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CMP23

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CMP23

Uploaded by

jafasoh293
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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n and out of the sense winding induces a signal in the sense winding, whose principal frequency is twice that

of the drive fre-


quency, and whose strength and phase orientation vary directly with the external-field magnitude and polarity.
There are additional factors that affect the size of the resultant signal. These factors include the number of turns in the sense
winding, magnetic permeability of the core, sensor geometry, and the gated flux rate of change with respect to time.
Phase synchronous detection is used to extract these harmonic signals from the sense winding and convert them into a DC volt-
age proportional to the external magnetic field. Active current feedback may also be employed, such that the sense winding is
driven to counteract the external field. In such cases, the feedback current varies linearly with the external magnetic field and is
used as the basis for measurement. This helps to counter inherent non-linearity between the applied external field strength and
the flux gated through the sense winding.
SQUID magnetometer[edit]
Main article: SQUID
SQUIDs, or superconducting quantum interference devices, measure extremely small changes in magnetic fields. They are very
sensitive vector magnetometers, with noise levels as low as 3 fT Hz−½ in commercial instruments and 0.4 fT Hz−½ in experimental
devices. Many liquid-helium-cooled commercial SQUIDs achieve a flat noise spectrum from near DC (less than 1 Hz) to tens of
kilohertz, making such devices ideal for time-domain biomagnetic signal measurements. SERF atomic magnetometers demon-
strated in laboratories so far reach competitive noise floor but in relatively small frequency ranges.
SQUID magnetometers require cooling with liquid helium (4.2 K) or liquid nitrogen (77 K) to operate, hence the packaging re-
quirements to use them are rather stringent both from a thermal-mechanical as well as magnetic standpoint. SQUID magne-
tometers are most commonly used to measure the magnetic fields produced by laboratory samples, also for brain or heart activ-
ity (magnetoencephalography and magnetocardiography, respectively). Geophysical surveys use SQUIDs from time to time, but
the logistics of cooling the SQUID are much more complicated than other magnetometers that operate at room temperature.
Zero-field optically-pumped magnetometers[edit]
Magnetometers based on atomic gasses can perform vector measurements of the magnetic field in the low field regime, where
the decay of the atomic coherence becomes faster than the Larmor frequency. The physics of such magnetometers is based on
the Hanle effect. Such zero-field optically pumped magnetometers have been tested in various configurations and with different
atomic species, notably alkali (potassium, rubidium and cesium), helium and mercury. For the case of alkali, the coherence
times were greatly limited due to spin-exchange relaxation. A major breakthrough happened at the beginning of the 2000
decade, Romalis group in Princeton demonstrated that in such a low field regime, alkali coherence times can be greatly en-
hanced if a high enough density can be reached by high temperature heating, this is the so-called SERF effect.
The main interest of optically-pumped magnetometers is to replace SQUID magnetometers in applications where cryogenic
cooling is a drawback. This is notably the case of medical imaging where such cooling imposes a thick thermal insulation,
strongly affecting the amplitude of the recorded biomagnetic signals. Several startup companies are currently developing opti-
cally pumped magnetometers for biomedical applications: those of TwinLeaf,[29] quSpin[30] and FieldLine[31] being based on alkali
vapors, and those of Mag4Health on metastable helium-4.[32]
Spin-exchange relaxation-free (SERF) atomic magnetometers[edit]
Main article: SERF
At sufficiently high atomic density, extremely high sensitivity can be achieved. Spin-exchange-relaxation-free (SERF) atomic
magnetometers containing potassium, caesium, or rubidium vapor operate similarly to the caesium magnetometers described
above, yet can reach sensitivities lower than 1 fT Hz− ⁄ . The SERF magnetometers only operate in small magnetic fields. The
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Earth's field is about 50 μT; SERF magnetometers operate in fields less than 0.5 μT.
Large volume detectors have achieved a sensitivity of 200 aT Hz− ⁄ .[33] This technology has greater sensitivity per unit volume
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than SQUID detectors.[34] The technology can also produce very small magnetometers that may in the future replace coils for de-
tecting radio-frequency magnetic fields.[citation needed] This technology may produce a magnetic sensor that has all of its input and out-
put signals in the form of light on fiber-optic cables.[35] This lets the magnetic measurement be made near high electrical volt-
ages.

Calibration of magnetometers[edit]
The calibration of magnetometers is usually performed by means of coils which are supplied by an electrical current to create a
magnetic field. It allows to characterize the sensitivity of the magnetometer (in terms of V/T). In many applications the homo-
geneity of the calibration coil is an important feature. For this reason, coils like Helmholtz coils are commonly used either in a
single axis or a three axis configuration. For demanding applications a high homogeneity magnetic field is mandatory, in such
cases magnetic field calibration can be performed using a Maxwell coil, cosine coils,[36] or calibration in the highly homoge-
nous Earth's magnetic field.

Uses[edit]
Magnetometers can measure the magnetic fields of planets.
Magnetometers have a very diverse range of applications, including locating objects such as submarines, sunken ships, haz-
ards for tunnel boring machines, hazards in coal mines, unexploded ordnance, toxic waste drums, as well as a wide range of
mineral deposits and geological structures. They also have applications in heart beat monitors, weapon systems positioning,
sensors in anti-locking brakes, weather prediction (via solar cycles), steel pylons, drill guidance systems, archaeology, plate tec-
tonics and radio wave propagation and planetary exploration. Laboratory magnetometers determine the magnetic dipole mo-
ment of a magnetic sample, typically as a function of temperature, magnetic field, or other parameter. This helps to reveal its
magnetic properties such as ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, superconductivity, or other properties that affect magnetism.
Depending on the application, magnetometers can be deployed in spacecraft, aeroplanes (fixed wing magnetometers), heli-
copters (stinger and bird), on the ground (backpack), towed at a distance behind quad bikes(ATVs) on a (sled or trailer), lowered
into boreholes (tool, probe or sonde) and towed behind boats (tow fish).

Mechanical stress measurement[edit]


Magnetometers are used to measure or monitor mechanical stress in ferromagnetic materials. Mechanical stress will improve
alignment of magnetic domains in microscopic scale that will raise the magnetic field measured close to the material by magne-
tometers. There are different hypothesis about stress-magnetisation relationship. However the effect of mechanical stress on
measured magnetic field near the specimen is claimed to be proven in many scientific publications. There have been efforts to
solve the inverse problem of magn

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