI D D ENV 3991-2-9-ENGL L797 Lb24bb9 0853577 877 m
Page 5
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
Foreword
Objectives of the Eurocodes
(1) The "Structural Eurocodes" comprise a group of standards for the structural and
geotechnical designof buildings andcivil engineering works.
(2) They cover execution and control onlyto the extent that is necessary to indicate
thequality of theconstructionproducts,andthestandard of theworkmanship,
needed to comply with the assumptions of the design rules.
(3)Until the necessary set of harmonised technical specifications for products and
for methods of testing their performance are available, someof the Structural Euro-
codes cover someof these aspects in informative annexes.
Background to the Eurocode Programme
(4) TheCommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities (CEC) initiatedthe work of

establishing a set of harmonized technical rules for the design of building and civil
engineering works which would initially serve as an alternative to the different tules
in force in the various Member States and would ultimately replace them. These
technical rules became known as the ,Structural Eurocodes".
( 5 ) In 1990, after consultingtheir respective Member States, the CEC transferred the
work of further development, issueand updating of the Structural Eurocodesto CEN,
and theEFTA Secretariat agreed to support the CEN work.
(6) CEN TechnicalCommittee CENTTC250isresponsiblefor all Structural Euro-

codes.
Eurocode Programme
(7) Work is in hand on the following Structural Eurocodes, each generally consisting
of a numberof parts:
EN1991Eurocode 1 Basis of designandactionsonstructures
EN 1992Eurocode 2 Design of concretestructures
EN 1993Eurocode 3 Design of steelstructures
EN 1994Eurocode 4 Design of compositesteelandconcretestructures
EN 1995Eurocode5Design of timberstructures

EN 1996 Eurocode 6 Design of masonry structures
EN 1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical

design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8 Design of structuresforearthquakeresistance
EN 1999Eurocode 9 Designofaluminium alloy structures

(8) Separate sub-committees have been formed
by CENTTC250 for the various Euro-
codes listed above.
(9) This Part of Eurocode 1 is being published as a European Prestandard (ENV)

with aninitial lifeof three years.
(10)ThisPrestandard is intendedforexperimentalapplicationandforthesub-
mission of comments.
(11) After approximately two years CEN members will be invited to submit formal
comments to be taken into accountin determining future actions.
(12) Meanwhile feedback and comments on this Prestandard should be sent to the
Secretariat of CEN/TC250/SCl at the following address:
SNV / SIA (until endMay 1995) SIS / BST (form June 1995)
Selnaustrasse 16, Postfach Box 5630
CH-8039 ZURICH S-1 14 86 Stockholm
SWITZERLAND SWEDEN
or to your national Standards Organisation.
National Application Documents (NAD’s)
(13) Inview of theresponsibilities of authoritiesinmembercountriesforsafety,

health and other matters covered by the essential requirements of the Construction
Products Directive (CPD),certain safety elements in this ENV have been assigned
indicative values which are identified by (,boxed values”). The authorities in each
membercountryareexpected to reviewthe,boxedvalues”andsubstitutealter-
native definitive valuesfor these safety elements for use
in national application.
(14) Some of thesupportingEuropeanorInternationalstandardsmaynot be

available by the time this Prestandard is issued. It is therefore anticipated that a
NationalApplicationDocument (NAD) givinganysubstitutedefinitivevalues for
safety
elements,
referencingcompatible
supporting
standards and
providing
guidanceonthenationalapplication of thisPrestandard, will beissued by each
member countryor its Standards Organization.
(15) It is intended that this Prestandard is used in conjunction with the NAD valid in
the country where the buildingor civil engineering works is located.

Page 7
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Matters Specific to this Prestandard

(16 ) The scope of Eurocode 1 is defined in clause 1.1.1 and thescope of this part of
Eurocode 1 is defined in 1.1.2. Additional parts of Euromde 1 which are planned are
indicated in clause 1 .1.3.
(17) This Partis complemented by a numberof informative annexes.
(18) The relevant wind parameters (the basic value of the reference wind velocity
and various factors and parameters) shall be provided in the form of maps or other-
wise(seeannex A) by the RelevantAuthority.Thevalue of thereferencewind
velocity shall conformwith the definitions givenin ENV 1991-1 clause4.2
(19) Special requirements for lattice towers and guyedmasts will be prepared during
the ENV period and incorporatedin this Part at the EN stage.

Page 8
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Section 1 General
1.1 scope
1.1.1 Scope of ENV 1991 - Eurocode 1

(1)P ENV 1991 provides general principles and actions for the structural design of
buildings and civil engineering works including some geotechnical aspects and shall
be used in conjunction withENV 1992-1 999.
(2) It may also be used as a basis for the design of structures not coveredin ENV
1992-1999 and where other materialsor other structural design actions are involved.
(3)ENV 1991 also covers structural design during execution and structural design
fortemporarystructures.Itrelates to all circumstances in whichastructureis
required to give adequate performance.
(4) ENV 1991 is notdirectlyintended for thestructuralappraisal of existing

construction, in developing the design of repairs and alterations or, for assessing
changes of use.
(5) ENV 1991 doesnotcompletelycoverspecialdesignsituationswhichrequire

unusualreliabilityconsiderationssuchasnuclearstructuresforwhichspecified
design procedures should be used.
1.1.2 Scope of ENV 1991-2-4 Wind actions
(l)P This Part givesrulesandmethods for calculatingwindloads on building

structures up to a height of'200m, their components and appendages.
(2)P Windloadsshall
be calculated
for
each of the
loaded
areas
under
consideration. These maybe:
- the whole structure
- part of the structure, ¡.e. components, cladding unitsand their fixings.
(3)P ThisPartalsogivesrulesforchimneysandothercantileveredstructures.
Special requirementsfor lattice towers are not given.
(4)P This Part provides rulesfor highway and railway bridgesup to 200 m span, and
for cycle trackffootbridgesup to 30 m span.
(5) Cable stayed and suspension bridges are not covered

by this Part, and specialist
advice should be sought.
(6) Rules for guyedmasts are not given.

Page 9
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
(7) Offshoremountedstructuresarenotcovered by this Part, and may require

special considerations for meteorological data.
Note: Further specific requirements are Set out in the relevant ENVs 1992 to 1996 and ENV 1999 for
bridges, lattice towers, guyed masts, chimneys and lighting columns. Limitations of the rules of the present
code are indicated in the text.
1.1.3 Further Patts of ENV 1991
(1) Further Parts of ENV 1991 which, at present, are being preparedor are planned
are given in 1.2.
1.2 Normative references
This European Prestandard incorporates by dated or undated reference, provisions

fromotherstandards.Thesenormativereferencesarecited in theappropriate
places in the text and publications listed hereafter.
IS0 3898 1987 Basis of design for structures

Notations. General symbols
Note: The following European prestandards which are published or in preparation are cited at the
appropriate places in the text and publications listed hereafter.
ENV 1991-1 € u r d e 1: Basis of design and actions on structures
Part 1: Basis of design
ENV 1991-2-1 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures
Part 2.1: Densities, self-weighta d imposed loads
ENV 1991-2-2 E u r d e 1: Basis of design andactions on structures
Part 2.2: Actions on snuctures exposedto fire
ENV 1991-2-3 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions onstructures
-2.3: snow loads
ENV 1991-2-5 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures
Part 2.5: Thermal actions
ENV 1991 - 2 6 Eurode 1: Basis of design and actions on smctlltes
Part 2.6 Loads and Deformations imposed during execution
ENV 1991-2-7 E u r d e 1: Basis of design and actions on structures
Par&2.7: Accidental actions
ENV 1991-3 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actionson structures
Part 3: Traffic loads on bridges
mv 1991-4 Eurocode 1: Basis of design andactions on structures
Pan 4: Actions in silos and tanks
ENV 1991-5 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and action on structures

Part 5: Actions induced by cranes and machinery

Page 10
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
ENV 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of coslcctteStNctUres

ENV 1993 Eunxode 3: Design of steel suucwes
ENV 1994 Eurocode4: Design of cOmpOSite steel and COIlcntt saucum
ENV 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber saucarres
ENV 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of m s w ~ u stnrcturts
y
ENV 1997 Eumcode 1:GcMechnical design
ENV 1999 Eurocode 9 Design of aluminium d o y smlcturcs
1.3 Distinction between principlesand application rules
(1) Depending on the character of the individual clauses, distinction ¡S'made in this
Part between principles and applicationrules.
(2) The principles comprise:
is no alternative, as well as
-general statements and definitions for which there
- requirementsandanalyticalmodels for which no alternative is permitted unless

specif¡cally stated.
(3)The principles are identifiedby the letterP following the paragraph number.
(4) The application rules are generally recognized rules which follow the principles
and satisfy their requirements.
(5) It is permissible to use alternative rules different from the applicationN ~ given
S
in this Eurocode,provided it is shownthat the attemativerulesaccordWiththe
relevant Principles and have at least the same reliability.
(6) In this Part the application rulesare identified by a number in brackets e.g:as this
clause.
1.4 Definitions
(1) For the purposes of this Prestandard,a basic list of definitions is provi'ded in fNV
1991-1, 'Basis of design'.

~
STD=BSI DD ENV 3773-2-q-ENGL L777 3b2qpbb7 0853585 O70 m

Page 11
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
1.5 Symbols
(1) For the purposeof this Prestandard, the following symbols apply.
Note: The notation used is based on IS0 3898: 1987
(2) A basic list of notations is provided in ENV 1991-1, 'Basis of design' ant the
additional notations below are specificto this Part.
Latin upper case letters

area
area sweptby the wind
reference area
Young's modulus
resultant friction force
j of the structure
vortex exciting force at point
resultant wind force
height of a topographic feature
turbulence intensity
mode shape factor
interference factor for buffeting, along wind response
interference factor for buffeting, along wind acceleration
interference factor for vortex shedding
reduction factor for parapets
shape parameter
effective correlation length factor
effective length of an upwind slope
integral length scaleof turbulence
effective correlation length
actual length of an upwind slope
torsional moment
number of stress cycles
number of loads for gust response
nondimensional frequency
background response part

Page 12
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
Reynolds number
aerodynamic admittance
nondimensional power spectral density function
resonant response part
size
Scruton number
Strouhal number
weight of the stnrctural part of a chimney
total weight of a chimney
Latin lower case letters

factor of galloping instability
combined stability parameter for interference galloping
altitude above sea level
width of the structure
altitude factor
dynamic coefficient
direction factor
exposure coefficient
force coefficient
forcecoefficient of structures or structuralelementswithinfinite
slenderness ratio
lift force coefficient
friction coefficient
aerodynamic exciting coefficient
moment coefficient
pressure coefficient
roughness coefficient
topography coefficient
temporary factor
depth of the structure, diameter
eccentricity of a force oredge distance

Page 13
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
9 peak factor
h height of the structure
k equivalent roughness
terrain factor
torsional stiffness
factor
length of a horizontal structure
m mass per unit length
m1 equivalent mass per unit length
n exponent
natural frequencyofthe structure of the mode
i
fundamental frequencyof alongwind vibration
fundamental frequency of crosswind vibration
ovalling frequency
annual probabilityof exceedence
9mf reference mean velocity pressure
r radius
S factor
t averaging time of the reference wind speed, plate thickness
onset wind velocity for galloping
critical wind velocity for interference galloping
critical wind velocity of vortex shedding
divergence wind velocity
mean wind velocity
reference wind velocity
wind pressure
X horizontal distanceof the site from thetop of a crest
max x maximum alongwind displacement
max YF maximum cross wind amplitude atcritical wind speed
Z height above ground
roughness length

Page 14
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
zw equivalent
height
f e l zi referenceheightfor local andinternalpressure
zmn minimum
height
Greek upper case letters

@ slope
upwind
@r reduction
factor
multispan
for roofs
%,X fundamental
alongwind
modal
shape
@El obstruction factor
e angle
torsional
Greek lower case letters

galloping instability parameter
combined stability parameter of interference galloping
logarithmic damping decrement
aerodynamic logarithmic damping decrement
logarithmic damping decrementdue to special devices
structural logarithmic damping decrement
coefficient
bandwidth factor
frequency factor
variable
solidity ratio
slenderness ratio
expected frequency, Poisson ratio, kinematic viscosity
expected frequency of gust loadingof rigid structures
air density
standard deviationof alongwind acceleration
reduction factor of force coefficient for square sections with rounded
comers

reduction factor of force coefficient for structural elements with finite
slenderness ratio
Ws shelter factor forwalls and fences
YSC reduction factor of force coefficient for scaffoldingseffected by solid
building face
exponent of mode shape
Indices
Crit critical
e external, exposure
fr friction
i internal, mode number
j current number of incrementalarea or point of a structure
m mean
P parapet
ref reference
v wind velocity
X alongwind direction
Y crosswind direction
z vertical direction

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
Section 2 Classification of actions
(1 )P Wind actions are classified as variable free actions, seeENV 1991-1.
Section 3 Designsituations
(1)P The relevant wind actionsshall be determined for eachdesignsituation
identified in aocordance withENV 1991-1.
(2)P The effect of other actions on structures (such as snow, traffic or ice) which will
modify the reference area or coefficients shall be taken into account. The effect of
changes of the form of the construction works which may modify the external and
internal wind pressure (such as doorsnormallyclosed but left openunder storm
conditions) shall be considered.
for fatigue loading.

(3)P Structures susceptibleto dynamic effect shall be designed

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ENV 1991-2-4 1995
Section 4 Representation of actions
4.1 Explanation of the wind actions andthe response of the structures
on the external surfaces

(1)PWind actions are fluctuating with time. They act directly
ofenclosedstructuresand,throughporosityoftheexternalsurface,also act
indirectly on the internal surfaces. They may also directly affect the internal surface
of open structures. Pressures act on areas of the surface producing forces normal to
thesurface for thestructure or for individualcladdingcomponents.Additionally,
when large areas of structures are swept by the wind, frictionalforcesacting
tangentially to the surface, may be significant.
To achieve the designaims account shall be takenof:

- turbulent wind acting over part or all of the structure (see section 5 and section 6
respectively)
- fluctuatingpressuresinduced by thewakebehindthestructure(see 9.4 and
annex C)
- fluctuating forces induced by the motion
of the structure (see9.4 and annexC).
(2) The total response of structures and their elements may be considered as the
superposition of a ,background"component,which acts quasi-statically and,re-
sonant" components due to excitation close to natural frequencies. For the majority
of structures the resonant components are small and the wind load canbe simplified
by considering the background component only. Such structures can be calculated
by a simplified method. The limits to such structures are set down in section 9.
(3)The dynamic effects are divided into different types according to the physical
effect of the wind:
- stochastic and resonant response (alongwind, crosswind and torsional direction)
due to turbulence and wake effects
- response dueto vortex shedding
- galloping
- interference
- divergence and flutter.
(4)P In this Part, the wind action is represented by a set of quasi-static pressures or
forces whoseeffects are equivalent to theextreme effects of the wind.Slender
structuressuch as chimneys,observationtowers,componentelements of open
frames and trusses, bridgesand in some cases high rise buildings shallbe designed
to resist the dynamic effect of vortex shedding. General rules for evaluating such
situations areprovided in 9.4. Criteria are also given for aeroelastic instability.

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ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
(5)P Further engineering study or the use of atternative methods to those of this Fart
may be allowed. These studies should be carried out using well assessed analytical,
numerical or experimental techniques, including site measurements and wind tunnel
tests. Requirements for such tests are set out in 4.3.
4.2 Modelling of wind actions
(1)P The wind action is represented either as a wind pressure or a wind force. The
action on the structure causedby the wind pressureis assumed to act normal to the
surface except where otherwise specified; e.g.for tangential friction forces.
(2) The following parameters are used several times and are defined below:
reference mean wind velocity pressure derived from reference wind velocity as
defined in7.1. It is used as the characteristic value
C e ( t ) exposure coefficient accounting

for the terrain and height above ground, 2,
given in 8.5. Thecoefficientalso modifies themeanpressureto a peak
pressure allowingfor turbulence
z referenceheightdefined in section 10 asappropriate to the relevant pressure

coefficient (z = ze for external pressure and force coefficient,z = 4 for internal
pressure coefficient)
c, dynamiccoefficientaccountingforbothcorrelationanddynamicmagnification
given in section9 and annex B
4.3 Requirements for testing
(1) P If experimental tests are undertaken, they shall be carried out on a properly
scaled model of the actual full scale situation.
(2)The following conditions shall be satisfied:

- the natural wind shall be modelledto account for the variationof mean wind speed
with height above groundsas appropriate to the terrainof the site,
- the naturalwindshall be modelled to accountforthecorrectturbuienWas
appropriate to the terrain of the site.

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
Section 5 Wind pressure on surfaces
5.1 Field of application
(l)P Therepresentation of thewindpressuregiven in thissection is valid for

caused by the
surfaces which are sufficiently rigid to neglect their resonant vibrations
wind, as is normally thecase.
Nok: However, if a natural frequency of vibration of rbe surface is low (Ï.C. less than 5 Hz),these vibrations
m y become significant, and they shall be talcen into account These effects arc not covertd by this Part
5.2 External pressure
(l)P The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces of a structure,w,, shall be
obtained from:
we = qref Ce(Ze) cpe
where:
cpe external pressure coefficient derived from section 10
5.3 Internal pressure

(l)P The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure, y, shall be
obtained from:
y = Qmf - Ce(Zi) * cpi (5.2)
where:
cpi internal pressure coefficient derived from section 1O
5.4 Net pressure
(l)P The net wind pressure across a wall or an element is the difference of the
pressures on each surface taking due account of their signs. (Pressure, directed
towards the surface is taken as positive, and suction, directedaway from the surface
as negative). Examples are given in Figure 5.1.

Page 20
ENV 1991-24: 1996
oos na
I 1
Figure 5.1:Pressure on surfaces

Page 21
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Section 6 Wind forces
6.1 Wind forces from pressures
(1) Thewindforcesactingon a structure or astructuralcomponentmay be

determined in two ways:
- by means of global forces
- as a summation of pressures acting on surfaces provided that the structureor the
component is not sensitive to dynamic response (cd 1,2, see Section 9).
str~~ctural
(2)P The global force, F, shall be obtained from the following expression:
Fw = qret * Ce(%) C, * Ç &f
where:
C, forcecoefficientderivedfromsection 1O
reference area for ç (generally the projected area of the structure normal to
the wind) as defined in section 10
(3)P For lattice structures and for vertical cantilevered structures with a slenderness
ratio heighvwidth > 2 andwithnearlyconstantcross-section (e.g. tall buildings,
chimneys, towers) the force, F.,on the incremental 4
area at the height z, is:
kj = (Iref ce(3) ' cd 5 4 (6.2)
where:
height of the centre of gravity of incremental area4
9 force coefficient for incremental area 4 as defined in section 10
A, incremental
area
(4) Torsional effects due to inclined or non correlated wind may be represented on
non circular nearly symmetric structures by the force, F, acting with the eccentri-
city, e:
b
where:
6 dimension of thecrosssectiontransverse to themainaxisconsidered(see
Figure 6.1 ).

Page 22
ENV 1991-2-4 1995
Figure 6.1 :Wind force acting on cross section
(5) More detailed values of the eccentricity for special cross sections are presented
in section 10.
6.2 Friction force
(l)P Forstructureswithlargeareasswept by the wind (e.g.largefreestanding

roofs), friction forces, F& may be significant. They shall be obtained from:
5 = 9ref Ce(%) - çr - Ah (6.4)
where:
çr frictioncoefficient derived from 10.13
4 area swept by the wind

Page 23
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Section 7 Reference
wind
7.1 Reference wind pressure
(l)P The reference meanwind veloctty pressure,qmf,shall be determined from:

9,f - gP r e 2f
"
(7.11
where:
wret reference wind velocity as defined in 7.2
p density
air
The air density is affected by attitude and depends on the temperature and pressure
to be expected in the region during wind storms. Unless otherwise specified
in annex
A, the value ofp shall be1,25 kg/m3.
7.2 Reference wind velocity
(l)P The reference wind velocity, vmflis defined as the 10 min mean wind velocity at
10 m above ground of terrain category II (see Table8.1) having an annual probability
of exceedence of 0,02(commonty referred to as having a mean return period of 50
years).
(2)P It shall be determined from:

vet = %IR - ÇEM * CALT* k . 0
where:
vret,o basic value of the reference wind velocity as given in annex A
direction factorto be takenas 1,O unless otherwise specifiedin annex A
+M temporary (seasonal) factor taken as 1,O unless otherwise specifiedin
annex A
,,c attitude factor to be taken as 1,O unless otherwise Specifiedin annex A
(3)For temporary structures, which are:

- structures during construction (which may require temporary bracing
supports)
- structures whose life time is known andis less than oneyear
a reduction of the reference wind velocity maybe allowed depending upon:
- the durationof the situation
- the possibilitiesof protecting or strengtheningof the structure during wind storms
- the time neededto protect or strengthenthe structure

Page 24
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
- the probability of occurrence of wind storms

- the possibilitiesof forecasting wind storms
- the conditions specifiedin annex A.
Basedon 7.3 or/andonspecial local climatesituationthetemporaryfactor kM
according to equation(7.2) describes this reduction.
(4)P Transportable structures whichmay be dismantled and rebuiltat any time in the
year are not consideredto be temporary structures.
7.3 Annual probabilities of exceedence other than 0,02

(1) The reference wind velocity vmf (P)for annual probabilities of exceedence, p.
other than the value of 0,02 (see 7.2 (1)P)can befound using the following ex-
pression:
1-K1 ln[-In(l-p)]
”ref ( P )= “ref (7-3)
-
1 K, In (-ln 0.98)
where:
W,, reference velocity with an annual probability of exceedence of 0,02 (see 7.2)
K shape parameter. The representative value K, = 0,2 can be used, if not other-
wise specifiedin annex A.
n exponent.Therepresentativevalue n = 0,5 can be used, if nototherwise
specified in annex A.
l
o.O05
0.01
0.02
1 0.05
0.1
0.2
o. 5 1
O.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1o: 1.1 I.2
Figure 7.1: Ratio v,,(p)/v, for Ø

C
,= 0,2 and n = 0,5
-
STD.BS1 D D ENV L991-2-4-ENGL L997 m LbE'4bb9 0 8 5 1 5 9 9 b b 5 D

Page 25
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
7.4 Wind maps and meteorological information
(l)P The detailed wind maps and meteorological informationsare given in annex A.
(2) The basic reference wind velocity of Europe - an informative overlook - is given in
Figure 7.2.

Page 26
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Figure 7.2: Europeanwind map (indicative values only)

Note: (1) ?he final wind velocities will be defied by the national authorities during the ENV-period in
accordance with the format of this Pan
(2)Derailed information at the present state is given in annex A

Page 27
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Section 8 Wind parameters
8.1 Mean wind velocity
(1)P In order to define the Reynolds number in 10.8 and the wind coefficients and
other parameters in annexes B and C, the mean'wind velocity, vm(z),is required. It is
defined by:
vmr referencewindvelocity (7.2)

ç(z) roughnesscoefficient (8.2)
q(z) topographycoefficient (8.4)
8.2 Roughness coefficient
(l)P The roughness coefficient, c,(z),accounts for the variabilityof mean wind velo-
ctty at the siteof the structure dueto:
- the height above ground level
- the roughnessof the terrain depending on the wind direction.
(2)P The roughness coefficient at heightz is defined by the logarithmic profile:

ç(a = kT - In ( t ' z o ) for zminsr1200 m
ç(z)= Ç(%J for 2 < zmm
where:
kT terrain
factor
z, roughness
length
z&,, minimum
height
These parameters dependon the terrain category as given in Table 8.1.
(3)At heights more than 200 m above ground level specialist advice is recommen-
ded.

Page 28
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
8.3 Terrain categories

(l)P The terrain categories are defined
in Table 8.1.
used in this Part

Table 8.1: Terrain categories and related parameters
I I I I
terrain category 4 %[ml hi"Im1 E
I Rough open sea, Mes with at least 5 km 0,17 0,Ol 2 [O331

fetch upwind and smooth flatcountry
without obstacles
II Farmland with boundary hedges, occa- 0.19 0.05 4 [O261

,
sional small farm structures, houses or
trees
111 Suburban or industrial areas and per- 0.22 03 8 W7j

~ manent forests
~~
~ IV Urban areas in which at least 15%

theof 1 16 [0,461
i surface is awered with buildings and
their average height exceeds 15 m
Note: The parameters of Table 8.1 are calibrated to obtain the best fit of available data. The values
4.qand z;nin are used in 8.2. the value E is used in annex B (section 3).
at a distance:
(2) If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness
- less than2 km from the smoother category
I
- less than 1 km from the smoother categoriesIIand 111
the smoother terrain categoryin the upwind directionshould be used.
(3) In theabovetransitionzonessmallareas of differentroughnessshould be

ignored (less than10 % of the area under consideration). Where detailed knowledge
of the influence of landscape on the wind profile is available more detailedrules are
provided, where appropriate, in annex A.
(4) When there is any doubt about the choice between two categories in the defini-
tion ofa given area, theworse case should be taken.

Page 29
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
8.4 Topography coefficient
(1)P The topography coefficient,q(z),accounts for the increase of mean wind speed
over isolated hills and escarpments (not undulating and mountainous regions). It is
relatedtothewindvelocityatthebaseofthehill 'or escarpment. It shall be
of hill slope from the crest or
considered for locations closer than half the length the
1,5 times the heightof the cliff. It is defined by:
c,= 1 for @ c 0,05
q = l + 2 -S -a for 0,05c 0 cO,3 (8.3)
~ = 1 + 0 , 6* S for @ > 0,3
where:
S factor to be obtained from Figure 8.1 or Figure 8.2 scaled to the length of the
effective upwind slope length,
4 upwind slope M in the wind direction (see Figure 8.2 and Figure 8.3)
L, effective length of the upwind slope, defined in Table 8.2
actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction
&, actuallength of downwindslope in thewinddirection
H effectiveheightof thefeature
X horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest
z verticaldistancefrom the ground level ofthesite
Table 8.2: Values of
(2)P In valleys,q(z)may be set to 1,O if no speedup due to funnelling effectsis to be

expected. For structures situated within, or for bridges spanning steep-sided valleys
careshould be taken to accountforanyincreaseofwindspeedcaused by
funnelling.

Page 30
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
CREST
XlL,
UP WlUD c.
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 O O. 5 Id 1.5 2.0 2s

o. o5
Figure 8.1: Factor S for cliffs and escarpments

Page 31
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
X-
x-
CREST
--m"
-L5 -LO -QS O OS 1.0 1. S 2. o 2.5
Figure 8.2: Factor S for hills and ridges

Page 32
ENV 1991-24 : 1996
8.5 Exposure cdefficient
(1)P The exposure coefficient, ce(z),takes into account the effects of terrain rough-
ness, topography and height above groundon the mean wind speedand turbulence.
It is defined by:
kT
'J=)= CJZ) c&)
(2)P For codification purposes it has been assumed that the quasi-staticgust load is
determined from:
where:
kT terrain factor as defined in 8.2
ç(z) roughness coefficient as defined in 8.3
ç(z) topography coefficient as defined in 8.4
Note: This corresponds to a peak factor g = 35.
(3)For flat terrain (ç(z)= 1) the exposure coefficient,c,(z), is shown in Figure 8.3for
each tertain category definedin 8.2.
(4) For structures which need to be designed by the detailed method, the simplifi-
cation in (2)P above is not used.

-~
STD=BSI D D ENV L79L-Z-Y-ENGL L997 Lb24bb9 0851b07 5bL 9

Page 33
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
z speclal advlce
(ml
200 -. t
100
so
20
10
S
2
O I 2 3 4
Figure 8.3: Exposure coefficient c&) as a function of height z above ground

and terrain categories I to IV (seeTable 8.1) for q = 1

Page 34
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Section 9 Choice of procedures
9.1 General
(l)P Two procedures for calculating wind loads are provided.
- the simple procedure appliesto those structures whose structural properties do not
make them susceptible to dynamic excitation. This procedure can also be used for
the design of mildly dynamicstructures by the use of the dynamic coefficient, G.The
value of this coefficient depends upon the type of structure (concrete, steel, compo-
site), the heightof the structure andits breadth.
- the detailed procedure applies tothose structures which are likely tobe susceptible
to dynamic excitationand for whichthe value of the dynamic coefficient, q,is greater
than 1,2.
(2)P The dynamic coefficient, cd, takes into account the reduction effects due
to the
lack of correlation of pressures over surfacesas well as the magnification
effects due
to the frequency content of turbulence close to the fundamental frequency of the
structure.
(3)P clause 9.2 defines the field of application of this section, and the criteria for
choosing between simple and detailed procedures.
(4)P Clause 9.3 sets downthe valuesof cd for use with the simple procedure (in-wind
response).
(5) Clause 9.4 gives criteria for vortex shedding and galloping.
(6) Wherever the simple procedure may be applied, the detailed procedure provides
more accurate and- usually less conservative results than those given
by the Simple
procedure.
9.2 Criteria for the choice
(1) The simple proceduremay be used:

- for buildings and chimneysless than 200 m tall
- for highway andrail bridges whose maximum span is less than
200 m.
provided the value of c, (see 9.3)is less than 1,2 (in-wind response). In all other
cases coveredby this Part the detailed methodof annex B should be used.

Page 35
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
9.3 Dynamic coefficientfor gust wind response
(1) Values of cdsetout in Figures 9.1 to 9.8 are based on typical values of the
relevant parameters and the simple equations for frequency given in annex C. For
conventional structures these assumptions and equations have been found to be
reasonable and the Figures provide upper bound values cd within
to the field of appli-
cation in the Figures. In particular the values are conservative for structures sited in
categories II to IV. Caution should be exercised for special structures of unusual
shape or flexibility.
(2) Values of c, for buildings are set out in Figures

9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 depending on the
material of construction.
(3)Values of c,, for bridges are setout in Figure 9.4. For bridges, the simple proce-
dure is based on the assumption that for highway andrailway bridges the maximum
span isless than 200 m and for footbridges the maximum span is less than 30 m.
(4) Values of c,, for chimneys areset out in Figures 9.5 to 9.8 depending on theform
of construction.
(5) Mote accurate values may be obtained by using equation (B.l) of annex B with
appropriateparametersforthestructureunderconsideration,wheretheseare
known.
(6) For values of 1,O 5 cd I1,2 it is recommended that the detailed procedure shouM
be used.
(7) Other forms of structures covered by thispart may require the useof annex B.
(8) Further guidance will be provided during the ENV period for special structures,
such as lattice towers, guyed masts, cable supported bridges. Specific requirements
for such structureswill be given in the appropriate partsof the Eurocodes.

Page 36
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
P
height h ( I# "f
breadth b (ml
~ ~ ~ ~
Note 1): Values of parameters used in Figure 9.1:

(i) vmf= 28 m/s
(ii) tarain category I
(iii) & = 0,045 n, + 0,oS 2 0.10
(h) ¿+o
for wition scc annex c.4.5
Note 2): The criteria set down in tbis Figue do not address comfon conditions at SrniceabW.
If this is likely to be of concem.more detailed proceduns should be used.
Figure 9.1: c, values forconcrete and masonry buildings

Page 37
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
DIh wo/ not of

prac tlcal
interest
height h (m)
Figure 9.2: c,, values for steel buildings

Page 38
ENV 1991-2-4 1995
height h
l 10 20 1O0
breadth b ( m 1
Note: as for Figure 9.1, but (i) SS= 0.08 n, 2 0,OS
Figure 93: c , values for composite (steelkoncrete) buildings

Page 39
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
height
Note: as for Fi ure 9.1, but

(i) C
?
R, 4 I 0.1
(ii) b = 3 m
:
(iii) Q = 3.5
for definition see annex B.2
Figure 9.4: c, values for highway, railway and footbridges

Page 40
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
so
height h ( m l
0.5 1 2 S 10
I
diameter b (ml
Now as for Figure 9.1, but
(i) 4 = 0.015
(i¡ W,Wt =1
for defmition see annex C.4.2
Figure 9.5: c,, values for unlined welded steel chimneys
detailed method
.criteria for
vortex shedding
(6.94)
height h
n
o, S 1 2 S 10
diameter b (ml
NOU: as for Figue 9.1, but
(i) 4 = 0.035
(i) wS/wt= 0.7
for definirion see annex C.4.2
Figure 9.6: c, values for lined steel chimneys

Page 41
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
cri teria for

/'vortex &ding
1 2 5 10
* diameter b (ml
Noce: as for Figure 9.1. but
(il 6s= 0.07
(îi) W.& = O$
for defmiuon see anaex C.4.2
Figure 9.7: c, values for brick lined steel chimney
0.5 1 2 5 10
diameter b I m)
Note: as for Figure 9.1. but

!I,
(i) 6s= 0,075 10.03
(ii) WJWt = 1
for definition see annex C.4.2
Figure 9.8: c,, values for reinforced concrete chimney

Page 42
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
9.4 vortex shedding, aeroelastic instability and dynamic interference effects
9.4.1 General
(1) P For slender structures the following phenomena of dynamics and instability
effects haveto be considered:
- vortex shedding
- galloping
- flutter
- divergence
- interference galloping.
are given in annex C.
(2) Detailed rules for analysing such phenomena
(3)Criteria for the field of application of vortex shedding and galloping are given in
9.4.2.
9.4.2 Field of application
(1) Buildings whose geometric dimensions satisfy the criteria given in Figure 9.9
neednot be checkedforvortexshedding and galloping.Buildingswhich do not
satisfythese criteriashall be checked for vortex shedding and galloping.
(2) Elongated structures, such as chimneys and bridges, whose geometric dimen-
sionssatisfythecriteriagiven in Figures 9.5 to 9.9 (chimneys)and Table 9.1
(bridges) need not to be checked for vortex shedding, galloping, flutter and interfe-
rence galloping. Such structures which do not satisfy these criteria shallbe checked
for these phenomena.
(3)Criteria for divergence and flutterplatelike

of structures are givenin annex c.3.3.

Page 43
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
breadth [ m ]
Note: (i) wref = 28 m/s

(ii) terrain category I
(iii) Smuhal numbers for rectangular cross sections depending on d/b have been taken from
Figure C.l of annex C
for defmitions see annex C.2 and C.4.2
Figure 9.9: Criteria for buildings forvortex shedding and galloping
Table 9.1: Criteria for bridges for vortex shedding, galloping andflutter
-
Criteria satisfiedprovided:
dhs 5 dR,r10
V b c 8 vb c 14
supports for c 16 c29
horizontal forces c 24 c44

m
c 32 c58
Note: (i) wWf= 28 m/s

(ii)terrain category I
1O0
(iii) n =-
I
(¡v) Srrouhal number from Table C.1
for definitions see annex C.2
(v) linear interpolate for 5 I dlb S 10

Page 44
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Section 1O Aerodynamic coefficients
10.1 General
(1) This section presents the aerodynamic coefficients of the following structures,
structural elements and components:
- Buildings (10.2)
- Canopy roofs (10.3)
- Free-standing boundary walls, fences and signbords(10.4)
- Structural elements with rectangular section(10.5)
- Structural elements with sharp edged section (10.6)
- Structural elements with regular polygonal section (10.7)
- Circular cylinders(10.8)
- Spheres (10.9)
- Lattice structures and scaffoldings (10.1
O)
- Bridges (10.1 1)
- Flags (10.12)
- Friction coefficients 0.1
(1 3)
- Effective slenderness and slenderness reduction factor(10.14)
ie or snow. loading is important, the reference area shall be increased with
(2)P If c
the ice orsnow thickness (see also section 3).
10.2 Buildings
10.21 General
(1) Theexternalpressurecoefficients % forbuildingsandindividualparts of

buildings depend on the size of the loaded areaA. They are given for loaded areas A
of lm2and 10m2in the relevant tables for the appropriate building configurations as
Cpe,, and respectively. For other loaded areas the variation of the values may be
obtained from Figure10.2.1.
Note: The loaded area is the area of the structure, which produces the wind action in the section 10 be
calculared

Page 45
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
.
CPe '
CP,l a
CP,JJ"""-""" " k
I
""_
1
I
1 2 4 6 $10 A [m2]
Note: The figure is based on the following

% %.l -- A I lm2
cpe ç m l + (Cpe,lO - Cpe.1) log 10 A 1rn2<A<10m2
A r romz cpe = cpe.10
Figure 10.2.1: Variation of external pressure coefficient for buildings with size
of the loaded areaA.
(2) The values c ~ ,and, ~c*,, in Tables 10.2.1 to 10.2.6 are given for orthogonal wind
directions,'O 90°, 180" but represent the highest values obtainedin a range of wind
direction O= k 45' either sideof the relevant orthogonal direction.
(3)These values are only applicableto buildings.
10.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
(1) The reference height, r,, for walls of rectangular plan builglings depends on the
aspect ratio h h and is given in Figure 10.2.2 for the following three cases:
(a) Buildings, whose heighth is less thanb, shall be consideredto be one part.
(b) Buildings, whose height h is greater than b, but less than 26, shall be considered
to be two parts, comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a
height equal tob and an upper part.
(C)Buildings, whose heighth is greater than 2b, shall be consideredto be in multiple

parts, comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal
to b; an upper part extending downwards from the top by a height equal to b and a
middle region, between the upper and lower parts, divided into as many horizontal
Stips with a maximum height ofb as desired.

b: crosswind width h>2b
b < h< 2b
h< b
Figure 10.2.2: Referenceheight, %, depending on h and b.
(2) Theexternalpressurecoefficientsand cW,,for zone A, B, C, D and E

defined in Figure 10.2.3. are given in Table 10.2.1, depending on the ratio &h. Inter-
mediate valuesmay be interpolated linearly.
(3) Friction forces should be considered onlyfor long buildings(see 6.2).

STD-BSI D D ENV L991-2-q-ENGL L997 m Lb2'!bb9 085Lb2L 931 m
Page 47
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
UNATlON
case d>e
t O
æ
I
I
PLAN
I.ls,
wind\
-D
case dce
/ Pi
I t
e = b or 2h
whichever is smaNer
Figure 10.2.3: Key for vertical walls
Table 10.2.1: External pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular

plan buildings
zone A B, B' I C
1 1 I
-1,0 -1,3 i -0,8
-1,0
I 1
-1.0
-1.3 -0,8 - 1.0

- 0,5
- 0,5 ~ +0,6 +1,0 - 0,3
I

Page -48
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
10.23 Flat roofs
a slope off 4"

(1) Flat roofs are defined within
(2) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 10.2.4.
(3) The reference heightr;, should be takenas h.
(4) Pressure coefficients foreach zone are given in Table 10.2.2.
(5) For long roofs frictionforces should be considered (see6.2).
,Edge of eave ,
Parapets Curved and mansard eaves
reference height :
4=h
e = bor2h
whichever is smaller
b :crosswind dimension
Figure 10.2.4: Key for flat roofs

~
STD-BSI DD ENV L77L-2-'4-ENGL L997 Lb2'4bb9 085Lb23 70'4 W
Page 49
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Table 10.2.2: External pressure coefficients for flat roofs
I I zone I
F G H I
Notes: (i) Forroofs with parapets or curved eaves,linearinterpolation may be used for inter-
mediate values ofv h and r - .
(ii) For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between a = 30".45" and a = 60"
may be used. For a > 60" linearly interpolate between the values for a = 6
'and the
0
values forflat roofs with sharp eaves.
(iii) In Zone l. where positiveand negative valuesare given, both valuesshall be considered.
(iv) For the mansard eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given in Table 10.2.4
. E x r ~ m a lpressure coefficients for duopitch roofs: wind direction 0". Zone F and G,
depending on the pitch angleof the mansard ave.
(v) For the curved eave itself, theextemal pressure coefficients are given
by linear interpola-
tion along the cume, between values on the wall and on the roof.

Page 50
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995 '
10.2.4 Monopitch roofs
(1) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 10.2.5.
(2) The reference height G shouM be taken as h.
(3) Pressure coefficients for each zoneare given in Table 10.2.3.
(4) For long roofs friction forcesshould be considered (see 6.2).
r
reference height :
(4general Z. h
-I
l n b
/-
-I J+
F
!-
W10
(c) wind direction 9 - 9

0'
Figure 10.2.5: Key for monopitch roofs
(5) For elongated roof corners (see Figure 10.2.5) the zone R is under the Same
pressure as the corresponding vertical wall. This rule is also applicable for roofs Of
other types.

Page 51
ENV 1991-2-4: 1996
Table 10.2.3: External pressure coefficients for monopitch roofs
45" - 1,2 - 2,0 - 1,4 - 2.0 - l,o - 1,3 - 0,9 - 1.2

60" -1,2 -2,O -1,2 -2.0 -1,O -1,3 -0,7 -12
75" - 1,2 - 2,o - 1,2 - 2,o - 1 ,o - 1,3 - 0,s
Notes: (i) At 0 = O" the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values around a
pitch angle of a = +15O to +30°,so both positive and negative values are given.
(ii) Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be uscd between values of same
sign.

Page 62
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.2.5 Duopitch roofs
(1) The roof shoud be divided into zones as shown in Figure 10.2.6.
(2) The reference heightr, shoud be taken as h.
(3) The pressure coefficientsfor each zone are givenin Table 10.2.4.
(4) For long roofs friction forces shouldbe considered (see 6.2).
- upwhd hœ
-
wind upwind-
y
&:y-
wind Ø
/
er/ / d w m t "
..... ......
@(,o .............. ...............
...................
...................
...................
I...................
...................
...................
................... IIh + t.:...................
.................
Pitch angle positive
(a) general
wind
- 8-Q b
/
reference height :
J1 o of1o r.= h
"
(b) wind direction 0 = O'
wind W.1
oraough
b
b :crosswind dimension
/ I
I) I -W10
el2 -*
(c) wind direction 8 = 90'
Figure 10.2.6: Key for duopitch roofs

STD=BSI D D ENV L99L-2-9-ENGL L997 m Lb29bbS 0851b27 3 5 T m
Page 53
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Table 10.2.4: External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs
45" + 0,7 + 0,7 + 0.6 - 0,2 - 0,3

60" + 0,7 ~
+ 0,7
~-
+ 0,7 ~~
- 0,2
~~
- 0,3
75" + 0,8 + 0.8 + 0.8 - 0,2 - 0,3 I
Notes: (i) At 0 = O" the pressure changes rapidly betweenpositive and negative values on the
windward face around a pitch angle of a = +15" to +30°. so both positive and negative
values are given.
(ii) Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the Same sign may be used between
values of the same sign. (Do not interpolate between a = +5" and a = -5", but use the
data for flat roofs in 102.3.

10.2.6 Hipped roofs
(1) The roof shoud be divided into zonesas shown in Figure 10.2.7.
(2) The reference height z, shoud be taken as h.
(3) The pressure coefficients are given in Table 10.2.5.
e-Q
I Ik I Ih
dl0
rcu”
T
I
i
wind
-
/ /
“i i
il0
Figure 10.2.7: Key for hipped roofs

Page 55
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
hipped roofs of buildings

Table 10.2.5: External pressure coefficients for
Pitch
angle Zone for wind direction 9 P O" and 9 = 90"
f G H 1 J K 1 M N
%for
e = o0
a,for CpC,la %,I +,la Cpe.1 Cpe.10 Cp.1 Cpe.10 Cpe,la + ,I%.ta
Cpe.1 +,I Cpe.10 Cw.1 Cpe.la Cpa.1 %.lc %.r
e = 900
+So -1.7 - 2 5 -1.2 -2.0 -0,6 -1.2 -0.3 - 0.6 - 0,6 - 1.2 - 2,0 - 0.6 - 1.2 - 0,4
+1So -0.9 -2,O -0.8 -1.5 -0.3 -0,s -1,O -1.5 -1.2 -2.0 -1,4 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2 -0.3
+02 +0 2 +O 2
+SO0 -0.5 -1.5 -0,s -1.5 -0.2 -0.4 -0.7 -1.2 -0.5 -1.4 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2 -0.2
+ 0.5 + 0.7 + 0.4

+ 45" + 0.7 + 0,7 + 0,6 - 0.3 - 0,6 - 0.3 - 1.3 - 2.0 - 0.a - 1.2 - 0.2
+ 60" + 0.7 + 0.7 + 0,7 - 0.3 - 0,6 -0.3 - 1.2 2.0 0.4 - 0.2 ~
+ 75" + 0,8 + 0.8 + 0.8 - 0.3 - 0,6 - 0.3 - 1.2 - 2.0 0.4 - 0.2
Notes: (i) At 9 = 0" the pressures changes rapidly betmen positive and negative valucs on the
windward face at pitch angle of a = +15" to +30° so both positive and negative values
are given.
(ii) Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be usad between
values of the same sign. (Do not interpolate between a = +5" and a = -5". but use the
data for flat roofs in 102.3.
(iii) The pitch angle of the windward face always will govern the pressure coefficients.

1027 Yultispan roofs
(1) Pressurecoefficients for each span of muttispan roofs should be derived from
10.2.4 for monopitch roofs modified fortheir position according to Figure 10.2.8.
(2) The reference height z, should be taken as h.
(3) For long roofs friction forces should be considered (see 6.2).
%e
0.e cpe 0 . 6 ~ ~0.6~Cpe
l
h
I
I reference height re=h
Figure 10.2.8: Key to rnultispan roofs

Page 57
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
10.2.8 Vaulted roofs and domes
(1)This section applies to circular cylindrical roofs and domes.
(2) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 10.2.9 and Fig-
ure 10.2.1O.
(3) The reference height shoudbe taken as:

q=h++2 (10.2.1)
(4) The pressure coefficients are given in Figure 10.2.9 and Figure 10.2.1O.
(5)Pressure coefficients for the walls shoud be taken from 10.2.2.
Notes: (i) for O 5 N d I 0.5, cpe,lo is obtained by linear interpolation

(ii) for 0.2 sfld 5 0.3 and Nd 105,two values of have u,be considered
(iü) the diagram is not applicable for flat roofs
Figure 10-2.9: External pressure coefficients for vaulted roofs with rectangular
base and Cl(h+f) I 10

Page 58
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
A
pT7 If
I -Ih I
-&
, ~ domes with circular

Figure 10.2.10: External pressure coefficients c ~ , for
base

STD.BS1 DD E N V 1991-2-q-ENGL 1977 Bb2qbb7 085Bb33 b53 m
Page 59
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
10.2.9 Internal pressure
(1) The internalpressurecoefficient ç,, forbuildingswithoutinternalpartitions is

given in Figure 10.2.1 1 and is a function of the opening ratiop, which is defined as
Z area of openings at the leeward and wind parallel sides
P= (10.2.1)
Z area of openings at the winward,leeward and wind parallel sides
(2) The reference height4 without internal partition and floorsis the mean height of
the openings with homogeneous distribution of height of the dominant opening. An
opening is regarded as dominant, if the ratio of its area to that of the remaining
openings is larger than1O.
(3) The reference height 4 for buildings without intemal partitions but with cornpart-
mentation by internal floors is the mean heightof the level considered.
(4) For a homogeneous distribution ofopeningsforanearlysquarebuilding the

value cp = -0.25 shall be used.
(5) Theworstvalueshavetobeconsideredforanycombinationofpossible
openings.
(6) For closed buildings with internal partitions and opening windows the extreme
values:
cp = 0,8 or cpi= -0,5 (10.2.2)
may be used.
(7) In Figure 10.2.11 the most intensive suction is assumed to be cpi= - O S (lowest
pointofthecurve). If one or moredominantopeningsexist in areaswithmore
then the curve continues down to the lower value.
intensive suction than-0,5,
(8) Internal and external pressures are considered

to act at thesame time.
(9) The internal pressure coefficientof open silos is:
pl = -0,8 (10.2.3)
The reference heightz, is equal to the heightof the silos.

OS
cpi
-025
-0,s
Figure 10.2.1 1: Internal pressure coefficient cpIfor buildings with openings in

the walls.
10.2.10 Pressure onexternal walls or roofs withmore than one skin
(1) In case of an external wall or roof with more than one skin, the wind force is
calculated separately on each skin as follows:
(i) Wind force on the most impermeable skin:

The net pressureacross the most impermeable skin to airis the differenceof the
pressures oneach face of the wall or roof taking due account of their signs (see
5.4). If the permeability of the outside skin is less than 3 times the latemal per-
meability of the air layer, the average value of .cpiaover the whole surface of the
wall or roof shouldbe used, where this valueof cpla is more unfavourable.
(i¡) Wind force on other skins:

In caseof a second skin on the externalor internal sideof the most impermeable
skin, thepressurecoefficient in theintermediate air layer is given in Table
10.2.6 in terms of the permeability to theair of skins.
Ifboth skins are impermeable, this pressure coefficient cpia is given in terms of the
deformability of the skins, the thickness of the layer of air and any other entrances
(¡.e. case (4) in Table 10.2.6).

(2) Ifthe value ofcpeis variable overthe surface of the outside skin,the values of cp(a
indicated in case (1) in Table 10.2.6 are only applicable if the permeability of the out-
side skin is greater than3 times the lateral permeabilityof the air layer.
(3)The values of cF indicated in cases (1) and(3)are not applicable, if entries of air
put the layer of air Into communication with faces of the building other than theface
on which the wallis situated. In particular, near the cornerof the building:
(i) the value G is not applicable, if the extremity of the layer of air is open (Fig-
ure 10.2.1 2 (a).
(i¡) thevalue is applicable, if the extremityofthelayerofair is closed(Fig-

ure 10.2.1 2 (b).
\ -
".""""""".
Figure 10.2.12: Pressure on external walls

.. .
~~
. .
STD-BSI DD ENV 1771--2-4-EN¿L 3997 l b 2 4 b b 4 0851b3b 3b2 W
Page 62
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Table 10.26: Internal pressure coefficient cw in the insideair layer of wal Of a

roof
¡na¡& skin
(3) no entry of air at

' extremities
I43
L.........1
(4) entriss of air at
exbemities
(5) no ently of air at

8Xlrelllities
(5.1)
O
u1
Note: ?he percantage of openings/I is the sum of the arcas of the openings diviced by the total area d
the part of h e wall (inside or outside) considered.

Page 63
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.3 Canopy roofs

(1) Canopy roofs are roofs of buildings, which do not have permanent walls, such as
petrol station canopies, dutch
barns, etc.
(2) The degree of blockage under the canopy is shown in Figure 10.3.1. It depends
on the solidity ratiocp, which is the ratio of the area of possible obstructions under the
canopy divided by the cross area underthe canopy, being both areas normalto the
wind direction. cp = O represents an empty canopy,(P = 1 represents the canopy fully
blocked with contents to the down wind eaves only (this is not a closed building).
(3) The net pressure coefficients c,,.ner are given in Table 10.3.1 to 10.3.3 for cp = O
and cp = 1. Intermediate values may be linearly interpolated.
(4) Downwind of the position of maximum blockage, Ç,,~ values for tp = O shall be
used.
(5) The overall coefficient represents the resutting force. The local coefficient re-
presents the maximum local force for different wind directions.
(6) Each canopy must be able to support the maximum (upward) loads as defined
below:
(i)formonopitchcanopy(Table10.3.1)thecentre of pressureshallbetakenat
w/4 from thewindward edge( W = alongwind dimension, Figure 10.3.2)
(i¡) for duopitch canopy (Table 10.3.2) the center of pressure shall be taken at the
center of each slope (Figure 10.3.3)
In addition, a duopitch canopy mustbe able to support one pitch with the maxi-
mum or minimum load, the otherpitch being unloaded.
(iii) for multibay duopitch canopy each bay c a n be calculated by applying the re-
duction factors givenin Table 10.3.4. to the cp.netvalues givenin Table 10.3.2.
In case of double skin, the impermeable skin and its fixings shall be calculated with
c,,net and the permeable skin and its fixings with
113 cp..er
(7)Friction forces should be considered (see

6.2).
I
Empty, free-standing canopy (cp = O) Canopy blocked to the downwind eaves by stored
goods (o= 1)
Figure 10.3.1 : Airflow over canopy roofs

I . .
Page 64
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
rame 10.3.1 :cpmcvalues for monopitch canopies

Roof L a c a l coefficients
angle a
r1
O Minimrm all cp + 0,2 + 0.5 + 1.8 + 1.1

Minimrmq=O - 0,s - 0,6 - 1.3 - 1,4
Minimum cp = 1 - 1.3 - 1.5 - 1.8 - 2,2
5 Minimum all cp + 0,4 + 0,s + 2,l + 1,3
Minimum cp = O - 0,7 - 1,l - 1,7 - 1,0
Minimum cp = 1 - 1,4 - 1,6 - 2.2 - 2,s
10 Minimm all cp + 0,5 + 1,2 + 2.4 + 1.6
Minimum q = O - 0,9 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2,l
Minimum q = 1 - 1.4 - 2.1 - 2,6 - 2,7
15 Minimum a l l e, + 0,7 + 1.4 + 2.7 + 1,0
Minimum cp = O - 1,l - 1.8 - 2.4 - 2.5
Minimum cp = 1 - 1,4 - 1,6 - 2,9 - 3,O
20 Minimum all cp + 0.8 + 1,7 + 2.9 + 2,l
Minimum cp = O - 1,3 - 2.2 - 2,8 - 2,9
Minimum e, = 1 - 1,4 - 1.6 - 2,9 - 3,O
25 Minimum all e, + l,o + 2,o + 3,l + 23
Minimum e, = O - 1.6 - 2,6 - 3.2 - 3,2
Minimum cp = 1 - 1,4 - 1,s - 2.5 - 2.8
30 Minimum all cp + 1,2 + 2.2 + 3,2 + 2,4
Minimum cp = O - 1,8 - 3,O - 3,a - 3,6
Minimum 9 = 1 - 1,4 - 1,s - 2,2 - 2.7
Figure 10.3.2: Load arrangements for monopitch canopies

Page 65
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
values for duopitch canopies

Table 10.3.2: cpSMt
Roof Blockage q, Overall Local coefficients

angle a coefficients
Minimum cp = O - 0.6 - 0,6 - 1,4 - 1,4 - 1,l

Minimum qt = 1 - 1,4 - 1,3 - 2,o - 1,8 - 1,s
+ 10 Minimum all cp + 0.4 + 0,7 + 1,8 + 1.4 + 0,4
Minimum cp = 0 - 0,7 - 0,7 - 1,5 - 1,4 - 1,4
Minimum cp = 1 - 1,3 - 1.3 - 2,o - 1,8 - 1,8
+ 15 . Minimum all cp + 0,4 + 0,9 + 1,9 + 1,4 + 0,4
Minimum qt = O - 0,8 - 0,9 - 1,7 - 1.4 - 1,a
Minimum cp = 1 - 1.3 - 1,3 - 2,2 - 1,6 - 2,l
+ 20 Minimum all cp + 0,6 + 1,l + 1,9 + 1,5 + 0,4
Minimumcp = O - 0,9 - 1.2 - 1,8 - 1.4 - 2,o
Minimum cp = 1 - 1,3 - 1,4 - 2,2 - 1,6 - 2,l
+ 25 Minimum all cp + 0,7 + 1,2 + 1,9 + 1.6 + 0,s
Minimum cp = O - 1.0 - 1,4 - 1,9 - 1,4 - 2,o
Minimum cp = 1 - 1.3 - 1,4 - 2,o - 1,s - 2,o
+ 30 Minimum all cp + 0,9 + 1.3 + 1,9 + 1,6 + 0,7
Minimum cp = O - 1,o - 1,4 - 1,9 - 1,4 - 2,o
Minimum qt = 1 - 1.3 - 1,4 - 1,8 - 1,4 - 2,o
Note: (i) + down
- UP
(ii) =h

Page 66
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Figure 10.3.3: Load arrangements for duopitch canopies
(7) Loads on each slope of multibay canopies shownin Figure 10.3.4 are determined
by applying the factors given in Table 10.3.3 to the overall coefficients for isolated
duo-pitch canopies
TaMe 10.33 cpm values for multibay canopies
Bay Location Factors for all g,
on maximum (downward) on minimum (upward)

overall coefficient overall coefficient
1 end bay 1.o0 0.81
2 second bay 0.87 0.64
3 third and subsequent bays 0.68 0.63
, 1 2 . 3 3 3 2 1
Figure 10.3.4: Multibay canopies

Page 67
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
10.4 Free-standing boundary walls, fences and signboards
10.4.1 Solid boundary walls
(1) The wall shouldbe divided into zonesas shown in Figure 10.4.1.
(2) Values of net pressure coefficients .net for freestanding walls and parapets, with
9
or without return comers, are givenin able 10.4.1 for two values of solidity. Solidity
tp = 1 refers to solid wails, while cp = 0.8 refers to walls which are 80% solid and 20%
open. The referencearea in both cases is the grossarea.
(3) Linear interpolation for solidity ratio may be used in the range 0.8 <P c 1. For
porous walls with solidity less than 0.8, coefficients should be derived as for plane
lattice frames (see10.1O).
(4) The slenderness factor\vs (see 10.14) may be applied.
(5)The reference heightze should be taken ash.
Table 10.4.1: Net pressure coefficientsfor free-standing walls
Solidity zone A B C D
without return 3.4 2.1 1.7 1.2

comers
q=l with return 2.1 1.8 1.4 1.2

corners
~p = 0.8 12 1-2 1.2 1.2

I
(a) K e y t o zones ze=h
t .-
4 Without
return corner With return
corner
( b l Key t o wind angle
Figure 10.4.1: Key to boundary walls

10.42 Pressure coefficients for porous fences
(1) Porous fences with solidity ratio 0,8 should be treated as a plane lattice using
the provisions of10.1 O.
10.4.3 Shelter factors for walls and fences
(1) When there are other walls or fences upwind that are equal in height or taller
than the wall or fence height h, an additional shelter factor canbe used with thenet
pressure coefficients for boundary walls and lattice fences. Thevalue of the shelter
factor depends on the spacing between the walls or fencesx, and the'solidity W, of
the upwind (sheltering) wall or fence. Values are plotted as a contour map in Fig-
ure 10.4.2.
The net pressure on the sheltered wall
is given by:
(10.4.1)
(2) The slenderness factoryl (see 1O. 14) may be applied.
(3) The end zones with a lengthof the height h of each sheltered wall or fence shall
the effectof wind direction.
be calculated for thef u l l wind load, taking into account
I
reference height
Z, = h
0.20 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 9
Spacing xlh
Figure 10.4.2: Shelter factor yrs for walls and fences

-~ ~
S T D * B S I D D ENV L771-2-4-ENGL L777 m L b 2 4 b b 9 13853b43 5 T 2 m

Page 69
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.4.4 Signboards
(1) The force coefficients for signboards, separ*atedfrom the ground by at least Cu4
height (see Figure 10.4.3), is given by:
(10.4.2)
where:
yA slendernessreduction factor (see 10.14)
(2) The resuttant force normal to the signboard should be taken to act at the height
of the center of the board, with an horizontaleccentricity of:
e=+0,25*b (10.4.3)
b
1
I
Note: (i) referenceheight: re = zg + d / 2

(ii) reference area: Aref = b .d
(iii) zg 2 4 4 if not assumed as boundary wall
Figure í0.4.3: Key for signboards

10.5 Structural elements with rectangular sections
(1) The force coefficientc, of structural elementsof rectangular section and with wind
blowing normallyto a face is given by:
ç =q o Wr'K (10.5.1)
where:
ç,o forcecoefficient' of rectangularsections with sharp corners andinfinite

slenderness ratio h (h = Ub, C = length, b = width of element) as given in
Figure 10.5.1.
y, reductionfactor for square sections with rounded comers. YI, depends. on
Reynolds number. Approximate upper bound values of y, are given in Fig-
ure 10.5.2.
Va reduction factor for elements with finite slenderness ratio as defined in 10.14.
(2) The reference area &,is:
&f=t* b (10.5.2)
The reference height z, is equal to the height above ground of the section being
considered.
(3) For plate-like sections (dh C 0,2) lift forces at certain wind angles of attack may
give rise to higher values of ç up to an incrase of 25% (for example, see 10.4.4
signboards).

Page 71
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
I ;1
2 .6 7 i 2 S 10 1
Figure 10.5.1: Force coefficients of rectangular sections with sharp corners

and slenderness L = Ub = 00 and turbulence intensity of 4 1 6% .
Figure 10.5.2: Reductionfactor yr for a squarecross-sectionwith rounded

corners.

Page 72
ENV 1991-2-4: 1996
10.6 Structural elements with sharp edged section
(1) Theforcecoefficient ç of structural slements with sharp edgedsection (e.g.

elements with cross sections such as those shown in Figure 10.6.1) is given by:
c, =ç,oYb (1 0.6.1)
where:
force coefficient of structural elements with infinite slenderness ratio h (h = Ub.
L = length, b = width), as defined in Figure 10.6.1. It is given for all sections and '
for both wind directions as: G,.,= 2.0.
vA slenderness reduction factor (see 1O. 14)
NOU: c
Figure 10.6.1 :Sharp edged structural sections
(2) The reference areas are:

in xdirection: &,x =C b (1 0.6.2)
in y-direction: =C d
(3) In all cases the reference height z, is equal to the height above ground of the
section being considered.

STD-BSI D D ENV L991-2-q-ENGL L777 m L b 2 9 b b 9 0852089 UT9 m
Page 73
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.7 Structural elements with regular polygonal section
(1) The force coefficient ç of structural elements with regular polygoncl section with
5 or more sides is given by:
ç = ç.o *VA (10.7.1)

where:
ç,o force coefficient of structural elements with infinite slenderness ratio h (h = Ub,
C = length, b = diameter of circumscribed circumference, seeFigure 10.7.1) as
defined in Table 10.7.1
yrA slenderness reduction factor as defined in 10.1 4
Figure 10.7.1 :Regular polygonalsection
(2) The reference area 4, is:

kf= C * b (10.7.2)
(3) The reference height z, is equal to the height above ground of the section being
considered.

Table 10.7.1 :Force coefficient ct,ol for regular polygonal sections
-ber Sectiions Finish of surface

of sides and of comers
5 Pentagon all
6 hexagon all
8 =taml surface smaath Re S 2,4 lo’

r/b C 0,75 (2) -
Re23 10’
surfacesmooth Res2 - 10’

rb r 0,075 (2) Re27 10’-
10 decagon ail
12 dodecagon surface smooth (3)
m e s
fr
o unde d
all others
I I
I I
16
I surfaces-h
cornersrounded
(3)
surface smooth (3) Rec2-10’ like circular

comers rounded
Note: (1) Reynold number, Re,is defined in 10.8

(2) r = comer radius, b = diameter
(3) fmm tests in wind tunnel with galvanisai steel surface and a section with b = 0,3m and
corner radius of O M b

STD-BSI DD ENV L991-2-4-ENGL L777 m Lb2Vbb7 0852073 757 m
Page 75
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.8 Circular cylinders
10.8.1 External pressure coefficients
(1) Pressure coefficients of circular sections depend upon the Reynolds numbers
Re
defined as:
Re - b . VVm ( z 9 ) (10.8.1)
where:
b diameter
V kinematicviscocityof the air (v = 15 1O6 m2,a
v,(%) mean wind velocity as defined in 8.1
(2) The external pressure coefficientsG of circular cylindersis given by:

Cfæ = cp.0 -Vh (10.8.2)
where:
cpp external pressure coefficient for infinite slenderness ratio L (see (3))
vau slendernessreductionfactor(see (4))
(3)The externalpressurecoefficient cp,ois giveninFigure 10.8.1 forvarious

Reynolds numbers asa function of angle a.
(4) The slenderness reduction factor vLa

is given by:
Wxa = 1 for O" l a l a ,
360"- aA5 a I360"
(10.8.3)
%a "4% for aAIa I 360°-aA
where:
a, position of theflowseparation(seeFigure 10.8.1)
y,, slendernessreductionfactor(see 10.14)

Page 76
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Note: (i) Intermediate values may be interpolatedlinearly

(ii) Typical values in the above figure are shown in the table below
Re c'brin cPom a,
5xld 85 -2*2 135 -0.4
2x Id 80 -19 120 -0.7
1o' 75 -1,5 105 -0,s
where: h position of the minimum pressure

c@& value of the minimum pressure coefficienl
aA position of the flow separation
cposl base pressure coeffkient
-
(iii) ?he above figure is based on an equivalent roughnessWb less than 5 10". Typical
values of roughness height k are given in Table 10.7.1
Figure 10.8.1: Pressure

distribution
for
circular
cylinders
for
different
Reynolds number ranges and infinite slenderness ratio
(5) The reference area&r is:

ht=t*b (10.8.4)
(6) The reference height ze is equal to the height above ground of the section being
considered.

STD-BSI D D ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL 5997 m L b 2 4 b b 7 0852073 52"
Page 77
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.8.2 Force coefficients
(1) The force coefficientç, for a finite circular cylinder

is given by:
c, = ç.o w7, (10.8.5)
where:
ç,o force coefficient of cylinders with infinite slenderness (see Figure 10.8.2)
VL slendernessreductionfactor(see 1O. 14)
loh I 5 2 3 4 5678106
O 2 3 456781O7 2 3 4 5 Re
Figure 10.8.2: Force coefficient c,,o for circular cylinders with infinite slender-
ness ratio andfor different equivalent roughnessWb.
(2) Values of equivalent surface roughnessk are given in Table 10.8.1
(3) For stranded cables ç,ois equal to 1, 2 for all values of the Reynolds numberRe.

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ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
Table 10.8.1:Equivalent surface roughness k

~ ~
TYpeOfSUrfaa Equivalent Type of surface Equivalent

roughness k (mm) roughness k (mm)
0,0015 gahranisedsteel
0,002 smooth concrete
0,006 rough concrete
0,02 tust
0,05 brickwork
L
082 L
(3)The reference area kfis:
&=L* b (10.8.6)
(4) The reference height ze is equal to the height above ground of the section being
considered.
(5) Forcylinders near a plane surface with a distanceratio zalb 1 3 (see Figure
10.8.3) special advice is necessary.
Figure 10.8.3: Cylinder near a plane surface

Page 79
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.9 Spheres
(1)Thealongwindforcecoefficient of spheres is given in Figure 10.9.1as a
Ç,~
function of the Reynolds number Re (see 10.8.1) and the equivalent roughness k/b
(see Table 10.8.1)
(2) The values in Figure 10.9.1 are limitedto values 5 > b/2, where zg is the distance
of sphere froma plain surface, b is the diameter, Figure10.9.2. For 5 c bJ2 the force
coefficient ç,xshall be multiplied bya factor 1,6.
(3)The verticalforce coefficient Ç , ~of spheres shall be assumedto be:
ç r = O for q > b / 2 (10.9.1)
= + 0,6 for q,C b/2
(4) In both cases the referencearea 4,

is:
&+
= Zb2/4 (10.9.2)
(5)The reference height shouldbe taken as:
z,= zs+ b/2.
I
10’ 2 3 4 5678106 2 3 4567610’ 2 3 Re
Figure 10.9.1 :Alongwind force coefficient of a sphere
t‘
7-
A
-
. , ,, ,, ,, , , ,t g , , ,,,,
Figure 10.9.2: Sphere near a plain surface

Page 80
ENV 1991-2-4: 1996
10.10 Lattice structures and scaffoldings
(1) The force coefficient, q, of lattice structures and scaffoldingsis given by:
(10.10.1)
where:
ç,o force coefficient of lattice structures and scaffoldings with infinite slenderness
h (L= Ub,C = length, b = width, Figure 10.10.1). It is given by Figures 10.10.2
to 10.10.4 as a function of solidity ratio cp (2) and Reynolds numberRe
ReReynoldsnumbergivenbyequation10.8.1 and calculated using the member
diameter 9
yfk slendernessreductionfactor (see 10.14)
Ws reductionfactor for scaffoiding without-air tightness devices and affected by
solidbuilding faces (seeFigure10.10.5)plotted as a function of the
obstruction factor <PB.
0Ib
I .
li
Figure 10.10.1: Lattice structure or scaffolding
(2) The obstruction factor is given by:
where:
AB,, net areaof the face
49 gross area of the face
.
Page 81
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Figure 10.10.2: Forcecoefficient ctofor a plane lattice structure with angle

members as a function of solidity ratio cp
Figure 10.10.3: Force coefficient c+,ofor a spatial lattice structure with angle
J
members as a function of solidity ratio cp

ne Re
Figure 10.10.4: Force coefficient q,*for plane and spatial lattice structure with
members of circular cross-section
Figure 10.10.5: Reduction factors for the force coefficients of scaffoldings

without air-tightness devices, affected by solid building-face versus
obstruction factor

Page 83
ENV 1991-2-4 1995
(2)Solidity ratio, cp, is defined by:
(P =NAc (1 0.10.2)
where:
sums of the projected areaof the members and gusset plates of the face =
& 4 4+ ci$. For spatial lattice structures one face (the windward face)
shall
be used
the afeaenclosed by the boundaries of the face projected normal to the face
= b*C
length of the lattice
width of the lattice
width and length of the individual memberi
area ofthe gusset platei
The reference area&r is definedby:
&f=A . (1 0.1 0.3)
(4) The reference heightzeis equal to the height of the element

above ground.

Page 84
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.11 Bridges
10.11.1 General
(1) Wind actionson bridges are divided into three components (Figure
10.11.I):
- wind forcesin x-direction
- crosswind forces in z-direction
- longitudinal windforces in y-direction
Figure 10.11.l:Directions of wind actions on bridges
10.11.2 Force coefficients in x-direction
(1) In general, a suitable check for bridgesin normal circumstances would to be

consider a wind pressure of 1- applied to the vertical projected area of the
bridge or structural element under consideration, neglecting those areas where the
load would be beneficial.
(2) Force coefficientsfor bridge decksin x-direction are given by:
(10.1 1.1)
where:
G,o force coefficient for infinite slenderness h (h= Ub, see Figure 10.1 1.1 ) given
in Figure 10.11.2 for typical bridge types. For other bridge types special
advice is necessary.
wx .x slenderness reduction factor (see 1O. 14)

-
STD-BSI D D ENV L97L-2-4-ENGL L777 W L b 2 4 b b l 08523CIl 4 2 b m

Page 85
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
1.3""""- I
1
effectiive height: h = Z,
I
1
1
0 1 2 3 ~ S 6 7 0 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
Figure 10.1 1.2: Force coefficients for bridges,
(3)Where the windward face is inclined to the vertical (see Figure10.1 1 .3),the drag
coefficient ç,omay be reduced by 0,5% per degree of inclination a,from the Vertid,
limited to a maximum reduction of30%.
Figure 10.1 1.3: Bridge with inclined windward face
(4) Reference areas for load combinations without traffic load are defined as:
(i) for decks with plain (web) beams:

the face area of the front main girder, of those parts of the other main girders
projecting over (overlooking) this first one and of any projecting part of the
carriageway deck up to the road or rail surface;
(i¡) for decks with trussed girders:

a) the face area of the carriageway or ballasted tracks, and footways
b) thosesolid parts of all maintrussgirders in normalprojectedelevation
situated above or underneath the area as described in (i);

c) the windward and leeward parapets and safety barriers by 'adding to the
depth of the area as defined in Note (i) the following dimensions:
- 300 mm for each openwork parapet and safety barrier
- the sum of heights of parapets andsafetybamer if they arecontinuous
surfaces.
Note: Some cases are illustrated m Figure 10.11.4 and in the mmspoadingTable 10.11.1.
However the total reference ana shall not exceed that obtained from considuhg an equivalent plain
(web) beam of the same 0vaa.Udqh,including all pmjecfing parts:
(i) for decks with solid barriers (such as noise Me

rs,adverúsing boardsetc.):
theface~ofonebanierpers~~,wbcrethisprojecuovertheabovearra.
d main girders during coslstnrction, prior to the placement of the

(ii) far decks with s
e
slab::
thefacc¿ireaoftwomaingirders.
Solid parwet or
300 mm sdid safety barrier
Figure 10.11.4: Depth to be used for &,

Table 10.11.1 :Depth to be used for
Roadrtstraintsystem On one side On both sides
Open parapet or open s a f e t y bamer b + 300 mm b+ 600 mm
W ¡parapelor sdd safety bamer b+ bl b+2b~
Open parapet and open safety bamer &+600mm b + 1200 mm
(5) Reference areas& x for load combinations with traffic load are spw*fiedin ENV
1991-3.
(6) Thereferenceheight, G, is thedistance from the lowest groundleveltothe

centre of the bridge deck (see Figure10.11.2).

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ENV 1991-2-4: 1996
10.11.3 Force coefficientsin z-direction
(1) Force coefficients c, for bridge decks in z-direction (lift force coefficknts) are
given in Figure10.11.5.
(2) The reference areak Z

is equal to the plan area (see Figure
10.11.1):
Atef.2 =d- 1.2) 0.1 (1
(3) No slenderness factor shall tobe taken into account.
(4) The reference heightis the same as forÇ , (see

~ 10.1 1.2 (6)).
(5) If not otherwise specified the eccentricity of the force

in the y-direction canbe set
to e = d 4
Q=
""- +loo
""-+
3.9 21 .
I
+ 6O
I .I
. I
' d J
I
I
n 4c I
I
I
+ *
I
2 6 8 10 12 14 16 10 20 22 dd/b
O0
-
\' - 6'
-0.9 - 100
m""
Note: This Figure applies to all bridge types shown in Figure 10.11.2
Figure 10.11.5: Force coefficient crr for bridges with superelevation and wind
inclination

Page 88
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.1 1.4 Longitudinal wind forces for bridges
(1) The longitudinal wind forcesin y-direction shouldbe taken as:

- 25% of the wind forcesin x-direction for plated bridges
- 50% of the wind forcesin x-direction fortruss bridges
10.12 Flags
(1) Force coefficients q and reference areas for flags are given in Table 10.12.1.
(2) The reference heightr, is equal to the height of the
flag above ground.
Table 10.12.1 :Force coefficients c, for flags.
Fixed flags
UIh
Y
h*l 2.5 vrx
Force normalto the plane
Free flags
(a) 0,5 h - L
(b) b * L
Force in the plane
where:
m, mass p e r unitarea of the flag
P air density (7.1)
z, heightoftheflagaboveground
yri slenderness reduction factor (10.14)
slenderness h//
Note: The equation for free flags includes dynamic forces from the flag flutter effect.

Page 89
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.13 Friction coefficients
(1) Friction coefficients c+, for long walls and roof surfaces are given in Table
10.13.1.
(2) The reference areas sweptby the wind 4,are given Figure 10.13.1.
(3)The reference hightze shoud be taken into account according to Figure 10.13.1-
z, = h+0,5 t
&, = 2 b - I
z, = 0,6 h
= 2h-l
Figure 10.13.1: Key to reference areaA,+for walls and roof surfaces
Table 10.13.1: Frictional coefficientsc, for walls and roof surfaces
surface Friction coefficient c,

I
t smooth
(¡.e.steel, smooth concrete)
0.01
rough 0,02
(¡.e.rough concrete, tar-boards)
very rough O .O4
(¡.e.ripples, ribs, folds)
c

Page 90
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10.14 Effective slenderness 5 and slenderness reduction factor yo,
(1) The effective slenderness h. is defined in Table 10.14.1.
(2) The slenderness reduction factor vL,versus the effective slenderness, h, and for
different solidity ratioscp is given in Figure 10.14.1.
Table 10.14.1: Effective slenderness h forcylinders,polygonal sections,

bridges,rectangularsections,signboards,sharp edged structural sections
and latticestructures
No. Position of the structure, Effectiveslenderness b

wind normalto the plane oi the page
I ' 1 I
I
I
Ub
I
for I n b I b
2
3 Ubs 70
4 I
Ub a 70

STD-BSI D D ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL 1997 M l b 2 4 b b 9 08521Cl7 7411 .
I
Page 91
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Figure 10.14.1: Slenderness reduction factor yrL as a function of solidity tatio cp

versus slenderness X
(3)The solidity ratio cp is given by (see Figure 10.14.2):
9 = NA,
where:
A sum of the projected areas of the members
4 enclosed area A, =L - b
Figure 10.14.2: Definition of solidity ratio cp

Page 92
ENV 1991-2-4 :1995
Annex A (Informative)
b t e o t o l o g i c a l information and national wind maps
(1) The followingwind parameters are given for CEN member states as listed below:
- the bask value of the reference wind velocity vnt0 defined in section 7 ,
- the direction factor h.It takes into account the probability of exceedance of the
with a fetch angle of f15O,
maximum wind velocity for different directions
-maximum
the temporaryfactor h. It takes into account the probability of exceedance of the
wind velocity for structure life timeless than oneyear,
- altitude factor cup Ittakes into account theincrease of windvelocity for the atdude
of the site above sea level,
- parameters Kand n for the introduction in equation (7.3).
Note where infamation is missing, the @e national authorities should be
v
amrad.
Al AUSTRIA
(1) The reference wind velocity to be taken into account in the different districts and
municipalities is listedinnationalstandard.However it is to be noted, thatthe
indicated values refer toa 2 sec peak wind velodty and not to a 10 min mean wind
velodty as defined in section 7.
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
h 0,775 0,775 0,742 0,707 0.671 0,671 0,671 Q.671 0,707 0,742 0,806 0,nS
Nok: mfordurationofextcutionof 1 month

K= 0,2 n = 0,5

Page 93
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
A3 DENMARK
A4 FINLAND
Zorn
1
2 26.0

Page 94
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
-
Figure Al: France wind map (zones, reference windvelocity)

Page 95
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
A6 GERMANY
(1) In zone 1:
For altitudes 800 S a, S 1 100 m the attitude factoris:
For attiides a, >I

1O0 m spedal requirements are necessary.
(2) In zone 2 and for + > 800 m (Harz) special requirements are necessary.
(3) In all other cases the aftihrde factoris:

C,T" 1.
(4) The terraincategory I is only applicable in zone 4.
(6) The reduction factor+M for temporary structures is to be considered as follows:
Measures in the Measures not possible

case of a wind storm
D u r
at of the
h protecting strengthening
transient situation
CTEM
1 day 03 0.3 0.5
2-3days O $3 0,s
4 days - 4 months 03 0,65 08
-
5 months 4 years

Page 96
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
[mi,
...........
u 4
zone VmtO [m/sec)
1 24,3 All values are referredto

2 27,6 terrain category II (see
3 32,O Table 8.1)
4 31,S
-
Figure A2: Germany wind map (zones, referencewind velocity)

Page 97
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
A7 GREECE
of the mainland within10 km from the sea:

(1) Islands and coastal zone
vMo = 36 Wsec
(2)'Rest of the country:

VmtO = 30 m / S e c
A.8 ICELAND
(1) Wind speed for Iceland are only available as a maximum gust speed, ¡.e. 3-sec-
mean withp = O,O2.
(2) The wind profileis defined as:

v = 17 (log@) + 2) for coastal areas,v in [m/s], z in [m]
v = 15,5 (log(z) + 2) 10 km or more fromthe coast, vin [ d S ]
=6m
(3) 10 min-mean values referred to the definition in 7.2 are not available up to this
time.
A9 IRELAND
(1) Unless specific values are given from the meteorological service in Dublin, the
direction factoris to be considered by:
%IR =1
(3)For sites up to altitudesof 250m the attitude factoris given by:

CALT = 1
Foraltitudesmore than 250m,advicemaybeavailablefromthemeteorological
service in Dublin.

Page 98
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
27
is
-
Figure A3: Ireland wind map (reference wind velocity)

~~
~~ ~
STD.BS1 D D E N V L991-2-4-ENCL L997 LbZqbb9 O B 5 2 L L 5 TL0 131

Page 99
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
A.10 ITALY
(1 ) The referencewind velocrty is defined by:

"m1 = %,o for a&%
"If = "mf.0 + k, ( a , - ao) for a, 'a,
where:
4 altitude above the sea level in [m]of the site of the structure
zone Dwctiption a,Iml

1 Valle d'hsta, Piemonte, 25 0.012
Lombardia, Trentino Mo Adige.
Veneto, Friuli Venezia Ghrlia
(except the Ptwince of Trieste)
2 Ernilia Romagna 25 0.024
3 Toscana, Marche, Umbria, 27 0.030

Lazio,Abruno, Molise,
Campania, Fbglia, B a s i l i a ,
Calabria (except the province of
Reggio Calabria)
4 Sicilia e province of Reggio 28 0.030
Calabria
5 Sardegna (easternside of the 28 0.024

l i n e pining Teulada Cape with
the Island of Maddalena)
6 Sacdegna (western side of the 28 O .O30

line pining Teuhda Cape with
the Island of Maddalena)
7 Liguria 29 0.024
a Province of Trieste 31 0.012
9 Islands (except Sicilia and 31 0.030

Sardegna) andopen sea

Page 100
ENV 1991-2-4 1995
-
Figure A4: Italy wind map (zones)

Page 101
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
(2) Unless detailed analysesare carried out taking into account the direction of wind
and the changes of tenain roughness, the wind action shall be evaluated assuming
the exposure category provided as a function of the geographic position defined by
Figure A5 and the terrain roughness definedby the following Tables:
Exposure cptegorles 4 r0 [ml h i n [ml
I 0.17 0.01 2
11 0.19 0.05 4
111 020 0.10 5
IV 0.22 0.30 8
V O23 O .70 1?
Description
A Urban areas in whichat least 15% is covered with buildingsand their

average height exceed1-
B Urban (except classA), suburban, industrialand wooded areas
C Areas with diffuse obstacles (trees, buiidings, walls, fences, ...); areas which
cannot be defined by classes A, B
O Areas without or with rare isolated obstacles (open country, airports,

farmland, pasture, fenland orsandland, snow, ice, lake, sea, ...)
Temin roughness does not depend on topography and orography.
Classes A, B apply to sites surrounded by this terrainin every direction forat least 1 km and however
not less than 20 times the heightof the structures.

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ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
I zones 1, 2 3.4,s I
Zone 6 l 7,8 I
1
Figute As: M y roughness categories and zones

Page 103
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
Al 1 LUXEMBOURG
A12 NETHERLANDS
(3) The roughness length is given by: r, = 0,03m

The terrain factoris defined as follows:
Area 1 2 3
(Figure A6)
k 0.2 0,234 0,281
n 05 0.5 O -5
Localities along the coast line should be considered of terrain categorie II according
to Table 8.1.

Page 104
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
. "
Ø I
-
Figure A6: Netherlands wind map (zones)

Page 105
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
A13 NORWAY
(1) The wind velocity values for Norway, Y in Figure A7 represent the 3 to 5 sec
mean windvelocity having an annual probabilityof exceedence of 0,02. Introducing v
defined fromA13 as vmfin equation (7.1) htreplaces the product(&r - G)in equa-
tions (5.1)* (5.2) and (6.1).
-
Wmd vobcitv
k mh
G i0 ¡S 20 25 3.0
Figure A7: Wind velocity and velocity pressure varying according to the height
above the ground level
Figure A8: Ground level andterrain level
(2) For flat terrain the ground levelequals the terrain level surrounding the structure.
For rough terrain the groundlevel is placed at the foot of the elevated level, or at a
higher level if indicated by the terrain, vegetationor the buitt-up area (FigureAS).
(3)The wind veloctty shown in Figure A7 is dependent on a height above a defined

ground levelas shown in TableA l .

Page 106
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
(4) The wind velocities for built-up areas according to a w e s C and D take account
of the fact that buildings and vegetation reduce the air stream velocrty.l h e reduction
due to local shielding from structures and terrain compared to the curves in Figure
A7, is assumed to be consideredin each specific case.
Table A2: Range of application for curve C and curve D
ExteIll of Mildings sumunding the StNCture Maximum height zcalcuhted from

[km1 the ground level [m].
0,s 20
2,o 35
i
(5) The zoning in Table A3 is based on analysis of measurements from approxima-

tely 50 meteorological stations along the coast from the county of Rogaland to ?he
county of Finnmark. For the ranges of application for curves E and F the municipal
borders have mainly been followed. Thisdoes not always reflect theactual variations
in the wind conditions within smaller areas. Referenceis also made to the additional
PrOviSion about the possibility for higher wind velacity due to local conditions; see
Table A l .

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-
Table A3: Norway List of counties and their municipalities in which cume E
or curve F applies

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
A14 PORTUGAL
(1) Zone A: all the territories not inciuded in Zone B
Zone B: the archipelagos of Azores and Madeira and the continental territory,
the coastal areas from the coast line to 5km inland, the estuaries and
regions with attitudes above 600m.
A15 SPAIN

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
A16 SWEDEN
(1) The reference wind velocity vner..o

is a mean wind velocity during a period of 10
minutes at a height of 10m above ground level of roughnessparameter z, = 0,05
and with a return period of 50 years.

-
Figure A9: Sweden wind map (reference wind velocity)

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A.17 SWlTZERLAND
(1) The roughness category for Switzerland is 111 (suburban or industrial areas and
permanent forests) with a roughness factor Cc, = 0,22, roughness length z, = 0,3m
and = 8m. The reference wind velocity, v,,., as defined in 7.2 is given in the map.

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ENV 1991-24: 1995
-
Figure Alo: Switzerland wind map (referencewind velocity)

STD-BSI .DD E N V L991-2-4-ENGL L997 E L b 2 4 b b 9 0852329 505 m
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(1) Thevaluesofreferencewindvelocrty v ~ , at
, sea
~ levelarederivedfrom 9
analysis.
a, where: atitude above sea level [m] of the site when topography
is not signifi-
cant; or else the attidude of the ground level at the base
of the hill or
escarpment when topography is significant (see 8.4) measured from
mean sea level.
(3)Values for the directional factor are given in Table A4. Use of these values
for all possible wind directions gives the design overall risk of exceedence distribue-
ted evenly around all wind directions. Neglectingthis directional effect with the use of
a value = 4 ,O for all possible wind directions also gives the design overall risk of
exceedence, but distributed unevenly by direction, resulting in greater risk in the
prevailing wind directions240"T to 270" T than in the other possible wind directions..
Table A4: Values of directional factor,
r
Wind direaion (True) O' 30° 60° 90' 120" 1W

Direction Factor 0.81 0.76 0.76 0.77 0.76 0,83
Wind diredion ("True) 1800 O' 2400 21 2700 300" 3
3
0'
Diredion Fador %,R 0,89 0,97 1,os 1,o4 0.95 0,86
(4) Values for the temporary factor, h,

are given in Table , A 5 These values allow
the assementofwindloadsinsub-annual periods for temporarystructuresor
structures in a temporary condition during construction. Note that using these factors
results in the entire design annual risk being transferred to the sub-annual period
and the user should consider whether a 0,02 risk-in the sub-annual period is still
appropriate. Note atso that delays in construction, etc. in the summer period may
result in exposure to stronger winds than initially intended, so that provisions for
strengthening or sheltering should be considered.
Table A5: Values of temporary factor, c,
~~ ~~
Sub.nnurl 2 month 4 months Sub annual 2 month 4 months

W. p.rlodS
1 month 1 morrlh
Jan 0.98 Jan to Feb 0.98 Jan to Apr 0.98 Jul 0.62 Jut to Aug 0.71 Jul to OU 0.86
Feb 0.83 Feb to Mar 0.86 Feb to May 0.80 Aug 0.71' Aug to Sep 0.82 Aug to Nov 0.90
Mar 032 Mar to Apt 0.83 Mar to Jun 0.83 ' Sep 0.82 Sep to Od '0.85 Sep to Dec 0,96
Apt 0.75 Apt to May0.75 Apr to Jul 0.76 Od 0,82 Oc! to Nov 0.89 Od to Jan 1.00
May
0.69 May to Jun0.71 May to Aug 0.73 Nov 038 Nov to Dec 0.95 Nov to F e b 1.00
Jun 0.66 Jun to Jul
0.67 Jun to Seo 0.83 Dec 0.94 Dec to Jan 1.00 Dec to Mar 0 3 8
The factor for the six month winter period Octoberto March inclusive is 1,O, and for
the six month summer period April to September inclusiveis 0,84.
(5) Transitionzones:detailed rules for terraincategoriesandrelatedparameters
shall be defined by the Relevant National Authorities.

~~
Page 114
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
-
Figure A l l : United Kingdom wind map (reference velocity)

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Annex B (Informative)
Detaiied procedure for in-line response
B.1. General
(1) Thedetailedproceduregivenin this annex is not appropriate for continuous

bridges, cable stayed bridges and arch bridges. For such bridges specialist advice
should be sought.
(2) The method for calculating the dynamic factor G given in this annex applies, if
the following conditions are met:
- the structure correspondsto one of the

standardized cases shown in Figure
6.1 I
- the fundamental along wind modeis uncoupled fromall other modes,

- a linear elastic behaviour
is applicable.
(3) For structures, which do not satisfy the above conditions, suitable theoretical or
experimental evaluations are recommended.
(4) Expressions for controlling displacements and accelerations of vertical structures

under serviceability limit states are discussed
in B.4.
(5) General rules about interference effects related. to high-rise buildings in tandem
or grouped arrangement are givenin 8.5.
(6) The method is based on the nondimensionai power spectral densrty function ßN
as shown in FigureB.6 and is defined in equation(B.11).
?.x. su(nlx)
NOU: The expression in equation (B.]1) is given only far comparison with orha
OV
Codts or literature, w h m the power spectral density is presented in this manner. It is not
explained in detail and is not used here.
(7) It is based also on the coherence function of alongwind turbulence at two points
(y,z),(y',r')in a plane orthogonalto the mean wind directionx. It is defined by:
where:
to be 5 = 11,s
lateral exponetial decay coefficient, assumed on average
c, vertical exponential decay coefficient, assumed on average to be C, = 11 ,5
n frequency
v, meanwind
velocity

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Note: Z~ is the minimum height as defined in Table 8.1.
Figure 6.1:Equivalent height +,

Page 117
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
8.2 Dynamic factor
(1) The dynamic.factor c, is defined by:
where:
equivalent heigMof structure as given in Figure 8.1
C(+,) turbulence intensity &(I) for z = h.given by equation (8.3)
g peak factor given by equ. (8.4)
0, background response part given by equation (8.9)
R, resonantresponse part given by equation (B.lO)
Note: (1) The denominator in quation B 2 removes the simplification built into the format far te
given in 8.4.
Thus the product ce - cd required in equation 6.1 to determine o v d l l o a d s can bc
wriuar as follows:

B 9 Wind and structural parameters
(1) The turbulence intensity 4 ( 4 ) is defined by:
where:
G(+) topography coefficient( s e e 8.4)
G roughness length ( s e e 8.2)
(2) The peak factor g is shown in Figure 8.2 and defined by:
where:
t 600 S = averaging time of the reference wind velocity, vmf
V expected frequencygiven by equation (B.5)
4.0
35
9 30
2.5
20
10' lo2
Figure B.2: Peak factor, g

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
(3)The expected frequencyv is defined by:
where:
n,,x fundamental
frequency in [Hz] of alongwind (x) vibration
of
structure.
Approximations forn,, are given in annex C.4.
v, theexpectedfrequency in [Hz] ofgustloading of rigidstructuresgiven by
equation (8.6).
(4) The expected frequencyof gust loading of rigid structuresv0 is shown in Figure
8.3 and is defined by:
with:
where:
b, h width, height of structure as given in Figure B.1
v,(+) mean wind veloctty v,&) for z = zw given by equation (8.1).
4(&) integral lengthscale of turbulence for z = given by equation (8.8)
20
10
'1
5
- 10 -1
- 2,
Figure 8.3: Expected frequency v,of gust loading of rigid structures

(5) The integral length scale of turbulence 4(2)is shown in Figure 8.4 and is defined
by:
4(r) = 300 (z/300)' (4;zin m) forz,~z~300m ( W
4(r) = 300 (-0)' (4,zin m) forzs&
4(z) = 300 m for z> 300 m
where:
E,& are given in Table 8.1
50 100 200 300
Rgure 8.4: Integra1length scale of turbulence, &(i)
(6) The background response part Q, is shown in Figure B.5 and is defined by:

I
1 o-2 IO" 1 10
Figure BS: Background response part Q,
(7) The resonant response part R, is defined by:
(B.1O )
where:
6 logarithmicdampingdecrement of alongwindvibration.Standardvaluesfor 6
are given in C.4
ßN nondimensionalpowerspectraldensityfunctiongiven by equation (BA1 .)
Rhc&, aerodynamic admittance functions given by equation (8.12)
(8) The resonantnondimensionalpowerspectraldensityfunction RN is shownin

Figure B.6 andis defined by:
(B.11)
(8.12)

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ENV 1991-24: 1996
10" 1 .10 loz

Nue
Figure 8.6: Nondimensionalpower spectral density frequency function R)(
(9) Theaerodynamicadmittancefunctions R,, and 4 for uniformdisplacement

(fundamental mode shapewithout node point) are expressed in terms of the function
R,=l for q = O (B.13)

with:
(6.14)
(8.15)
For mode shapes with internal node points more detailed calculations shall be used.

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
9
c
9
O
1 o-2 10" 1 10 lo2
rl
Figure 8.7: Aerodynamic admittance function R, (C = h, b)
B.4 Service displacements and accelerations
(1) This section recommends expressions for controlling displacements and accele-
rations of vertical structuresunderserviceabilitylimitstates,usingdifferentwind
velocities in respect to different probabilitiesof exceedence.
(2) The maximum alongwind displacementmax X@) and the standard deviationof
(r)at height I are givenby:
alongwind accelerationCF:
(B.16)
(B.17)
where:
in annex C.
fundamental along wind modal shape approximation given
c, dynamic
factor (8.2)
P according to section 7.1
air density
b width of structure
defined
in
Figure B.l
c, averagedalongwindforcecoefficientaccordingtosection 10

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
mean wind velocw W&), for z = +, (8.1

along wind turbulence intensity C(z), for z = +given in equation (B.3)
fundamental frequencyof alongwind vibration of the structure (approxima-
tions are givenin annex C.)
along .wind fundamental equivalentmass according to C.4.4
resonant response patt given by equation (B.1 O)
nondimensional coeffiaent given by.equation (B.18)
(3) The nondimensional coefficient, &, is defined by:
(6.18)
where:
h height of the structure(Figure B.1).
(B.19)
This approximation is shown in Figure B.8

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
10 1 o2
Figure 8.8: Approximation of the nondimensional coefficient4 from equation

(B.19)
8.5 Wake buffeting
(1) For buildings in tandem or grouped arrangement the wake buffeting effect may
increase the actioneffect.
(2) For simple cases of high-rise buildings an approximate estimationof the increase
of the action effect may be made by multiplying the wind force on and the acceiera-
tion of a free standing buildingby the interference factor&, given in TableB.1.
(3)For more detailed information and for other cases wind tunnel tests or expert
advice are recommended.

Table BA: J n t e r j e r e n c e factor &, for high rise buildings in tandem- or grouped
arrangement. Intemediate values to be interpolated.
115
i
112
225
S 15
I
I 1.3 25
=0 3
225 1*o 1.o
r25

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
B.6 Number of loads for gust response
(1) Figure 8.9 shows the number of times No where the values AS of an effect of the
wind is reached or exceeded during a period of 50 years. AS is expressedin
percentage of thevaluebeing the effect due to a 50 years returnperiodwind
action.
r
Figure B.9: Number of gust loads N, for an effect A S % during a 50 years

return period.

Rules for vortex excitationand other aeroelastic effects
C.1 General
(1) Structures which do not satisfy the criteria given in 9.4 may be assessed using
the rules set down in this annex.
C 9 Vortex excitation
C 2 1 Critical wind velocity
(1) The critical wind velocityvai at which the frequency of vortex sheddingequals a
natural fmquency of the structure or an element is given by:
b * ni,y
"m =- st
where:
b referencewidth of thecrosssectionatwhich resonant vortexshedding

occurs;for circular cylinders
b is the outer diameter
"¡.Y naturalfrequency of mode i of cross-windvibration;Approximationsfor q,y
are given in(2.4.2
st Strouhalnumber as defined in C.2.2
(2) Resonant critical conditionsmay be assumed not tooccur if:
where:
vm,Li the mean wind veloclty defined in equation (W),.c a l c u l a t e d at the height of
the centre of the effective correlation length 4 where the vortex shedding
occurs. Application examples are given in Figure C.3.
C 2 2 Strouhal number
be taken from Table c.1.

(1) The Strouhal numberSt for different cross sections may

STD.BS1 DD ENV 3’4’41-2-~-ENGL 17’47 m 3 b 2 4 b b 70 8 5 2 3 4 57 5 8 H
Page 129
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Table C.l: Strouhal numbers St and aerodynamic exciting force coefficient

%for different cross sections
Cross section
I
0.2 from Figure C.2
;or a l l Re-numbers
rom Figure C.l 1*1
0,ll
0,lO
0,14
‘ t
-I4
I
linear interpolation
&=l
&=2
0,13
0,08
1.6
2,3
L d
I
I
I
0;11
O ,O7
0,154 0.12 d/b
bridge decks 0,083

I
Page 130
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
St t
Figure C.1 Strouhal number (St) for rectangular cross sections with sham
coM8rs.
C23 Vortex shedding action

(1) The effect of vortex excited vibrations canbe calculated from the inertia force per
unit length 6; normal to the wind direction at point j of the structure, determined
from:
mi thevibratingmass of point j
qY naturalfrequency of crosswind mode i. Approximationsforaregiven in
C.4.2
%j crosswind mode shape i = ratio of the dynamic deflection of the structure at
point j to that of the antinode(see Table C.4)
max yF maximum amplitudeof the antinodeas derived fromC.2.4
C 2 4 Calculation of the vibration amplitude
(1) The maximum amplitudemax yFat critical wind speed vaiti is given by:
(C.4)
where:
b reference width of the cross section at the position of the effective correlation
length. For circular cylindersb is the outer diameter.
&, effectivecorrelationlengthfactor(see C.2.7)
K shape factor (see C.2.8)
mode
C, aerodynamicexciting force coefficient (see C.2.5)

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
St Strouhal
number
(see C.2.2)
Sc Scruton number as defined by equation (CS)
(2) The Scruton number is given by:
where:
P air density (see 7.1)
m i,y equivalent mass per unit length given by equation (C.27)
4 logarithmicdecrement of structural damping.(seeTable C.8)
(3) Equation (C.4) must be solved with equation (C.7) using Table C.4 and Table C.3
by iterative process.
C.2.5 Aerodynamic exciting force coefficient
(1) Theaerodynamicexciting force coefficient, is giveninTable C.2.
Table C.2: Aerodynamic exciting force coefficient c,versus critical wind velo-
city ratio v&vmq:
critical wind velocity ratio
VuitJ h=
I0.03
W-
0,83 <- <1
s %,=[3-24 "m,¡
.-)-%to
Vm4
"rnQ

Page 132
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
where:
%ta basic value of c, as given in Table C.1 and, for circular cylinders, in
Figure C.2
"atti critical wind velocity (see equation (C.1))
vku mean wind v e m (see 8.1) in the centre of theeffective corteiation
length as defined in C.2.6
Re ( v , Reynolds number defined by:
.b frontwidth of the structure (i.8. diameter)

i 2
V kinematicviscosity of the air v = 15 10 m/s
Vaiti critical wind speed (see equation (C.1))
'10' 2 3 4 5 7 lo5 2 3 1 5 7 lob2 3 4 5 7 10.' 2 3

Re . -
b
Figure C.2: Basic value of the aerodynamic excitingforce coefficient Q

versus Reynolds number Re(v,,J for circular cylinders.

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ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
C 2 6 Effective conelation length
(1) The.effectiveconelation length 4 has to be positioned in the range of antinodes.

Examples are giveninFigure C.3. For guyed masts and continuousmuttispan
bridges special advice is necessary.
(2) The ratio 4 b is givenby Table C.3, where yFjis the vibration amplitude at point j.
ln most cases thevibrationamplitude is equal to the maximumamplitude yF.
al
19-
yT Cl
+I-
e) f) antinode
I
i .
I 3-
\
nrt: 81x2 nt1 ;m = 3 n=3 ;m= 6
Note: The definitians of n and m art given in quation (C.7)
figure C3: Examples for application of the effective correlation length

(j=l,2,3)

Table CS: Effective correlation length L,as a function of vibration
amplitude YFJ
r I 1
0,l to 0.6 yF.i

4,8+12*-
I > 0.6 I 12 I
C37 Effective correlation length factor &
&, is given by:

(1) The effective correlation length factor
' H 4
KW= S O$
i I bkY(ZI
k14.
- di!
J
where:
@i,, modeshape i. (see C.4.3)
effective correlation length (see
C.2.6)
4 length of thestructurebetween two nodes(see Figure C.3);forcantilevered
structures it is equal to the height of the structure
n number of regionswherevortexexcitation occurs at thesametime (ph-
shift equal zero)
m number of antinodes of the vibrating structure in the considered modeshape i.
(2).For some simple structures vibrating in the fundamental crosswind mode and
with the excitingforce position indicated in Table C.4 the effective correlation length
factor,,Ø( can be approximated by the equation given in Table C.4.

~
STDoBSI D D ENV L991-2-9-ENGL 2777 m bb2qbb9 0 8 5 2 2 5 1 T 5 2 m

Page 135
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Table C.4: Effective correlation lengthfactor K,,,, and mode shape factor K for
some simple structures
I structure mode shape

W
Kw
c
K
I "
w e C.4.3
with 5 = 2.0
n = l ;m=l 0,13
"
I k see Figure C.9

n=l;m=l 0.10
"
see FigureC.9
n-1 ; m = l 0,ll
~~ ~
"
modal analysis
n=3
m=3 0,lO
m
c
iæ1 cj
(=)I- dz
Note: (1) =vb

C 2 8 Mode shape tactat K
(1) The.mode shape factor Kis given by:
iI
)'I o
b i y (21* a2
..-
where:
a,,#) crosswind mode shape i (see C.4.3)
4 ' length of the structure between two nods(seeFigure C.3)
(2) For some simple structures vibrating in the fundamental crosswind mode the
mode shape factor is given in Table C.4.
C.2.9 Number of stress cycles N
(1) The number of stress cycles N caused by vortex excited oscillation maybe esti-
mated by:
where:
q.Y naturalfrequency of crosswindmode i in [Hz].Approximations for 4, are
given in C.4.2
vai critical wind velodty in [m/s] given in C.2.1.
V0 given in equation (C.lo), it is f i timesthemodalvalue of theprobability
distribution of the wind velocityin [Ws]
r life time in [years].
4 bandwidthfactorthatdescribesthebandwidth of the vortexresonance. It
can be approximated by:q, = 0,3
(2) Unless otherwise specifiedin annex A the value v. may be approximated by:
1
wo = Wm4 e- (C.10)
S
where:
vmli meanwindvelocityin [Ws] defined by equation (8.1) at thepositionofthe
effective carrelationlength L, (see Figure C.3).

~~
STD-BSI D D ENV L993-2-4-ENGL L997 m L b Z q b b 9 0852153 824 m

Page 137
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(1) The vortex resonance vibrationof cylinders in a row or in grouped arrangementis

described inC.3.2.
C 2 11 Measures against large vortex-induced vibrations
(1) Thevortex-inducedamplitudesmay be reducedbymeans of aerodynamic

devices (only under special conditions, e.g. Sc > 8) or damping devices supplied to
the structure. The drag coefficient c, for aerodynamic devices based on the basic
diameter b, mayincreaseup to a valueof 1.4. Both applications require special
advice.
C.2.12 Ovalling of cylindrical shells
(1) The critical wind velocity producing the ovalling of cylindrical shells,vaito,is given
by:
b . no
v a 0 =- (C.1O)
2. st
where:
b outer shell
diameter
st Strouhal
number
(see C.2.2)
"o naturalfrequencyoftheshell(ovallingmode)
Note: r+, is given in C.4.2 for a long cylindrical shell without stiffening rings
to occur if:
(2) Ovalling oscillations may be assumed not
vaito > 1 2 5 vm(z) (C.11)
where:
v&) mean wind velocity as defined in equation (8.1) calculated at the height, z, of
the point of maximum amplitude of oscillation.

C3 Aeroelastic instabilities and interferenceeffects
CS.1 Galloping
C.3.1.1 General
(1.) Galloping is a self-induced vibration of a flexible structure in transverse bending

mode. Non arcular cross sections including L-, I-, U- and T-sections am prone to
galloping. I c e loading maycause a stable cross section to become unstable.
(2) Galloping oscillation starts at a special onset wind velocity VOO and normally the
amplitudes increase rapidly with increasing wind speed.
CA1.2 Field oí application
(1) Galloping has to be taken into account, if the structure is sensitive to vortex
of 9.4.2.).
shedding (see criteria
C3.1.3 Onset wind velocity

(1) The onset wind vel.acity of galloping,
W=, is given by:
(C.12)
where:
Sc Scruton numbergiveninequation (C.5)
nly cross wind fundamental frequency of the structure; approximations of nl, are
given in C.4.2
b width as defined in Table C.5
aC factor of galloping instability (see Table C S ) ;if no factor of galloping instabili-
ty is known & = 10
(2) It should be ensured that:

V= 1.25 ~m ( C l 3)
where:
W, meanwindvelocity as defined in equation (8.1')and calculated at theheight, '

wheregalloping process is expected,likely to be thepoint of maximum
amplitude of oscillation.

Page 139
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
(3) When the critical vortex shedding velocity Vdt is close to the onset wind velocityof
galloping V-:
-
0.7 C "CG < 1.5 (C.14)
"ail
interaction effects between vortex shedding and galloping are

likely to occur. In this
case wind tunnel testsor specialist advice is recommended.

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Table CS: Factor of galloping instability 80
.
1
'Dlb
I
.
Cross section
t=0.06b
Cross section
ICE (Ím on
cables)
'1 ICE
d 2
"=2
b
1.7
d
"=1
b
"m
d 2 1
b-3
0.7
d l
"- 0,4
b-3

~~
STD.BSI DD ENV 3'4'41-2-4-ENGL 3777 m Lb24bb7 0 8 5 2 3 5 7 47T B

Page 141
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C.3.2 Interference effects to crosswind oscillation
C.3.2.1 General
(1) Slender structures or structural elements likestacks or cables may be arranged

in-line or in a grouped position.Theymayor may not be coupled together.
Depending on the distanceratio(Figure C.4)
- vortex resonance (C.3.2.3)
- interference galloping(C.3.2.4)
- classicd galloping (C.3.2.5)
may occur.
Figure C.4: In-line andgrouped arrangements of cylinders
C.3.2.2 Field of application
(1) The criteria in 9.4 for elongated structuresshall be used.
C.3.2.3 Vortex resonance

(1) The maximum amplitude of oscillation can be estimated by the equation (C.2)
and equation(C.4) but using the following modifications:
For in-line, free standing circular cylinders without coupling:
Gat = 195 - Gat(ringle) for 1 S &S10

Cbt =. Gat(SIngb) for a/b 2 15
linear
interpolation
for 10 < & S 15
St = 0.1 + 0,085 log (ab) for 1 S a/b I 15 (C.
15)
st = 0.2 for a/b> 15
Note: The factor 1,5 for G,is a rough approximation. It is expected to be conservative.

For coupled cylinders:
Gu = Kv * ou(singh) for 1 ,O S a h I3,O (C.16)
where:
fG interference factor for vortex shedding (Table C.6)
St Strouhalnumbergiven in Table C.6.
-Sc &ruton number as defined in Table C.6
For coupled cylinders with a/b 3,Ospecialist advice is recommended.
C.3.2.4 Interference galloping
o c c u r if two or mofe
(1) Interference gallopingis a self-excited .oscillation which may
cylinders are arranged close together-without being connected with each other.
(2) If?heangle of wind attack is in the range of the critical wind direction ßclit and if
alb c 3 (see FigureC.5), the criticalwind velocity, wW, may be estimated by
(C.17)
where:
Sc Scruton number given in equation (C.5)
a~ combined stability parameter. If nototherwisespecified:
& = 3,O
nly fundamentalfrequency of crosswind mode.Approximationsaregiven in
C.4.2
a spacing
b diameter
(Figure. CS)

Page 143
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Figure CS: Geometric parametersfor interference galloping.
(3) Connecting the cylinders together the interferencegallopingphenomenon is

avoided. However, classical gallopingof the connectedsystem.may occur (C.3.2.5).
C.3.2.5 Classical galloping
C.4) classical galloping may occur.

(1) For coupled cylinders (Figure
(2) The onset velocity for classicalgalloping of coupledcylinders, v a , may be

estimated by:
2.sc
(C.18)
where:
Sc, &'and b are defined in Table C.6 and nlYis the natural frequency of the
bending mode (see C.4.2).
(3)It should be ensured that:
vcc > 1,25 v,(z) (C.19)
where
Vm(z) mean wind velocity as defined in equ. (8.1), calculated at the height f,where
the galloping excitation is expected, that is likely to be the point of maximum
amplitude of oscillation

Table C.6: Data ferthe estIrnation of cresswind response et coupled cylinders
at in-line and grouped arrangements
I.
ab= 1 a& 223
&=115
I
I.
- rd. = 3,O 6,O a~ * 3,O
rd. =4,a
I Kk = 3,O aG r1.0 aì * 210
" I
O 1 2 3
%

Page 145
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
C.33 Divergence and flutter

C.3.3.1 General
(1) Divergence and flutter are instabilities that ca,n only olmur for flexible plate-like
structures, such as signboards or suspension-bridge decks, above a certain thres-
hou or critical wind velocity. In both cases the instabihty is caused by the deflection
of the structure modifying the aerodynamics to alter the loading.
(2) Divergence and flutter shall essentially

be avoided.
(3)The procedures givenbelow provide a means of assessing the susceptibility of a

structure in terms of simple structurai criteria. If these criteria are satisfied,
not nume-
ricalcalculations or wind tunnel tests shall be undertaken. The critical wind velocity ,
for cable supported bridges have always tobe determined bymodel tests or numeri-
calcalculations.
C.3.3.2 General criteria for plate-like structures
(1) To be prone to either divergence or flutter, the structure must satisfy all of the
three criteria given below. Check the criteria in the order given (easiest first) and if
any one of the criteria is not met, the structure will notbe prone to either divergence
or flutter.
(a) The structure, or a substantial part of it, must have an elongated cross section
of d/b z 4 (Figure C.6).
(like a flat plate) with proportions
(b) The torsional axis must be parallel to the plane of the plate and normal to the
winddirection,andthecentreoftorsionmust be atleast d 4 downwindofthe
windwardedge of theplate,where b is theinwinddepth of the platemeasured
normal to the torsional axis. This includes the common cases of torsional centre at
geometrical centre,í.e. centrally supported signboardor canopy, and torsional Centre
at downwind edge, ¡.e. cantilevered canopy.
(c) The lowest natural frequency must correspond to a torsional mode, or else the
lowest torsional natural frequency mustbe less than 2 times the lowest translational
natural frequency.

Page 146
ENV 1991-2-4: 1996
C3.3.3 Divergency velocity

(1) The critical wind velocity fordivergence is given by:
'diu =
where:
k torsional
stiffness
d d d 9 .rateof change of aerodynamic moment coefficient withrespect to rotation

about the torsional centre
P density of air (7.1)
d in winddepth (chord) of the structure (Figure C.6)
(2) Values of d M W measured about the geometric centre 'of various rectangular
sections are given inFiiure C.6.
(3) It should be ensured that:
where:
v,(&,,) mean wind velocity as defined in equation (8.1) at heigth &,,,as defined in
Figure 8.1

STD-BSI D D ENV L771-2-Y-ENGL 1797 m 1b24bb7 08521b3 773
Page 147
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
"
O 0,os OJO 035 0,zo 0,z

%
Figure C.6: Rate of change of aerodynamic moment coefficient, dcw/d9, with

respect to geometric centre " G C for rectangular sections
C.3.4 Bridge flutter
(1) Dynamic response of bridges is important for long span bridges or light bridges
such as pedestrian or tube bridges.
(2) Flutter stability should be calculated by solving the flutter equation,or with model
tests.
(3) Simplified rules available in literature may be used provided that they have been
agreed with the relevant authorities.

Page 148
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1996
C.4 Dynamic characteristics
C.4.1 .General
(7) Calculationproceduresrecommendedinthissectionassumethat structures

possess linear elastic behaviour and classical normal.modes. Dynamic structural
properties are therefore characterizedby
- natural frequencies
- modal shapes
- equivalent masses
- logarithmic damping decrements.
(2) Natural frequencies, modal shapes, equivalent masses, and logarithmic damping
decrements should be evaluated, theoretically or experimentally, by applying the
traditional methods of structural dynamics: Analysis should be carried out including
the masses of the appropriate loads to be combined withthe wind actions.
(3)For structures with regularand compact shapes, fundamental dynamic properties

can be evaluated in approximate terms, using simplifiedanalytical, semi-empirical or
empirical equations, provided they are adequately proved:Some of these equations
are given in C.4.2 to C.4.5.
C.4.2 Fundamental frequency
(1) The fundamental flexural frequencyn, of multi-storey buildings can be estimated

by:
fl, =-46h W 1 (C.22)
where:
h height of thestructure in [m]
Thesameexpressionmaygivesomeguidance forsingle-storeybuildingsand
towers (excluding guyed masts).
(2) The fundamental flexural frequencyn; of chimneys can be estimatedby:
(C.23)
with:
b ht + h2/3 (C.24)
where:
b top diameterofthechimney in [m]
b effectiveheight of the chimney in [m], h , andare given in Figure C.7.

Page 149
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
W, weight of structural parts contributing to the stiffness of the chimney

Wt total wtight of thechimney
el 1O00 forsteelchimneys,
700 for concreteand masonry chimneys
b
4i-
Note: h, = h l ß ;h3 will be used in C.4.4 (2)
Figure C.7: Geometric parameters for chimneys

j: Ih
(3)The fundamental ovalling frequency noof a long cylindrical shell without stiffening
rings may be calculated by:
t3 - E (C.25)
no = 0,492. 2 4
m, . ( l - v ) a b
where:
E Young's
modulus in [kN/m2]
r shell
thickness
in [m]
V Poisson ratio
m, mass of theshellperunitarea in [kglml]
b diameter of theshell in [m]
The equation givesthe lowest natural frequency ofthe shell. Stiffness rings increase
5-

Page 160
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
C.4.3 Fundamental mode shape
(1) The fundamental flexural mode O,@) of buildings, towers and chimneys
cantilevered fromthe gmund can be estimated by:
(C.26)
where:
6= 0.6 forslenderframestructures with non load-sharing walling or cladding
c = 1,O for buildingswith central coreplusperiphericalcolumnsorlarger
columns plus shearbraangs
c = 1,5 forslendercantileverbuildings and buildings supported by C e n t r a l
reinforced concretecores
5 = 2,O for towers andchimneys
6 = 2,5 for lattice steel towers
figure C.8: Fundamentalflexural modeshape for buildings, towers and

chimneys cantilevered from the ground
(2) Thefundamentalflexuralvertical mode @,(a'

of bridges can be estimated as
shown in Table C7.

Page 151
ENV 1991-2-4 : 1995
Table C.7: Fundamental flexural vertical mode shape for simply supportedand
clamped structures and structural elements
C.4.4 Equivalent mass
(1) The fundamental equivalent mass per unit length

m, is defined by:
lm.*: - dz
(2)
O
m,= (C.27)
f*:(z,.m
O
where:
m mass per
unit
length
L height h or span C of the structure or the structural element
(2) For vertical cantilevered structures with a slightly varying mass distribution ml
can be approximated by the average value of m over the upper third part of the
structure h3 (Figure C.7).
(3)Forstructures of span C with a slightlyvarying massdistribution, ml canbe

approximated by the average value of m over thethird part of the bridge where@,(z)
is maximum (Table C.7).

C.43 Logarithmic damping decrement
6 can be estimated by:

(1) The fundamental flexural logarithmic damping decrement
6 = h+h+& (C.28)
where:
b fundamental structural logarithmic damping decrement
6. fundamental aerodynamic logarithmic damping decrement
66 fundamental logarithmic damping decrement due to spedal devices (tuned
.massdampers, sloshing tanks, etc.)
(2) The fundamental structural logarithmic damping decrement & can be'evaluated
by :
&=al-nl+b, z L n (C.29)
where:
nt fundamental
flexural
frequency [Hz]
al, h, &,h parameters given in Table C.8 for different structural types, h is
related to small displacements
(3)The fundamental aerodynamic logarithmic damping decrement,&, for alongwind

vibrations canbe estimated by:
where:
P density
air (7.1)
b widthofstructuralsurfaceexposed to thewind
c, averageforcecoefficient in alongwinddirection(section 1O)
vm(+,,) mean wind velocity W&) defined by equ (8.1) for z = h
ZIQU equivalentheight (see Figure B.1)
m x fundamentalalongwindequivalentmass(see C.4.4)
nla fundamentalalongwindfrequency(see C.4.2)
For resonant vortex shedding,6. = O.
(4) Ifspecia1.dissipative devices are added to the structure, & should be calculated
by suitable theoretical or experimental techniques.

Page 153
ENV 1991-2-4: 1995
Table C.8: Parameters a,,b, and Ln
~ ~~ ~~
stedstackwithtwoormwehers O 0.030 O
steel with brick liner O 0,07 O
coupled stacks without liner O 0,Ol 5 O
guyed s
t
&stack without liner O 0.04 O
steel bridges Welded O 0,02 O
+ lattice steel towers hgh resistance bolts O OSO3 O
ordinary bob O 0.05 O
compositebndges O O W O
prestressedwithout O 0.04 O
concrete bridges cracks
with cracks O 0,lO O
cables parallelcables O 0,006 O
spiralcables O 0.020 O

S T D - B S I D D ENV L99L-Z-q-ENGL L997 m 3bZqbbS 13852370 903
DD ENV
1991-2-4 : 1997
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STD.BSI DD ENV 199L-Z-q-ENGL L777 E
I L b 2 4 b b 7 085ZL7L 3l(T
AMD 10671
Amendment No. 1
published and effective from 15 May 2000
to DD ENV 1991-2-4 : 1997
Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures

Part 2.4 Actions on structures - Wind actions
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DRAFT FOR DEVELOPMENT DD ENV
1991-2-4:1997
Eurocode 1:
Basis of design and
actions on structures
Part 2.4 Actions on structures -
Wind actions
(together with
United Kingdom
National Application
Document)
ICs 91.010.3091.080.01
NO COPYINGWITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPTAS PERMllTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW

Committees responsible for this
The preparationof this DraR for Developmentwas entrust4 by Technical
Committee M 2 5 ,Building and civil engineering structures, to Subcommittee
Bß25/1, Actions (lo-) and basis of design, uponwhich the following bodies
were represented
British Constructional Steelwork Association

British Iron andSteel Producers' Association
British Masonry Society
Concrete Society
Department of the Environment(BuildingResearch Establishment)
Department of the Environment (Property and Buildings Directorate)
Highways Agency
Institution of Sr
t
u W Engineem
National Howbuilding council
Royal Institubof British Architects
Steel Construction Institute
' This DraR for Development,

having been prepared under the
.' : directionofthe Sector Board for
'. Building and Civil Jhgineering,
was publishedunder the
authority of the Standards Board
and comes into effecton 16 June
1997
8 BSI 05-2000 Amendments issued since publication
*O* ID* I
l lIay2000 I Addition of National ApplicationDocument Part B.
The following BSI lleferences

relate to the work on this
Committee referenceB/525/1
ISBN O MIO 26768 X

~ ~
STD*BSI D D ENV L771-2-V-ENGL L977 W Lb29bbY 0852L7V 551

DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997
Contents
page
Committees responsible cover front Inside
National foreword ii
Text of National Application
Document
Part A. Build~ngs iii
Text of National Application
Document
Part B. Bridges lvii
Text of ENV 1991-2-4 2
0 BSI 052000
i
STD-BSI DD ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL 1 5 4 3 I
. .
Lb24bbS 0852375 495
DD ENV 1991-2-4:1997
National foreword
This Draft for Developmentwas prepared by SubcommitteeMXVl and is the English

language version ofENV 1991-24 : 1996E u h 1:Basis of design and actions on
structures -Part 2.4:Act- on stmcccureS - wind actions as published by the
European Committee for S t a n m o n (CEN).This Draft for Developmentalso
includes the United Kingdom (UK) National Application Document(NAD)to be used
with the ENV in the design of buildings and bridges
to be constructed in the UK or in
UKloading.
ENV 1991-24: 1995results from a programme of workinitiated by the European
Commissian to make availablea common set of rules for windaction.
This publication should not be regarded as a British Standard.
An ENV is made available for provisional application, but does not have theof a
status
EuropeanStandard,Theaimistousethe~riencegainedtomodifytheENVsothat
it can be adopted as a European standard (EN).
The valuesfor certain parametersin the ENV Eurocode may be set by CEN members
so to asmeet the requirements ofnational regulations. These parametersare
designatedbyboxedvaluesintheENV;the~uestobeusedintheUKaretabulated
in the NAD.
During the ENV period reference should be made to the supporting documents listed
in the National Application Document (NAD).
The purpose of the NAD is to provide essential information particularly in relation to
safety to enable theENV to be used for buildings and bridges constructedthe in UK.
The NAD takes precedence over corresponding provisions in the ENV.
For buildings, limited calibration exercises have been undertaken on theuse of
ENV 1991-2-4 which tend to show that use of the ENV may provide windeffectslower
than the useof BS 6399 : Part 2. Therefore caution shouldbe exercised in design when
applying loads deiived from the ENV document. Itis recommended that in cor@nction
withPartAoftheNADacheckisunde1takenusingtheprinciplesofBS6399:Part2
in defining the windstructure. A relatively simple procedure for incorporating these
principles intoENV 1991-24is outlined in Part A of the NAD.
Annex B of ENV 1991-24has not been calibratedagainst current UK practice and
therefore it shouldbe used with caution.
Part A of the NAD is applicable to wind actions on buildings.Part B of the NAD is
4- applicable to wind actions on bridges. A separate NAD forwind actions on towers,
masts and chimneys wilI be produced underENV 1993#) in due course.
Compliance with ENV 1991-24: 1995 and theNAD does notof itself confer immunity
from legalobligations.
Usem of this document are invited to comment onits technical content, ease of use
and any ambiguities or anomalies.These comments w ibe taken inta account when
l
l
preparing theUK national response to CEN on the question of whether the ENV can
be converted to an EN.
Comments shouldbe sent in writing to the secretary of Subcommittee E M ZW ,l
BSJ,389 Chiswick High Road, London, W4 4AL quoting the document reference, the
relevant clause and where possible,a propoeed revision within two years of the issue
of this document
Summary of pages
This document comprisesa front cover, an inside front cover,pages i to k,
2 to 164,an inside back cover and a back cover.
the ENV title page, pages
The BSI copyright noticedisplayed in this document indicateswhen the documentwas
lastissued
JIIpreparation

DD ENV 1991-2-41997

Part B. Bridges
for use in the UK with

ENV 1991-2-4t 1995
o MI 0522000
Part B. Bridges
Introduction
This National Application Document(NAD) has been Specific information on windactions on buildings is
prepared by Subcommittee B/525/10.It has been given in Part A.
developed from Whilst this NAD can be used for thestructural
a) a textud examination of ENV 1991-2-4: 1995; appraisal and assessmentof existing construction,
for assessing repairs and modifications, or for
b) a limited parametric calibration against assessing change ofuse, it will need to be used in
BS 5400 : Part 2; conjunction with other documentation
c) trial calculations.
This NAD encompasses wind actionsas covered by 2 References
ENV 1991-24. Specific UK requirements relatingto
loads resulting from densities, self weight and 2.1 Normative references
imposed loads (ENV 1991-2-l), fire actions This National Application Document incorporates, by
(ENV 1991-2-2), snow loads(ENV 1991-249, thermal dated or undated reference, provisions from other
actions (ENV 1991-M), loads and deformations publications. These normative referencesare made
imposed during execution (ENV 1991-2-6) and at the appropriate placesin the text and the cited
accidental actions(ENV 1991-2-7) are given publications are listed in pagelx. For dated
separately in the appropriateNADs for ENV 1991-2. references only the edition cited applies;any
subsequent amendmentsto or revisions of the cited
1 Scope publications applyto this Part of DD ENV 1991only
when incorporated in the reference by amendment
This NAD provides information to enable or revision. For undated references, the latest edition
ENV 1991-2-4: 1996 to be used for the designof the of the cited publication applies, together with
any
following structuresto be located in theUK or to be amendments.
designed for UK loading:
a) buildingstructures up to a heightof 200 m, their 2.2 Informative references
components and appendages; This National Application Document refers to other
b) chimneys and other cantilevered structures; publications that provide informationor guidance.
NOTE ENV 1991-2-4 does notat present provide suf6cient Editions of these publications currentat the time of
information for wind actiom on lattice towers, guyed masts and issue of this NAD are listed on pageIx but reference
guyed chimneys. This is being developed in ENV 199M1), which should be madeto the latest editions.
wil also contain furtherrequirements for chimneys, particularly
with regard to fatigue.
'.. c).;highway and railway bridges up to 200 m span 3 Partial factors, combination factors
and for cycletrack footbridges up to 30 m span and other values
It has been assumed that during theENV period of The values ofpartial factors on wind actions for
provisional application the design codes to be used bridges, y, and the valuesof combination and
for buildingswill be the relevantBritish Standards reduction factors for bridges, W, should beas defined
appropriate to the structure. However for bridges it in m e x e s C and G of ENV 19913 : 1995 as modified
has been assumedthat the NAD can only be used by the NAD for that Part,
with the relevant design Eurocodes.
Care should be exercisedif the wind action derived 4 Notati,on
from ENV 1991-2-4is used in corljunction with other
design codes. Where other documentsare used for ENV 1991-2-4 uses some notationthat differs from
design aspects, the values given will not necessarily that adopted inBS 5400 : Part 2 and other
produce the required level of reliability. Departure British Standards. The ENV notation should be
from any oT the requirements given in theNAD adopted when Using this NAD.
NOTE The UK NADs for Eurocodes as already published (e.& the
relevant Parts of ENV 1892 and ENV 1993) do not permit the use
of ENV 1991-24 in conjunction with those EWs; but they
recommend the use of CP 3 Chapter V with modifications. If trial
use of ENV 1991-24 is to be undertaken in conjunction with the
already published design Eurocodes, modifications may be
necessary:

5 Additional recommendations In the light of the above, wind actions on bridges
within the scope of ENV 1991-2-4are unlikely to
6.1 General govern the design and in consequence a relatively
The general recommendations givenin 6.1 of Part A simplistic approach can be adopted without penalty.
are equally applicable forthe design of bridges. The use of 10.11.2(1) of ENV 1991-2-4should enable
The recommendations on meteorological information conservative estimates of the actions dueto wind to
given in 6.2 of Part A should be followedfor the be determined forsuch bridges without economic
design of bridges. penalty.
The global forces for bridges should be derivedas: 6.3 Use of ENV 1991-2-4outside the defined
a) characteristic valuesF m = FW scope
It is recognized that codes are frequently used
where F m is defined as such in ENV 1991-3; outside the scope for which they were written.
Fw is the resultant wind force from If ENV 1991-2-4is used in such circumstances
ENV 1991-24, extreme caution should be exercised and
consideration should begiven to the possibility of
b) nominal valuesFw, derived in accordance dynamic responseof the bridge.
with 10.11.2(1) of ENV 1991-2-4: 1995;
The procedures given in annexes B and C of
c) values for wind with highway trfl1c Fw* ENV 1991-2-4should be followed, considering
derived as FW from equations6.1 and 7.1 with response due to turbulence as well as the aeroelastic
Ce(Ze) Vref= 1225 ( m / ~at )~deck level andA,, effects outlined in annex C of ENV 1991-2-4.
as defined in C.2.1.1(3) of ENV 1991-3: 1995. Comparison of these procedures should be made
When adopting the simplified ruleof 10.11.2(1) for with the provisions of BD 49/93.If these provisions
the wind force inthe x-direction the corresponding result in more onerous loading,or the possibility of
values for windin the y- and z-direction should be instabilities, it is essential that the engineer satisfies
taken as: himself that there is adequate safety eitherby using
f3.0 kN/m2 inthe z-direction applied to the the higher loads or using appropriate measures.
horizontal planarea of the bridge;
f1.5 kN/m2 in the y-direction for plated bridges;
and
f3.0 kN/m2 in the y-direction for truss bridges,
both applied to the vertical projectedarea of the
bridge.
6.2 Limitations of use
The scope of ENV 1991-2-4as far as bridges are
concerned is for road and railway bridges up
to 200 m span and for cycle tracWfootbridges up
to 30 m span [see 1.1.2(4) of ENV 1991-2-4: 19951.
Cable stayed and suspension bridgesare not covered
by the ENV [see 1.1.2(5) of ENV 1991-24: 19951 and
specialist advice should be sought for such
configurations.
O BSI 05-20oO
lix
List of references (~eecla;use 2)
ENV 1991 : Part 1 : 1994 Euromde 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 1: Basis of design.
ENV 1991 : Part 2.1 : 1995 Eurocode 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-1:Actions on structures -Densities, se?f weight and
imposed loads.
ENV 1991: Part 2.2 : 1995 Eumode 1 -Bask of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-2:Actions on structures -Actions on structures mposed to
fire.
ENV 1991: Part 2.3 : 1995 Eu?vco~?e 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-3:Actions vn structures - Snow loads.
ENV 1991: Part 2.5 : 1997 Eurocode1-Basisofdesignandactionsonstructures-
Part 2-5:Actions on structures -ThemLalactions.
ENV 1991: Part 2.6 : 1997 Eurooode 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-6: Actions on structures -Actions d u & g execution.
ENV 1991: Part 2.7 : 1998 Eurocode 1 -Basis of design and actions on structures -
Part 2-E Actions on structures -Accidental actions due to
impact and expoSions.
ENV 1991: Part 3 : 1995 Eurocode 1 -Basis of designand actions on structures --part 3:
lh@ì.C loa&s on b?-i@es.
ENV1997:Part1:1994 Eumode 7 - Gmtechnicd design -Part 1: Geneml mks.
BS 5400 :Part 2 : 1978 Steel, conmete and composite bridges. Part 2: SpscZflzcatàunfor
loads
CP3: ChapterV code of basic datufor uze design of buildings chapter VLQadingS
BD 49193 Highways Ag-. Design m n d for roads and bridges. Volume1
Highwaystructum: appnvvalpmcedums andgeneral design -
Section 3 G d design-Part 3Design ruksfor aeralynamic
efl'ects on bridges2).

DD ENV
1991-2-4 : 1997
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DRAFT FOR DEVELOPMENT DD ENV

NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPTAS PERMIITXD BY COPYRIGHT LAW

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

British Constructional Steelwork Association

This Draft for Development,

Q BSI 052000 Amendments issued sincepublication

The followingBSI references

ISBN O 580 26758 X I l

cover front Committees

STD-BSI D D ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL L977 m 1b2qbb9 0851517 52T m

National Application Document

for use in the UK with

National Application Document

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

National Application Document

Introduction Whilst this NAD can be used for the structural

'1 III preparation.

STDOBSI DD ENV 3991-2-4-ENGL 1997 3b2rlbb9

6 Additional recommendations Appropriate procedures, incorporatingthe recent

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

5.6 Wind actions on bridges

Figure 1. United Kingdom - Wind map (reference velocity)

Figure A.1 Terrain category Oz, = 0.003

COPYRIGHT BritishO BSI 1997

Figure A.2 Terrain category I zo = 0.01

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

Figure A.3 Terrain category II zo = 0.05

Figure A.4 Terrain category III zo = 0.3

xiv British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

Figure A.5 Terrain categoryIV z, = 1.0

Annex B (normative) The general equation forthe transition factorfor an

a) One change of roughness category

b) Two changes of roughness category

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

B.3 Two successive increases in roughness B.4 Graphical presentation of appropriate

xB is the distance from the change to roughness

STD.BS1 DD ENV 1991-2-4-ENGL 1997 l b 2 q b b 9 0851533 772

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

xxi O BSI 1997

Figure C.l Effective heights

XXiV British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

Annex D (normative) D.1.2 Additional symbols

Figure D.l Wind directions for a rectangular-plan building

D.l Iable Dynamic pressure, qmr,in Pa ( N M ) I

xxvi Q ES1 1997

Figure D.2 Size effect factor

Key to lines on figure D.2 1

For shear at base of shaded part

c) Diagonals for load on elements of faces

xxviiiBritish Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards Q BSI 1997

Table D.4 Internal pressure coefficients for open sided buildings

O" ~ +Ö.85- + 0.68 + 0.68 + 0.68 + 0.77 + 0.60

STD-BSI DD ENV 199L-2-9-ENGL 1997 D lb29bb7 0853594 5 5 8 m '

DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997

a) General case for arbitmty4aped buildmg

b) Building with reentrant comer (see figure D7)

xxx Q BSI 1997

S T D - B S I D D ENV L773-2-4-ENGL L997 W Lb24bb9 0853545 494 m

Figure D.5 Key for vertical walls of buildings