STRUCTURE

OF
MOLECULES
SLO # 4.1.1: Determine the number of valence electrons in an atom using the periodic table
and electronic configuration.

Element, Atomic number Electronic configuration Number of valence electron

Sodium,11 1s22s22p63s1 (2.8.1)
Aluminum,13 1s22s22p63s23p1 (2.8.3)
Silicon,14 1s22s22p63s23p2 (2.8.4)
Chlorine,17 1s22s22p63s23p5 (2.8.7)
Calcium,20 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 (2.8.8.2)
Boron,5 1s22s22p1 (2.3)

SLO # 4.1.2: Discuss the importance of noble gas electronic configuration in the formation
of an ion.

Noble gases are unreactive because they have fully filled outer shell, that is, they have a duplet
or octet electronic configuration. Atoms of elements (except the noble gases) do not have fully
filled outer shell. In order to become stable and unreactive and have the noble gas electronic
configuration they form ions. Ions formation depends on the number of electron gain or loses. If
noble gas configuration is attain by losing of electron than cation is formed or by gaining of
electron than anion is formed.

SLO # 4.1.3: State the Octet and duplet rules.

The noble gas electronic configuration that is attaining by having 8 electrons in the outermost
shell by sharing, by losing, or by gaining electrons is called octet rule.

The noble gas electronic configuration that is attaining by having 2 electrons in the outermost
shell that is first shell by sharing, by losing, or by gaining electrons is called duplet rule.

SLO # 4.1.4: Describe the ways in which chemical bonds are formed

Chemical bonds are formed by complete transfer of electron or by sharing of electron. Ionic bond
is a chemical bond which is formed due to complete transfer of electron from one atom to
another atom. Covalent bond is a chemical bond which is formed due to mutual sharing of
electrons. Chemical bond in which the lone pair of electrons is donated by one bonded atom only
is called coordinate covalent bond. Metallic bond is a chemical bond which is formed between
cation of metallic atom and delocalized electrons.

SLO # 4.1.5: Describe the formation of:

a) Cations from an atom of a metallic element

b) Anions from an atom of a non-metallic element

Formation of Cation:
Atoms of metals tend to lose electrons in order to attain the electronic configuration of a noble
gas. When an atom loses electrons, it has more proton than electrons. A positive ion or cation is
formed. The charge on a cation corresponds to the number of electrons the atom loses.

Formation of Anion:

In general, atoms of non-metals have more than four outer electrons. Thus, they tend to gain
electron to form anion. When an atom gains electrons, it has fewer protons than electrons. A
negative ion or anion is formed. The charge on an anion corresponds to the number of electrons
the atom gains.

SLO # 4.2.1: Describe the formation of an ionic bond

Ionic bond is formed between metals and non-metals atom. Metallic atom loses electron forms
cation. Non-metallic atom gains electron forms anion. Positive and negative ions are held by
strong electrostatic force of attraction. Due to electrostatic force of attraction ionic bond is
formed.

SLO # 4.2.2: Identify a compound as having ionic bond.

Compound Yes/No Reason

LiF

C2H2

MgCl2

H20

KBr

CaO

SLO # 4.2.3: Draw electron dot and cross structure of an ionic compound for example
NaCl, MgO, K2O and CaCl2

NaCl MgO
K2O CaCl2

SLO # 4.2.4: Describe the characteristics of ionic compounds.

Following are the characteristics of ionic compounds

1. Many ionic compounds have high melting and boiling point

In an ionic compound, the force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions is
strong. A large amount of heat energy is needed to overcome these strong attractive
forces to melt the ionic compound. As a result, many ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling point.
2. Non-Volatile
Due to their high melting and boiling point, most ionic compound is solid at room
temperature and pressure. We can say that ionic compound cannot escape at room
temperature hence they are non-volatile.
3. Ionic compounds are soluble in water/polar solvent and insoluble in organic
solvent/non polar solvent.
Water molecules are attracted to ions. This weakens the electrostatic force between the
ions. As a result, the ions are pulled from the lattice structure and the compound dissolves
to form an aqueous solution. In organic solvent, there is no water present. Therefore,
ionic compounds are insoluble as the ions remain tightly held in the lattice structure.
Ionic compounds follows like dissolve like rule.
4. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water.
When an ionic compound is molten or dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution, the
cations and anion are free to move and available to conduct electricity. However, there
are no free-moving ions to conduct electricity in the solid state since the ions are held in
place in the lattice structure.
5. Crystalline or lattice structure.
In order to occupy minimum space the ions are arrange themselves systematically. This
arrangement is in an alternating cation-anion pattern. This pattern is called lattice or
crystal.
6. Ionic reactions
The reactions of an ionic compound are actually the reactions of its constituent ions. Such
reactions take place as a result of collision between cation and anions.
7. High Density
Due to lattice structure ions are tightly packed which decreases the volume and increases
the density.
8. Ionic compounds are neutral
Same number of positive charged ion and negative charged ion cancelled the charges.
Hence, ionic compounds are neutral.

SLO # 4.3.1: Describe the formation of a covalent bond between two non-metallic
elements.

A covalent bond is formed due to mutual sharing of electron between the two or more
non-metallic atoms of elements. High ionization energy, comparable electron affinity,
comparable electronegativity, high nuclear charge and small atomic size favour the
formation of covalent bond.

SLO # 4.3.2: Exemplify single, double and triple covalent bonds

Single covalent bond: Mutual sharing of one pair of electrons

Double covalent bond: Mutual sharing of two pairs of electrons

Triple covalent bond: Mutual sharing of three pair of electron

SLO # 4.3.3: Draw electron dot and cross structures for simple covalent molecules
containing single, double and triple bond.
C2H2 H2O
 CO2 HCl

SLO # 4.3.4: Describe the characteristics of covalent compounds.

1. The covalent compounds having layer lattice structures have relatively low melting and
boiling points due to the fact that the attractive forces between covalent molecules are
weal forces.
2. Covalent solids which consist of giant molecules are bad conductor of electricity, since
they don’t contain charged particles.They are insulators.
3. Their solubility is based on the “like dissolves like “principle. Covalent solids are
insoluble in polar solvent but are readily soluble in non-polar solvent like benzene,
carbon tetrachloride etc.
4. Most of the covalent compounds are volatile as they possesses low boiling point.
5. Since there are no strong electrical forces to speed up the reaction between molecules so
covalent compounds gives slow reactions.
6. In the solid state, there are weak vander wall forces between the molecules. Hence
covalent compounds are often gases, liquids or soft solid.

SLO # 4.3.5: Exemplify polar and non-polar covalent compounds.

HCl H2 S—Cl H—F Br2 NI3 O2 H—C CCl4

Polar Non -polar

SLO # 4.3.6: Describe the properties of polar and non-polar covalent compounds.

If the difference in the electronegativities of bonded atom is zero, then the compound is non-
polarcompound. If a covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms, the shared pair of
electrons is attracted by both the atoms equally. Such type of bond is present in non-polar
covalent compound. Whereas the unequal attraction for the bond pair of electrons are present in
polar covalent compound in which atom with less electronegativity value is considered as partial
positive and the atom of element with greater electronegative value considered as partial
negative. If the difference in the electronegativity of bonded atom is less than 1.7, then the bond
is polar bond and the compound is polar compound.

SLO # 4.3.7: Differentiate between ionic and covalent compounds with examples.

Characteristics Ionic Compound Covalent compound

Types of atoms

Force of
attraction

Melting and
boiling point

Solubility

Electrical
conductivity

volatility

Examples

SLO # 4.4.1: Describe the formation of coordinate covalent bond by donation of an

electron pair from one element to the other element.
Coordinate covalent or dative covalent bonding is a type of covalent bonding in which
the bond pair of electrons is donated by one bonded atom only. The atom which donates
the electron pair is called donor and the atom which accepts the electron pair is called
acceptor. Small arrow is usually used to indicate the atom and pair of electron being
donated (→).The pair of electrons possessed by donor is called Lone pair. The product of
Coordinate bond is known as adduct.
SLO # 4.4.2: Draw electron dot and cross structure of coordinate covalent
compounds for example ammonium ion, oxonium (hydronium) ion, aluminum
tetrachloride anion, adduct of ammonia and boron trifluoride.

SLO # 4.4.3:Compare the formation and characteristics of coordinate covalent

compounds with covalent compounds.
Covalent compound Co-ordinate covalent compound
The covalent compound is formed by the The Co-ordinate covalent compound is
mutual sharing of electrons between atoms. formed by one sided sharing of electron.
The covalent bond is formed between the Co-ordinate covalent compound is formed
similar or dissimilar atom, when the when two unlike atoms, one having an
electrons are mutually shared. electron lone pair available for sharing and
other must accept that electron pair.
Covalent compound may be polar or non- Co-ordinate covalent compound are always
polar polar.
Covalent compound is associated with only Co-ordinate covalent compound is
covalent character because there is no associated with ionic and covalent
electron transfer. character because of partial electron
transfer.
The shared pair of electrons in covalent are The shared pair of electron in Co-ordinate
denoted by short line. covalent compound is denoted by (→).
Covalent compounds are usually insoluble Co-ordinate covalent compound are
in water. sparingly soluble in water.

SLO # 4.5.1:Describe the formation of metallic bonding.

The metallic bond is defined as a bond formed between metallic cation and delocalized
electron. These delocalized electrons are responsible for holding the atoms of metals
together. Metals have the tendency to lose their outermost electron easily due to low
ionization potential and large atomic size. Resultantly, these loose electrons move freely
in the spaces between atoms of a metal.
SLO # 4.5.2: Describe the physical properties of metal i.e malleability, ductility,
melting and boiling points, lustre, tensile strength electrical and thermal
conductivity based on the structure of metals and mobility of electrons.
Physical properties Description
Malleability Malleable means that metals can be converted into
sheets. The reason is that when stress is applied on
metal surface, its layer slides past over one another.

Ductility Ductile means that metal can be converted into

wires. The reason is that when stress is applied on
metal surface, its layer slides past over one another.

Melting and boiling point Atoms in a metal are packed tightly in layers and
are held together by strong metallic bond. Large
amount of energy is required to break these strong
metallic bonds.

Lustre The mobile electrons readily absorb light falling

upon them and move to higher energy level. When
they fall back to their original position they emit
radiation. This cause the metallic lustre.

Tensile strength Tensile strength is high because when a force is

applied to a metal, the layers of metal atom can
slide over each other through the sea of electron.

electrical and thermal conductivity Delocalized or mobile electron allows the metal to
conduct electricity. Heat energy is transferred
easily by the mobile electrons in the structure.
SLO # 4.6.1: Explain weak forces of interactions such as dispersion forces, dipole-
dipole interaction and hydrogen bonding with their significance.
Dispersion Force:
The London dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular force. The London dispersion
force is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms
occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. This force is sometimes
called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction. London forces are the attractive forces
that cause nonpolar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids when the
temperature is lowered sufficiently.

Significance:
London dispersion forces are responsible for the gases condensing into liquids because
no other forces hold the gas molecules together. The lightest noble gases, such as
helium and neon, have extremely low boiling points because the London dispersion
forces are weak. Large, heavy atoms such as xenon have a higher boiling point because
the London dispersive forces are stronger for large atoms, and they pull the atoms
together to form a liquid at a higher temperature. Although usually comparatively
weak, the London dispersion forces can make a difference in the physical behavio r of
such materials.

Dipole-dipole interaction:
The attractive forces between positive end of one polar molecule and negative end of
other polar molecule are known as dipole-dipole forces.
Significance:
1. For predicting the nature of the molecules-molecules with zero dipole moment are
non polar while the molecule with specific dipole moment are polar in nature.
2. For determining the shape of the molecule-If A molecule has a specific dipole
moment then its shape will not symmetrical,they may be bent angular & the
molecule with zero dipole moment will be symmetrical & has linear shape.
3. For comparing the polarities of the molecules with zero dipole moment value,
more will be the polarity & vice versa

Hydrogen bonding:
Partially positive charged hydrogen atom of one molecule attracts and forms a bond with
the partially negatively charged atom of the other molecule, the bonding is called
hydrogen bonding.
Significance:
• Decreases rate of vaporization.
• Increases boiling point
• Enables solutes to change the boiling and freezing point of water (colligative
properties)
• Aids solubility of polar substances (salts, minerals, vitamins, etc.)
• Affect pH of a substance
• Makes ice less dense than water