What is the ingress protection rating for a motor enclosure that protects the

motor from penetration by objects greater than 1 mm in size and from

spraying water?

IEC IP Enclosure Rating System

Here is an IP rating chart I drew up some years ago. Note this is to European
(IEC) standards.

The first numeral in the rating indicates the equipment’s protection against
solid objects. To keep out objects larger than 1mm in size, you will need an
IP4* enclosure rating.
The second numeral in the rating indicates the equipment’s protection against
the harmful ingress of water, To keep out spraying of water from all directions,
you will need an IP*4 rating.
So to provide both protections simultaneously, you will need an IP44 enclosure
for the equipment.
NEMA Enclosure Rating
NEMA is an acronym for National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association. This is
a US-based organization who develop and maintain standards for certain
electrical products, primarily for use in North America.
The NEMA enclosure rating system, in addition to ingress protection, is also
concerned with weather-related protection, e.g. protection against icing, sleet
and snow. It also is concerned with the nature of the liquid which is being
protected against – is it corrosive or chemically reactive? These factors will
influence the design of the enclosure and the material it is made from. In the
IEC system, these factors are covered by separate standards.
In the NEMA system, there is no direct equivalent to IEC IP44. The nearest is
NEMA 12, which is closer to IP55. This provides protection against ingress of
dust and against low pressure water jets from all directions.

Why does the middle leg of a three phase transformer have a low reluctance in
the outer two legs of the 3 phase transformer?
The reluctance of the magnetic path around each coil of a three phase
transformer is a function of the length of the core material. The longer the
length of this path for a particular coil, the higher the reluctance and the less
the magnetising inductance.

If you study the three phase core as depicted above, you will note that each
coil has effectively two parallel magnetic paths. Coil A has paths through limbs
B & C. Coil B has paths through limbs A & C. Coil C has paths through limbs A &
B. The average path length for the centre coil B is less than that for outer coils
A & C. So the reluctance of the centre coil’s magnetic path will be less than
that of each of the outer coil, and its inductance will be higher.
So if you run a magnetising current test on a three phase transformer, the
centre winding will always have a lower magnetising current.
What are the differences between a linear transformer and a switching
transformer?
A linear power supply transforms the mains, and rectifies and filters the
transformer secondary to create DC.. This may be further regulated before
connection to the load.
The transformer in this linear power supply is operating at mains frequency (50
or 60Hz) So it has a laminated silicon steel core. The transformer is
comparatively large and heavy.
A switching power supply typically directly rectifies the mains, then “chops”
the resulting DC into the primary of the transformer. The secondary is rectified
and filtered, and a voltage signal is fed back by an optocoupler to the primary
to allow control of the chopper duty cycle to regulate the secondary voltage.
The transformer in this switching power supply is operating at the “chop”
frequency. This may be 20kHz or greater. At this frequency, to transform the
same amount of power as a linear power supply, the transformer will be
comparatively much smaller. The number of turns on each winding will be a lot
less, as a consequence of the high frequency operation. The core will be made
of a ferrite material. The windings (especially the secondary) are likely to be
“multifilar”, that is, having two or more skinnier wires wound in parallel. This
reduces the “skin effect” which is a phenomenon which becomes serious at
high frequency and can increase the effective AC resistance of the winding
wires.
Comparison summary
A linear transformer has a laminated steel core. It will be larger and heavier
than a switch mode transformer.
A switching transformer has a powdered ferrite or similar core. This material
performs well at higher frequencies. It has a high electrical resistance which
eliminates eddy currents in the core. This core may be “gapped” with an
insulator to give the transformer a known inductance, Each winding will have
way fewer turns than an equivalent linear transformer, as a result of running it
at a high frequency. Windings may be multifilar wound to reduce the skin
effect which gets worse at high frequency.

Why don't transformers work with direct current?

To understand why transformer only works works with ac we need to
understand it's principle.
The transformer is a static device, that contains of one or more windings that
are coupled magnetically and separated electrically with a magnetic core. It
transmits the electrical energy from one circuit to the other by the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
The working principle of transformer is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is
responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.
A transformer needs an alternating current that will create a changing
magnetic field. A changing magnetic field also induces a changing voltage in a
coil.
Whereas in DC current will be constant there will be no alternating current to
create magnetic field . Due to this there is no change in magnetic field voltage
induces will be zero.
Transformer has high inductance and low resistance. In dc supply there is no
inductance only resistance will act in the circuit so high current will flows
through the primary of the transformer. for this reason coil and insulation will
burn out. So DC can't be used .

Mainly following types of oils are used in Transformer:

A. Mineral Oil: These are Petroleum products and are mainly following two
types:
NAPTHANIC OIL : Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than Paraffin oil but
oxidation product i.e. sludge in the naphtha oil is more soluble than Paraffin
oil. Thus sludge of naphtha based oil is not precipitated in bottom of the
transformer. Hence it does not obstruct convection circulation of the oil,
means it does not disturb the transformer cooling system
PARAFFINIC OIL : Oxidation rate of Paraffin oil is lower than that of Naphtha oil
but the oxidation product or sludge is insoluble and precipitated at bottom of
the tank and obstruct the transformer cooling system. It has high pour point
due to the wax content. In India it is generally used because of its cheaper and
easy availability.
B. Synthetic Oil: These are generally the chemical products e.g. Silicon Oil.
These are Fire retardant, hence used only for fire prone area. Lower heat
dissipation capacity and high moisture absorbing capacity. This type of oil is
Costlier than mineral oil.

Why is a transformer rated in KVA?

Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical power from one AC
circuit to the other AC circuit by means of increasing or decreasing voltage (or
current) & by keeping frequency constant.
Now, there are mainly 3 types of powers in case of AC circuit.
1. Active Power, P=VI*cos(phi) watt
2. Reactive Power, Q=VI*sin(phi) VAr
3. Apparent/Total Power, S=VI VA
There are three reasons why we rate transformer in kVA or MVA:
1. The transformer has to supply transfer both active and reactive power from
one AC circuit to the other.
And hence, it has to transform total power i.e. nothing but apparent
power(S)=(P^2 + Q^2)^(1/2). The "S" is having unit of VA and hence
transformers are rated in terms of kVA or MVA.
2. At the time of manufacturing of transformer it is not known that which type
of load the transformer is going to serve (i.e.R, RL, RC or RLC or any other)
hence its beneficial to rate it in terms of total apparent power "S". (kVA or
MVA)
3. Transformer has two types of losses, *Copper loss, which are dependent on
current(Current is having unit Ampere)*Iron losses, which are dependent on
voltage(voltage is having unit Volts)Hence total losses=Iron Losses + Copper
losses, which are dependent on VA.
What is the formula for selecting a proper current transformer?
The basic formula that characterises a current transformer is:

In words: ampere-turns on primary - ampere-turns on secondary.

When you select a current transformer, you need to know its purpose.
Metering CTs and protection CTs have different specifications - metering CTs
are usually more accurate within their measuring range whereas protection
CTs maintain reasonable accuracy even when overloaded.

I will use an example of of a 70A supply driving a meter - specifically a 5A

moving iron AC ammeter. Choose what your required full scale deflection is - I
would choose 100A RMS. It should be easy to acquire a scale plate for this. I
would choose a toroidal core CT which you pass your primary cable through -
this constitutes a 1-turn primary. So you need a CT with 100AT primary and
secondary, which implies 100AT / 5A turns = 20 turns on the secondary.
If your primary current is small or you want an unusual turns ratio, you can
acquire CTs with a wound primary, with 2 or more primary turns already
installed. With these, you need to be careful the the primary wire gauge is
sufficient to handle the expected primary current.

What is a transformer inrush current?

Magnetic inrush is a phenomenon that occurs when an unloaded transformer
is energised. This happens during first 5-6 cycles. If transformer is energised at
the instant when ac voltage passes its zero crossing point, the steady state
value of flux demanded by the core is at its maxima. The core flux, which is
initially zero, rises up to twice the maximum flux, called as doubling effect. The
current drawn in to set up this flux is quite high, reaching up to 4-5 times the
full load current.The flux contains a dc component and a steady state
alternating component. The induced emf due to dc component of flux will be
zero. So there is no doubling effect in voltage.
Due to mmf unbalance between primary and secondary during magnetic
inrush, the windings are susceptible to large mechanical stresses developed
and may get dislocated due to unbalanced axial forces along the core limb.
Proper mechanical support ensures this does not happen.
If instant of energisation happens to be at maxima of applied voltage, doubling
effect can be avoided but it is not a cakewalk to control the instant of
energisation.
Such high currents drawn can lead to unnecessary tripping of circuit breaker as
relay sees it as fault current level. To mitigate this, a small delay of
corresponding to 6-7 cycles(~140ms considering 50Hz) can be allowed for relay
operation. Thus unnecessary tripping of circuit breaker is avoided. Magnetic
inrush current contains dominant second harmonic. Thus, duration of the
transient as well as the magnitude of the second harmonic of the inrush
current can be used to differentiate between short circuit current and inrush
current.
Other causes of inrush could be recovery inrush (recovery after a fault)
and sympathetic inrush (energisation of another parallel transformer) but
magnitudes of these inrush currents is less than that of initial inrush described
above.

What are harmonics in transformers?

Generally speaking, a harmonic is an integer multiple of the
original(fundamental) frequency.
A transformer will work at the grid frequency 50 or 60Hz. The problem is that
the grid itself is not entirely clean and does not transfer a pure sine wave.
Switching due to dynamic loads is one of the chief causes of harmonics in an
electrical grid. There can be other causes, such as x-rays from the sun, wind
moving the overhead lines, and other sources of EMG radiation.
In particular, traditional power converters and some circuits like class B
amplifiers can feature lots of elements that typically switch twice the period of
the wave. These small switching harmonic which are typically a large order of
magnitude smaller than the original power signal (should be at least 10x
smaller) go back into the grid and can cause inductor based-elements, such as
transformers, to resonate under the right circumstance.
“Non-linear” loads include Variable Speed Drives, Un-interruptible Power
Supplies, PLC’s, Computers, Printers, Reduced Voltage Motor Controllers, Solid
State Rectifiers, Induction Heating Equipment, Fluorescent, HID, Sodium and
Mercury Vapor Lighting, Arc Furnaces, Welding equipment, AC/DC Converters
and Electronic Ballasts.
This is why medium (10-40kV) and high voltage(110kV+) distribution points
buzz sometimes instead of producing a nice, pleasant sine wave. The buzz is
due to the addition of these harmonics.
An extreme example of harmonics distortion. If it got this bad in your house,
probably a lot of appliances would fail. This shape is due to a series of
constructive and deconstructive interference with the main wave.
One way to avoid having your equipment protected against these voltage
spikes is to have an active power factor correction power supply, which
unfortunately is very expensive to design for heavy loads such as a tumble
drier. Laptops and other small electronics come with them nowadays.
Energy companies associate harmonics are with efficiency loss and drops in
power quality.Other 2 examples caused by harmonics due to a switching silicon
rectifier (light dimmer).
As one would expect, the strongest harmonics are in the low integer
multipliers:
In fact the problem is so bad, that power grid designers take into account a de-
rating factor for large transformers [3] to account for transient peaks in power.
Note the 5th and 7th harmonics are very strong in this graph. The following
video explains this with better clarity than I could (we can't easily eliminate
them through conventional 3-phase power methods).
A higher voltage is not typically a problem for transformers, but a higher
current definitely is. higher currents overheat the thin lamella of the
transformer which act as a magnetic flux transfer medium and can cause local
delaminations which eventually lead to shortcircuits. That's bad. explosion-
grade bad, followed by a prolonged black-out in the affected area. Grid
dispatches monitor the active and reactive power and V-I, lowering it to fit in
the transformer rating. This may cause a brown-out, but it is preferable to
permanent damage.
Where and why are isolation transformers used?
A safe working practice which is effective is to isolate the supply from earth. If
this is done, the connected appliance may be used in wet or damp situations,
indoors or outdoors, and may be used on appliances to work on exposed
earthed metal. Refer to Figure 1.

Figure 1: Application of Isolating Transformer

The transformer itself is earthed, is sited in a dry environment, and connected
to the supply via a short, earthed connector. The connected tool or appliance
will be effectively isolated from earth. Should the user come in contact with
any part of the appliance electrical circuit, there will be no return path through
the person, and no hazard exists.
For maximum safety, only one appliance should be used from a single
secondary winding. Two appliances may be plugged in, but their frames should
be bonded together but not earthed. So if both appliances develop faults,
there will not be a potential difference between their frames, but the short
circuit created will clear the upstream fuse or circuit breaker.
My personal experience was back in the days of being a poverty-stricken Uni
student, I was working as a builder’s laborer, mixing mortar for a block layer.
The (rented) electric concrete mixer was in a wet situation, had an earth
leakage problem and it gave me a shock every time I touched it. So the hire
company gave us an isolating transformer so I was able to stay alive and
continue with my mortar mixing job.

Where are shell type and core type transformer used? Why?
It is a choice made by the designer, mostly. There is no hard and fast rule. But
there are some trends that we see are based on mere practicalities.

Mostly,Core type transformers are popular in High voltage applications like

Distribution transformers, Power transformers, and obviously
auto transformers. reasons are,
High voltage corresponds to high flux. So, for keeping your iron loss down you
have to use thicker core. So core type is better choice.
At high voltage you require heavy insulation. In core type winding putting
insulation is easier. In fact LV(low voltage) winding it self acts as an insulation
between HV (high voltage) winding and core.

Where as, Shell type transformers are popular in Low voltage

applications like transformers used in electronic circuits and power electronic
converters etc. Reasons are,
At low voltage, comparatively you require more volume for the copper wires
than that of iron core. So the windows cut on the laminated sheets have to be
of bigger proportion with respect to the whole size of the transformer. So,
shell type is a better choice.
Here you don't care about the insulation much and insulation is thin and light.
So you can put the winding anyway you want in the shell.

Why is soft iron core used in transformer?

Transformers are generally used on alternating current or pulsing direct

current. As the energizing current changes the core magnetization must follow
suit. To magnetize/demagnetize or reverse magnetic poles of the core requires
power which is not delivered to the load and is wasted resulting in lower
efficiency.
Hard iron tends to retain magnetism while soft iron magnetization is less
permanent thus improving efficiency by reducing power loss in the core during
current fluctuations. All cores do not respond ideally to changes in magnetism
because they retain a quasi memory of the previous state called hysteresis
which can be overcome only with a power and efficiency loss depending on the
core material.
Generally most cores are laminated stacked sheets or beads consisting of
powdered iron with silica or ceramic powders to minimize hysteresis or use in
higher frequencies.

What is center tapped transformer?

In real life scenario often we face the problem of low voltage supply. In India it
is improved significantly in recent days, But I can remember my childhood- low
voltage supply was a real problem in most of the areas. In the evening the
lights used to glow less and the ceiling fans used to rotate slow.
This happens when we have more demand of power than we can supply. In
micro level- if the transformers are overloaded significantly then the output
voltage goes down creating problem for the consumers.
Now we know we can manage the output voltage of a transformer by changing
the number of turns (or turns ratio). For a transformer already manufactured
we can not increase its number of turns but can decrease it. Tapping helps us
in such situation. By tapping we can effectively reduce the number of turns of a
winding by connecting it at various location of the winding; the main
requirement is to make the output voltage on the higher side [and some times
to reduce the output voltage too].
Now physically if we are tapping the winding at its center then we call it a
center tap transformer. Hope the matter is bit clear now. Thanks for asking.
What are the advantages of 5 limbed transformers over 3
limbed transformers?
Let's discuss the problem with three limb core and then the contradictions to
three limb core will be the advantages of three/four leg transformers.
Firstly its the unbalance fault current that circulates zero sequence current , it
won't find a path in three limbs as at any point of time, all three Fluxes caused
by those currents will either direct upwards or downwards , there by finding a
closed path through tank.. The value of this current will be more as the
reluctance offered is more and magnetic impedance is less. It will vary from 40-
150%.
So this will heat tank and causes core winding unbalance. The way we can
solve is to create a flux path in addition to fundamental. Thus adding an extra
core leg.. Under unbalanced conditions 3Io will flow in upper and lower and
Fourth leg..
Thus making flux unbalanced ... So if we add one more Leg. This will take some
of unbalanced flux.. We can add more legs. But that will create design
problems in aspects of size And weight

Why is the core of a power transformer grounded?

Primary reason, safety. You really don’t want the case of anything to be “hot”
if the wire insulation fails. And there is quite a lot of wire in a transformer.
Secondary reason (get it?) safety again. If a primary turn shorts to the core,
and a secondary turn shorts to the core, you’d really rather blow a circuit
breaker somewhere than connect the primary to the secondary directly.
Update: In response to a comment, I researched this a little and learned two
more reasons. In utility size transformers (big ones), the core laminations are
thin sheets of steel that are mostly insulated from each other to keep currents
from circulating, but each lamination is grounded at one point. This is (a) for
safety, so that breakers will trip if insulation fails and (b) to equalize
electrostatic stresses that could damage the transformer.
In smaller transformers, there are sometimes electrostatic shields (grounded
plates, faraday cages) between primary and secondary, which help prevent
common mode coupling between the windings. This isn’t exactly the same
concept as a grounded core though.
What is the ‘K factor’ in transformers?
“The "K-Factor" conveys a transformer's ability to serve varying degrees of
nonlinear loads without exceeding the rated temperature rise limits.”
Long Answer & Explanation of “K factor of transformer “
Losses in transformers are generally subdivided into core and winding losses.
Core loss is of minor concern since it is due to flux generated in the core when
a transformer is excited by the bus voltage. Winding loss, which is made up of
I^2*R and stray losses, is generated by currents passing through a transformer.
The winding loss is important because of relatively high load current distortion
levels.
I^2*R loss is due to current that passes through the winding resistance. Eddy
currents are an example of i^2R loss which in turn cause losses that are
dissipated as heat. The stray loss component is due to “stray” electromagnetic
flux in the windings and other conducting transformer elements.
Isolation transformers can be used with harmonic generating equipment to
limit the effects on the distribution system.
The practice of derating a transformer has been prevalent in previous years.
Recently, “K-rated” transformers have emerged with a greater ability to
withstand stress damage and overheating.
The K factor was developed by Underwriters Laboratory in UL1561. The K
factor numbers do not linearly indicate transformer harmonic tolerance. . The
factor can be calculated from the equation:
K factor = summation of {Ih^2(pu)×h}
Ih= RMS current at harmonics oder h per unit
The features of K-rated transformers are:
The core has a larger cross section to compensate for increased flux density.
Delta primary winding utilizes a heavier conductor due to increased heating
from circulating triplen harmonics.
Secondary winding uses small parallel conductors to minimize the skin effect.
An electrostatic shield is installed between the core and LV winding.
andbetween the HV and LV windings.
The transformer can operate at more than 10% system voltage without core
saturation.
A double-size neutral bar and lug pad are installed
For standard transformers. K = l and l.5 for single- and three-
phase transformers, respectively. For nonlinear load applications. the standard
K factors are 4, 9,I3. 20. 40. and 50. An example for calculating a nonlinear load
K factor is give of lEEE 1100 & JP transformer book has also provided the
following guidelines for estimating the K factor if the data on harmonic current
is not available:
Kl.5 when the nonlinear load is about 15% of the transformerbank rating
K4 when the nonlinear load is about 35% of transformer bank rating
KI3 when the nonlinear load is about 7570 of transformer bank rating
K20 when the nonlinear load is about 100% of transformer bank rating
Why is an auto transformer not used as distribution transformers as it is more
efficient than a normal transformer?
An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings
as an ordinary transformer does, if the neutral side of the input is not at
ground voltage, the neutral side of the output will not be either.

A failure of the isolation of the windings of an autotransformer can result in

full input voltage applied to the output. Also, a break in the part of the winding
that is used as both primary and secondary will result in the transformer acting
as an inductor in series with the load (which under light load conditions may
result in near full input voltage being applied to the output).

Plus, absorption of higher harmonics traveling in between stations is not done

in an Auto-transformer though a large three phase auto transformer may have
a buried delta configuration to supress them.

How are delta sides of Transformers grounded?

A three-phase transformer may have either a DELTA or a WYE Primary but
should always have a WYE secondary. There is no good reason for a delta
secondary, ever.
A transformer primary is generally not grounded at that primary, for it is a load
to some source feeding it, and it is the duty of the source feeding that primary
to itself be a transformer with a grounded WYE secondary.
Grounding a Wye Primary center tap is unwise, surely causing a ground current
loop. It is most common and proper for a 3phase transformer to be Delta-to-
Wye.
A three-phase power system should be sourced by transformer with a WYE
secondary, because a Wye (Y) has a center tap that can and must be grounded.
If you are confronted with someone’s unwise choice of a Delta secondary
which has no center to ground, you have the following options, in order of
preference decent:
Force the replacement of the Delta-Delta Transformer with a Delta-Wye or
Wye-Wye Transformer, and ground the Wye Secondary Center Tap, which fixes
all three phases at the same RMS voltage, symmetric w.r.t. Earth; or
Add a separate smaller grounding Wye transformer, hung on the Delta
Secondary of the D-D Transformer, which will assert symmetry, fixing all load
phases at the same RMS voltage w.r.t. Earth; or
If one of the Delta Secondary Windings is Center-Tapped, Ground that Mid-
Phase Tap (this makes the opposite Phase voltage much higher w.r.t Earth than
the other two Phases between which is the grounded tap); or
Ground any one Secondary Phase Terminal of the D-D Transformer, which
makes the voltage at the other two Phases w.r.t Earth higher than the three
would equally be in choice 1 or 2 above; this is called a “corner
grounded” transformer; or
Leave the Delta Secondary ungrounded, and so labelled; the danger is that any
fault in the ungrounded secondary can go undetected, and static or a faulty
capacitor can introduce arbitrarily high voltages that can arc over, exceeding
insulation ratings.
A load expects a set of three symmetrical phase voltages, all of the value that
the transformer was chosen to produce at its secondary terminals — its rated
output.
This Line-to-Line voltage divided by Root 3 (1.7) is the voltage each terminal is
expected to be away from Earth, the effective Line-to-Neutral voltage, even if
there is no Neutral terminal (as with a Delta Secondary transformer).
Option 4 produces one Line-to-Neutral Voltage that is zero, and two Line-to-
Neutral voltages that are each instead equal to the Line-to-Line voltage, so 1.7
times the expected Line-to-Neutral voltage of a symmetrical source.
Option 3 produces one Line-to-Neutral voltage that is 1.5 times the nominal
Line-to-Line voltage, so 2.6 times the expected Line-to-Neutral voltage of a
symmetrial source ! (1.5 * Root 3 = 2.6).
If your load is a VFD or Servo Motor Drive, you will not likely get away with the
assymetry of either option 3 or 4, because the overvoltage of one or two legs
(respectively) being greater than the rated Line-to-Neutral voltage will
generally trip the overvoltage alarm of the motor drive, or damage it.
Additionally, there are safety concerns we needn’t get into here; suffice it to
say a transformer that is ungrounded, corner grounded, or phase-tap
grounded (option 5, 4, or 3 respectively) must be labelled accordingly.
Disadvantages And Regulations: Code Rules for Ungrounded Systems
It is far better to assert a symmetrical ground by buying a small
Wye transformer to hang on the Delta Transformer secondary terminals
(option 2), grounding its center tap, and leaving its other winding set
unconnected;
A low-loss variation of the add-on device to assert grounding symmetry is
called a zig-zag 9-winding transformer, with a center tap grounded through a
resistance.
Zigzag transformer
Best choice is always to get rid of the delta-secondary transformer and buy a
proper full-power WYE secondary unit (option 1).
Can neutral and ground be connected together?
No, the neutral and ground should never be wired together. ... When you plug
in something in the outlet, the neutral will be live, as it closes the circuit. If
the ground is wired to the neutral, the ground of the applicance will also be
live.
Can we connect 3 transformers to 3-phases (each phase have one transformer),
if yes, how and what are the advantages?
What does Google know about me?
You may know that Google is tracking you, but most people don't realize the
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Can we connect 3 transformers to 3-phases (each phase have one

transformer), if yes, how and what are the advantages?
You can surely use 3 individual single phase transformers to transform a 3
phase primary to a 3 phase secondary voltage. There are numerous ways to
connect them, depending on available 3 phase voltage and required secondary
voltage, and whether 3 or 4 wire at each level. There are no particular
advantages to using single phase transformers rather than a single 3 phase
transformer, other than the flexibility it gives you in connections. With a single,
3 phase transformer, you have one primary and one secondary connection
available. The three, single phase transformers, gives you flexibility you don’t
have with the single transformer. With individual transformers you can
operate the bank even with one unit failed, with some restrictions, depending
on the primary and secondary connections you choose.
You have three identical transformers with one primary and one secondary.
Minimum voltage the primary can take is 230 V, 50Hz.
Assume that you have 3 phase electricity board's standard supply available.
Connect primary the way you want and connect them to 3 phase supply
through a 4 pole single through switch.
In case you want star output, make a neutral and measure the line to line
voltages. It should be √3Vpn. If not, inter change output terminal set of any
transformer until you get √3Vpn.
In case you desire Delta output connect the secondary connection in series. Do
not close the loop. Measure the voltage across the open terminals. If it is zero,
connect the loop. Else inter change one terminal pair and see the loop voltage
zero. If not take another terminal pair until you get zero.

Yes, it absolutely can be done. This is done every day. The easiest example for
you to see is for you to drive around and look at utility poles that have 3
transformers hanging on them. These are distribution transformers. You will
likely find them near fast food restaurants and small shopping centers.
This is also done in the transmission system, although typically found in older
systems/equipment. Newer power transformers are generally one transformer
with all three phases isolated inside around a metal core, instead of 3 stand-
alone transformers.
The advantages are plentiful, but the basic, obvious ones are power availability
and capacity. You can get much more true power out of a 3–phase system than
a single phase source.
You can connect 3 single phase transformers, one in each phase, instead of
one 3 phase transformer. They will work just as fine.
But what is the advantage? A 3 phase transformer consumes far lesser
material than 3 single transformers. Space requirements are significantly
smaller, and costs are much lower. Connections also become little
cumbersome. Switchgear also increases.
Yes, three single phase transformer can connect in three seperate phase and
three phase output can take out. Advantage is three transformer no need
same rating. If three phase load is not balanced the one or two transformer
may larger size for extra single phase load. other way if any one transformer
transformer is out of order then others two can run for single phase load.
What is the voltage between neutral and earth in a 3phase system?
In a 3ph/3w system, there is no neutral, so the question is not applicable.
In a 3ph/4w system, the 4th wire (neutral) is the earthed star-point of the
distribution transformer.
Close to the source - the transformer - the voltage of the neutral should be
very near to zero.
If the load on the system is balanced 3ph, then there should never be any
neutral current, so the neutral voltage wrt earth remains at zero.
If there are unbalanced (single phase) loads, then the out-of-balance currents
need to flow through the neutral to get back to the transformer. The voltage of
the neutral will be the product of the vector sums of the neutral currents and
the resistance of the neutral wire. This voltage will tend to get larger as the
distance from the transformer increases.
The maximum neutral voltage permissible will depend on the standards of the
distribution company, but should never exceed a few volts in a 400/230v
domestic supply.

Why is neutral connected to earth?

As far as residential electrical systems in the USA, the neutral, the grounding
conductor (green or bare wire) and grounding electrode (ground rod) are all
connected in your service equipment. In the instance of a ground fault, the
grounding conductor carries current back to the neutral. From this point, ON
THE NEUTRAL, the fault current is able to return to the source (utility
transformer) just as it does in a normally-operating circuit. The high rate at
which current flows in a ground fault is what causes the breaker to trip.
I have seen a lot of answers claiming that the current from a ground fault is
carried on the grounding conductor to the ground rod, where it dissipates into
the earth. This is not true. Some of the current MAY travel through the ground
rod, through the earth, and onto the utility's grounding electrode for their
transformer, as this is a parallel path back to the neutral on the transformer,
but THIS IS NOT THE INTENTION OF THE GROUND ROD. NEC code reference
250.4 (A)(5) states that “The earth shall not be considered as an effective
ground-fault current path.”
Now none of that actually answers the question of why the neutral is
connected to the earth. Connecting the neutral and equipment grounding
conductors to the earth is done for several reasons. According to the NEC,
grounded electrical systems “shall be connected to the earth in a manner that
will limit the voltage imposed by lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact
with higher voltage lines, and will stabilize the voltage to earth during normal
operation.” Basically grounding your system creates a zero point of reference
for the system voltage, and protects your system from outside power sources,
like lightning, which actually does dissipate into the earth.
Three Phase Rectification
3-phase rectification is the process of converting a balanced 3-phase power
supply into a fixed DC supply using solid state diodes or thyristors
We saw in the previous tutorial that the process of converting an AC input
supply into a fixed DC supply is called Rectification with the most popular
circuits used to perform this rectification process is one that is based on solid-
state semiconductor diodes. In fact, rectification of alternating voltages is one
of the most popular applications of diodes, as diodes are inexpensive, small
and robust allowing us to create numerous types of rectifier circuits using
either individually connected diodes or with just a single integrated bridge
rectifier module.
Single phase supplies such as those in houses and offices are generally 120
Vrms or 240 Vrms phase-to-neutral, also called line-to-neutral (L-N), and
nominally of a fixed voltage and frequency producing an alternating voltage or
current in the form of a sinusoidal waveform being given the abbreviation of
“AC”.
Three-phase rectification, also known as poly-phase rectification circuits are
similar to the previous single-phase rectifiers, the difference this time is that
we are using three, single-phase supplies connected together that have been
produced by one single three-phase generator.
The advantage here is that 3-phase rectification circuits can be used to power
many industrial applications such as motor control or battery charging which
require higher power requirements than a single-phase rectifier circuit is able
to supply.
3-phase supplies take this idea one step further by combining together three
AC voltages of identical frequency and amplitude with each AC voltage being
called a “phase”. These three phases are 120 electrical degrees out-of-phase
from each other producing a phase sequence, or phase rotation of:
360o ÷ 3 = 120o as shown.
Three-phase Waveform
The advantage here is that a three-phase alternating current (AC) supply can
be used to provide electrical power directly to balanced loads and rectifiers.
Since a 3-phase supply has a fixed voltage and frequency it can be used by a
rectification circuit to produce a fixed voltage DC power which can then be
filtered resulting in an output DC voltage with less ripple compared to a single-
phase rectifying circuit.
Three-phase Rectification
Having seen that a 3-phase supply is just simply three single-phases combined
together, we can use this multi-phase property to create 3-phase rectifier
circuits.
As with single-phase rectification, three-phase rectification uses diodes,
thyristors, transistors, or converters to create half-wave, full-wave,
uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifier circuits transforming a given three-
phase supply into a constant DC output level. In most applications a three-
phase rectifier is supplied directly from the mains utility power grid or from a
three-phase transformer if different DC output level is required by the
connected load.
As with the previous single-phase rectifier, the most basic three-phase rectifier
circuit is that of an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier circuit which uses three
semiconductor diodes, one diode per phase as shown.
Half-wave Three-phase Rectification

So how does this three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit work. The anode of
each diode is connected to one phase of the voltage supply with the cathodes
of all three diodes connected together to the same positive point, effectively
creating a diode-“OR” type arrangement. This common point becomes the
positive (+) terminal for the load while the negative (-) terminal of the load is
connected to the neutral (N) of the supply.
Assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the red phase
(VA) starts at 0o. The first diode to conduct will be diode 1 (D1) as it will have a
more positive voltage at its anode than diodes D2 or D3. Thus diode D1 conducts
for the positive half-cycle of VA while D2 and D3 are in their reverse-biased
state. The neutral wire provides a return path for the load current back to the
supply.
120 electrical degrees later, diode 2 (D2) starts to conduct for the positive half-
cycle of VB (yellow phase). Now its anode becomes more positive than diodes
D1 and D3 which are both “OFF” because they are reversed-biased. Similarly,
120o later VC (blue phase) starts to increase turning “ON” diode 3 (D3) as its
anode becomes more positive, thus turning “OFF” diodes D1 and D2.
Then we can see that for three-phase rectification, whichever diode has a
more positive voltage at its anode compared to the other two diodes it will
automatically start to conduct, thereby giving a conduction pattern of:
D1 D2 D3 as shown.
Half-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform

From the above waveforms for a resistive load, we can see that for a half-wave
rectifier each diode passes current for one third of each cycle, with the output
waveform being three times the input frequency of the AC supply. Therefore
there are three voltage peaks in a given cycle, so by increasing the number of
phases from a single-phase to a three-phase supply, the rectification of the
supply is improved, that is the output DC voltage is smoother.
For a three-phase half-wave rectifier, the supply voltages VA VB and VC are
balanced but with a phase difference of 120o giving:
VA = VP*sin(ωt – 0o)
VB = VP*sin(ωt – 120o)
VC = VP*sin(ωt – 240o)
Thus the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a 3-phase
half-wave rectifier is given as:

As the voltage supplies peak voltage, VP is equal to VRMS*1.414, it follows that

VP is equal to VP/1.414 giving 0.707*VP, so the average DC output voltage of the
rectifier can be expressed in terms of the rms (root-mean-squared) phase
voltage giving:

3-phase Rectification Example No1

A half-wave 3-phase rectifier is constructed using three individual diodes and a
120VAC 3-phase star connected transformer. If it is required to power a
connected load with an impedance of 50Ω, Calculate, a) the average DC
voltage output to the load. b) the load current, c) the average current per
diode. Assume ideal diodes.
a). The average DC load voltage:
VDC = 1.17*Vrms = 1.17*120 = 140.4 volts
Note that if we were given the peak voltage (Vp) value, then:
VDC would equal 0.827*Vp or 0.827*169.68 = 140.4V.
b). The DC load current:
IL = VDC/RL = 140.4/50 = 2.81 amperes
c). The average current per diode:
ID = IL/3 = 2.81/3 = 0.94 amperes
One of the disadvantages of half-wave 3-phase rectification is that it requires a
4-wire supply, that is three phases plus a neutral (N) connection. Also the
average DC output voltage is low at a value represented by 0.827*V P as we
have seen. This is because the output ripple content is three times the input
frequency. But we can improve on these disadvantages by adding three more
diodes to the basic rectifier circuit creating a three-phase full-wave
uncontrolled bridge rectifier.
Full-wave Three-phase Rectification
The full-wave three-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes,
two per phase in a similar fashion to the single-phase bridge rectifier. A 3-
phase full-wave rectifier is obtained by using two half-wave rectifier circuits.
The advantage here is that the circuit produces a lower ripple output than the
previous half-wave 3-phase rectifier as it has a frequency of six times the input
AC waveform.
Also, the full-wave rectifier can be fed from a balanced 3–phase 3-wire delta
connected supply as no fourth neutral (N) wire is required. Consider the full-
wave 3-phase rectifier circuit below.
Full-wave Three-phase Rectification

As before, assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the

red phase (VA) starts at 0o. Each phase connects between a pair of diodes as
shown. One diode of the conducting pair powers the positive (+) side of load,
while the other diode powers the negative (-) side of load.
Diodes D1 D3 D2 and D4 form a bridge rectifier network between
phases A and B, similarly diodes D3 D5 D4 and D6 between phases B and C and
D5 D1 D6 and D2 between phases C and A.
Thus diodes D1 D3 and D5 feed the positive rail and depending on which one has
a more positive voltage at its anode terminal conducts. Likewise, diodes
D2 D4 and D6 feed the negative rail and whichever diode has a more negative
voltage at its cathode terminal conducts.
Then we can see that for three-phase rectification, the diodes conduct in
matching pairs giving a conduction pattern for the load current of: D 1-2 D1-6 D3-
6 D3-6 D3-4 D5-4 D5-2 and D1-2 as shown.
Full-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform
In 3-phase power rectifiers, conduction always occurs in the most positive
diode and the corresponding most negative diode. Thus as the three phases
rotate across the rectifier terminals, conduction is passed from diode to diode.
Then each diode conducts for 120o (one-third) in each supply cycle but as it
takes two diodes to conduct in pairs, each pair of diodes will conduct for only
60o (one-sixth) of a cycle at any one time as shown above.
Therefore we can correctly say that for a 3-phase rectifier being fed by “3”
transformer secondaries, each phase will be separated by 360o/3 thus
requiring 2*3 diodes. Note also that unlike the previous half-wave rectifier,
there is no common connection between the rectifiers input and output
terminals. Therefore it can be fed by a star connected or a delta connected
transformer supply.
So the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a 3-phase full-
wave rectifier is given as:

Where: VS is equal to (VL(PEAK) ÷ √3) and where VL(PEAK) is the maximum line-to-
line voltage (VL*1.414).
3-phase Rectification Example No2
A 3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier is required to fed a 150Ω resistive load
from a 3-phase 127 volt, 60Hz delta connected supply. Ignoring the voltage
drops across the diodes, calculate: 1. the DC output voltage of the rectifier and
2. the load current.
1. the DC output voltage:
The RMS (Root Mean Squared) line voltage is 127 volts. Therefore the line-to-
line peak voltage (VL-L(PEAK)) will be:

As the supply is 3-phase, the phase to neutral voltage (VP-N) of any phase will
be:

Note that this is basically the same as saying:

Thus the average DC output voltage from the 3-phase full-wave rectifier is
given as:
Again, we can reduce the maths a bit by correctly saying that for a given line-
to-line RMS voltage value, in our example 127 volts, the average DC output
voltage is:

2. the rectifiers load current.

The output from the rectifier is feeding a 150Ω resistive load. Then using Ohms
law the load current will be:

Uncontrolled 3-phase rectification uses diodes to provide an average output

voltage of a fixed value relative to the value of the input AC voltages. But to
vary the output voltage of the rectifier we need to replace the uncontrolled
diodes, either some or all of them, with thyristors to create what are called
half-controlled or fully-controlled bridge rectifiers.
Thyristors are three terminal semiconductor devices and when a suitable
trigger pulse is applied to the the thyristors gate terminal when its Anode–to-
Cathode terminal voltage is positive, the device will conduct and pass a load
current. So by delaying the timing of the trigger pulse, (firing angle) we can
delay the instant in time at which the thyristor would naturally switch “ON” if it
were a normal diode and the moment it starts to conduct when the trigger
pulse is applied.
Thus with a controlled 3-phase rectification which uses thyristors instead of
diodes, we can control the value of the average DC output voltage by
controlling the firing angle of the thyristor pairs and so the rectified output
voltage becomes a function of the firing angle, α.
Therefore the only difference to the formula used above for the average
output voltage of a 3-phase bridge rectifier is in the cosine angle, cos(α) of the
firing or triggering pulse. So if the firing angle is zero, (cos(0) = 1), the
controlled rectifier performs similar to the previous 3-phase uncontrolled
diode rectifier with the average output voltages being the same.
An example of a fully-controlled 3-phase bridge rectifier is given below:
Fully-controlled 3-phase Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Rectification Summary
We have seen in this tutorial that three-phase rectification is the process of
converting a 3-phase AC supply into a pulsating DC voltage as rectification
converts the input power supply of a sinusoidal voltage and frequency into a
fixed voltage DC power. Thus power rectification changes an alternating supply
into a unidirectional supply.
But we have also seen that 3-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers, which
use one diode per phase, require a star connected supply as a fourth neutral
(N) wire to close the circuit from load to source. The 3-phase full-wave bridge
rectifier which use two diodes per phase requires just three mains lines,
without neutral, such as that provided by a delta connected supply.
Another advantage of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that the load current is well
balanced across the bridge improving efficiency (the ratio of output DC power
to input power supplied) and reducing the ripple content, both in amplitude
and frequency, as compared to the half-wave configuration.
By increasing the number of phases and diodes within the bridge configuration
it is possible to obtain a higher average DC output voltage with less ripple
amplitude as for example, in 6-phase rectification each diode would conduct
for only one-sixth of a cycle. Also, multi-phase rectifiers produce a higher ripple
frequency means less capacitive filtering and a much smoother output voltage.
Thus 6, 12, 15 and even 24-phase uncontrolled rectifiers can be designed to
improve the ripple factor for various applications.
Full Wave Rectifier
Power Diodes can be connected together to form a full wave rectifier that
convert AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage for use in power supplies
In the previous Power Diodes tutorial we discussed ways of reducing the ripple
or voltage variations on a direct DC voltage by connecting smoothing
capacitors across
While this method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable
to applications which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One
method to improve on this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage
instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit which allows us to do this is called
a Full Wave Rectifier.
Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output
voltage or current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full
wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half wave
rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half
wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the
half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform.
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half
of the cycle. A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding
is split equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C).
This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode
terminal is positive with respect to the transformer centre point C producing
an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is
100% efficient as shown below.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a
single load resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to
the load. When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C,
diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to
point C, diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing
through resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output
voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms
combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-phase”
circuit.
We can see this affect quite clearly if we run the circuit in the Partsim
Simulator Circuit with the smoothing capacitor removed.
Partsim Simulation Waveform

As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being
filled in by the other diode the average DC output voltage across the load
resistor is now double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is
about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage, assuming no losses.

Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding
and VRMS is the rms value.
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-
wave rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the same
rms voltage value. To obtain a different DC voltage output different
transformer ratios can be used.
The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger
transformer for a given power output is required with two separate but
identical secondary windings making this type of full wave rectifying circuit
costly compared to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit equivalent.
The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full
wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This
type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in
a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single
secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and
the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle
of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are
reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
The Positive Half-cycle
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The
current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage

developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous
two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load
is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes
instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops
( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now
twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz
supply.)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge
rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in
a range of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into
a PCB circuit board or be connected by spade connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one
corner cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the
corner is the positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite
(diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The other two
connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a transformer
secondary winding.
The Smoothing Capacitor
We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier
produces an output wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use
this type of circuit to produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier
however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less
superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency
of the input supply frequency.
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time
reducing the AC variation of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors
to filter the output waveform. Smoothing or reservoir capacitors connected in
parallel with the load across the output of the full wave bridge rectifier circuit
increases the average DC output level even higher as the capacitor acts like a
storage device as shown below.
Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier
into a more smooth DC output voltage. If we now run the Partsim Simulator
Circuit with different values of smoothing capacitor installed, we can see the
effect it has on the rectified output waveform as shown.
5uF Smoothing Capacitor

The blue plot on the waveform shows the result of using a 5.0uF smoothing
capacitor across the rectifiers output. Previously the load voltage followed the
rectified output waveform down to zero volts. Here the 5uF capacitor is
charged to the peak voltage of the output DC pulse, but when it drops from its
peak voltage back down to zero volts, the capacitor can not discharge as
quickly due to the RC time constant of the circuit.
This results in the capacitor discharging down to about 3.6 volts, in this
example, maintaining the voltage across the load resistor until the capacitor
re-charges once again on the next positive slope of the DC pulse. In other
words, the capacitor only has time to discharge briefly before the next DC
pulse recharges it back up to the peak value. Thus, the DC voltage applied to
the load resistor drops only by a small amount. But we can improve this still by
increasing the value of the smoothing capacitor as shown.
50uF Smoothing Capacitor

Here we have increased the value of the smoothing capacitor ten-fold from
5uF to 50uF which has reduced the ripple increasing the minimum discharge
voltage from the previous 3.6 volts to 7.9 volts. However, using the Partsim
Simulator Circuit we have chosen a load of 1kΩ to obtain these values, but
as the load impedance decreases the load current increases causing the
capacitor to discharge more rapidly between charging pulses.
The effect of a supplying a heavy load with a single smoothing or reservoir
capacitor can be reduced by the use of a larger capacitor which stores more
energy and discharges less between charging pulses. Generally for DC power
supply circuits the smoothing capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that
has a capacitance value of 100uF or more with repeated DC voltage pulses
from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to peak voltage.
However, there are two important parameters to consider when choosing a
suitable smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must
be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance
Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed
on top of the DC voltage.
Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output
waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel
capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too large, the output
voltage will be almost as smooth as pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we
are looking to have a ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.
The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not
only determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency
and load current, and is calculated as:
Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or

twice the input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC
ripple value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor
than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency
of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for
the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz).
The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply
voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much
improved π-filter (pi-filter) to the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This
type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing capacitors, usually of the
same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce a high
impedance path to the alternating ripple component
Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-
terminal voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where “xx” stands for the
output voltage rating) for a positive output voltage or its inverse equivalent
the LM79xx for a negative output voltage which can reduce the ripple by more
than 70dB (Datasheet) while delivering a constant output current of over 1
amp.
Why not test your knowledge about full wave rectifier circuits using
the Partsim Simulator Tool today. Try different values of smoothing
capacitor and load resistance in your circuit to see the effects on the output
waveform.
In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the Zener Diode which takes
advantage of its reverse breakdown voltage characteristic to produce a
constant and fixed output voltage across itself.
How can I calculate the output voltage of a 3-phase rectifier?
A: Vdc= (3(root 3)/pi)Vm=1.654Vm
where Vm is the peak phase(phase-neutral) supply voltage.
Vdc= (3(root 3)/pi)Vp*(root 2)= 2.33909Vp
where Vp is the rms phase voltage i.e, Vm=root 2*Vp
Vdc=2.33909* Vll/(root3)= 1.3505Vll
This Vll is taken as Vp if each phase of secondary of transformer is delta
connected and For star connected secondary transformer winding Vp of each
winding=Vll/(root3))
Here’s a simpler introduction to single phase rectifiers which may help too:
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_6.html
3 Phase Rectifier
Definition: A 3 Phase rectifier is a device which rectifies the input AC
voltage with the use of 3 phase transformer and 3 diodes which are
connected to each of the three phases of transformer secondary winding.
Significance of 3 Phase Rectifier
A single phase rectifier also rectifies i.e. converts AC supply to DC supply but
uses only single phase of transformer secondary coil for the conversion. And
the diodes are connected to the secondary winding of single phase
transformer.
The drawback of this arrangement is high ripple factor. In case of half wave
rectifier the ripple factor is 1.21 and in case of full wave rectifier the ripple
factor is 0.482. In both the cases the value of ripple factor cannot be
neglected. While in case of half wave rectifier the value is quite large but in full
wave rectifier too the value of rectifier is significantly large.
Thus, in such types of arrangement we need smoothing circuit in order to
remove these ripples. These ripples are the AC components in the DC voltage.
This is called pulsating DC voltage. If this pulsating DC voltage is used in
several applications it lead to poor performance of the device. Thus, the
Smoothing circuit is used, filter works as a smoothing circuit for rectifier
system.
But after this smoothing process the rectifier voltage falls to zero at some
point. Therefore, if in place of single phase transformer we use three phase
transformer the ripple factor can be reduced up to a large extent. One of the
significant advantage of three phase transformer is that the rectified voltage
do not falls to zero even when no smoothing arrangement is used.
3 Phase Half Wave Rectifier
In three phase half wave rectifier, three diodes are connected to each of
the three phase of secondary winding of the transformer. The three phases of
secondary are connected in the form of star thus it is also called Star
Connected Secondary.

The anode terminal of the diode is connected to the secondary winding of the
transformer. And the three phases of the transformer is connected together at
a common point called neutral. This neutral point provides the negative
terminal to the load and is earthed.

Each diodes conducts for one third of the AC cycle and remaining two diodes
will remains open circuit. The ouput DC voltage will be between the peak value
of supply voltage and half of the supply voltage.
The ripple factor for 3 phase half wave rectifier is derived in the equations
below.
It is evident from the above calculations that the ripple factor for the 3 phase
half wave rectifier is 0.17 i.e. 17%. In single phase half have rectifier the value
of ripple factor is 1.21 and in case of single phase full wave rectifier it
is 0.482. Thus, it is evident that the value of ripple factor in 3 phase rectifier is
very less in comparison to single phase rectifier.
Moreover, the frequency of the ripples in three phase rectifier is very high.
Thus, due to this these ripples can be easily filtered. The ripple frequency in
case of three phase rectifiers is three times of the supply frequency. Due to
this smoothing process is very easy in case of three phase rectifier than that of
single phase rectifier.
3 Phase Full Wave Rectifier
In three phase full wave rectifier six diodes are used. It is also called 6-diode
half wave rectifier. In this each diode conducts for 1/6th part of the AC cycle.
The output DC voltage fluctuations are less in 3 phase full wave rectifiers. The
output voltage fluctuates between maximum value of peak voltage i.e Vsmax
and 86.6% of the maximum voltage.

The advantage of 3 phase full wave rectifiers is that the output voltage is
regulated and do not falls to zero. The output voltage is maintained
between 86.6% of the maximum voltage and the peak value of the voltage.
Thus, it appears regulated.

The main reason behind this low fluctuation in output voltage is the usage of
large number of diodes. It is appropriate to use 6 diodes. This is because if
more than 6 diodes are used the cost of the circuit increases. Moreover, the
circuit complexity increases and no significant increase in the regulation in the
output voltage will be there.
3 Phase Bridge Rectifier
The type of arrangement in bridge form is widely used because there is no
need of centre tap transformer in bridge rectifier. The advantage of using
bridge rectifier is that the load current Idc is 0.95 times of the peak current
flowing through the diode.
The Vdc is approximately 2.34 times of the rms value of AC voltage through the
secondary winding of transformer in 3 phase half eave rectifier. Each diode in 3
phase bridge rectifier carries only 1/3 of the current flowing though the load.
Thus, this type of bridge arrangement is more preferred in various applications
They are used to overcome the shortcomings of single-phase rectifier. We have
already discussed that single-phase rectifiers possess high ripple factor and
high fluctuation in DC output. In order to overcome this drawback, 3 phase
transformers came into existence.
BASIC QUESTIONS & ANSWERS about Transformers
1. What is a Transformer?
ANSWER: A transformer is an electrical apparatus designed to convert
alternating current from one voltage to another. It can be designed to "step
up" or "step down" voltages.
2. Is it Possible to Change Three Phase to Two Phase or Vice-Versa with
Standard Transformers?
ANSWER: Yes. This is a very practical application for standard single phase off-
the-shelf transformers. Some typical voltage combinations are as follows: 480
volts three phase to 240 volts two phase, or 240 volts three phase to 480 volts
two phase, or 240 volts three phase to 240 volts two phase. Please refer to us
for an exact schematic.
3. How Does a Transformer Work?
ANSWER: A transformer works on the magnetic induction principle. It has no
moving parts and is a completely static solid state device, which insures, under
normal operating con¬ditions, a long and trouble-free life. It consists, in its
simplest form, of two or more coils of insulated wire wound on a lami¬nated
steel core. When voltage is introduced to one coil, called the primary, it
magnetizes the iron core. A voltage is induced in the other coil, called the
secondary or output coil. The change of voltage (or voltage ratio) between the
primary and secondary depends on the turns ratio of the two coils.
4. What are Taps and When are They Used?
ANSWER: Taps are provided on some transformers on the high voltage winding
to correct for high or low voltage con¬ditions, and still deliver full rated output
voltages at the sec¬ondary terminals. Standard tap arrangements are at two
and one-half and five percent of the rated primary voltage for both high and
low voltage conditions. For example, if the trans¬former has a 480 volt primary
and the available line voltage is running at 504 volts, the primary should be
connected to the 5% tap above normal in order that the secondary voltage be
maintained at the proper rating.
5. What is the Difference Between "Insulating", "Isolating", and "Shielded
Winding" Transformers?
ANSWER: Insulating and Isolating transformers are identical. These terms are
used to describe the isolation of the primary and secondary windings, or
insulation between the two. A shielded winding transformer, on the other
hand, is designed with a metallic shield between the primary and secondary
windings, providing a safety factor by grounding, thus pre¬venting accidental
contact between windings under faulty con¬ditions. All two, three and four
winding transformers are of the insulating or isolating types. Only
autotransformers, which are a type whose primary and secondary are
connected to each other electrically, are not of the insulating or isolating
variety.
6. Can Transformers be Operated at Voltages other than Nameplate Voltages?
ANSWER: In some cases, transformers can be operated at voltages below the
nameplate rated voltage. In NO case should a transformer be operated at a
voltage in excess of its name- plate rating unless taps are provided for this
purpose. When operating below the rated voltage the KVA capacity is reduced
correspondingly. For example, if a 480 volt primary trans¬former with a 240
volt secondary is operated at 240 volts, the secondary voltage is reduced to
120 volts and if the trans¬former were originally rated 10 KVA, the reduced
rating would be 5 KVA, or in direct proportion to the applied voltage.
7. Can 50-Hz Transformers be Operated at 60 Hz & Vice versa ?
ANSWER: 50 Hz Transformers rated below 1 KVA can be utilized on 60 Hz
service. However - transformers of 1 KVA & Larger rated at 60 HZ should not
be used on 50 Hz service due to higher losses and resultant heat rise .
8. Can Transformers be Used in Parallel?
ANSWER: Single phase transformers can be used in parallel only when their
impedances and voltages are equal. If unequal voltages are used a circulating
current exists in the closed network between the two transformers which will
cause excess heating and result in a shorter life of the transformer. In addition,
impedance values of each transformer must be within > 7.5 % of each other.
For "example: Transformer A has an impedance 4%, transformer B which is to
be parallel to A must have an impedance between the limits of 3.7 % & 4.3%.
When paralleling three phase transformers the same precautions must be
observed as listed above, plus the angular displacement and phasing between
the two transformers must be identical. The resultant KVA when paralleling
two or more transformers is 2 times the nameplate KVA of the smallest
transformer in the parallel system.
9. Can 60 Hz Transformers be Used at Higher Frequencies?
ANSWER: Transformers can be used at fre¬quencies above 50 Hz up through
400 Hz with no limitations provided nameplate voltages are not exceeded.
However, 50 Hz transformers will have less voltage regulation at 400 Hz than at
50 Hz. Where better regulation and smaller physical size are required, contact
us for special 400 Hz designs.
10. What is Meant by Regulation in a Transformer?
ANSWER: Voltage regulation in transformers is the difference between the no
load voltage and the full load voltage. This is usually expressed in terms of
percentage. For example: A transformer delivers 100 volts at no load and the
voltage drops to 95_volts at full load, the regulation would be 5%. Our dry type
distribution transformers generally have regulation from 2% to 4%, depending
on the size and the application for which they are used.
11. What is Meant by Temperature Rise in a Transformer?
ANSWER: Temperature rise in a transformer is the temper¬ature of the
windings and insulation above the existing ambi¬ent or surrounding
temperature, and is determined by the insulation class used in the transformer
coils.
12. What is Meant by Insulation "Class"?
ANSWER: Insulation class was a popular way of referencing insulating materials
in their ability to sustain long life while operating at different temperatures.
Since it Is difficult and at times confusing to describe different insulations by
letter designations, such as A, E, B, F & H; it is better to describe insulation as
"insulation systems".
13. Is One Insulation System Better Than Another?
ANSWER: Not necessarily. For example: Small fractional KVA transformers use
the class 105°C insulation system, which is 55°C rise. The class 150°C insulation
system, which is 80° C rise, has generally been superseded by a class 185° C
insulation system, which is 115° C rise. Medium KVA size transformers,
approximately 371/2 KVA and larger, are generally manufactured using a 220°
C insulation system, which is 150° C rise. All of these insulation systems from
105° C through 220° C will normally have approximately the same number of
years operating life. A well designed transformer, observing these temperature
limits, should have a life expectancy of approximately 20-25 years.
14. Why Should Dry Type Transformers Never be Overloaded?
ANSWER: Overloading of a transformer results in excessive temperature. This
excessive temperature causes overheating which will result in rapid
deterioration of the insulation and cause complete failure of the transformer
coils.
15. Are Temperature Rise and Actual Surface Temperature Related?
ANSWER: No. This can be compared with an ordinary light bulb. The filament
temperature of a light bulb can exceed 2000 degrees, yet the surface
temperature of the bulb is low enough to permit touching with bare hands.
16. What is Meant by "Impedance" in Transformers?
ANSWER: Impedance is the current limiting characteristic of a transformer and
is expressed in percentage.
17. Why is Impedance Important?
ANSWER: It is used for determining the interrupting capacity of a circuit
breaker or fuse employed to protect the primary of a transformer.
18. Can Single Phase Transformers be Used for Three Phase Applications?
ANSWER: Yes. Three phase transformers are sometimes not readily available
whereas single phase transformers can gen¬erally be found in stock. Three
single phase transformers can be used in delta connected primary and wye or
delta connected secondary. They should never be connected wye pri¬mary to
wye secondary, since is will result in unstable Secondary voltages. The
equivalent three phase capacity when properly connected of three single
phase transformers is three times the nameplate rating of each single phase
transformer, or example: Three 10 KVA single phase transformers will
accommodate a 30 KVA three phase load.
19. WHAT is ZIG ZAG Grounding Transformer
ANSWER: Three Single Phase Transformers can be connected to have a three
phase Zig Zag Transformer. This system can be used for either grounding or
developing a fourth WIRE from a three phase neutral. An example would be to
change a 480 V — three phase — three wire system to a 480Y/277 V — three
phase — four wire system.
20. What Color are generally used for Dry Type Transformers?
ANSWER: Normally ligh gray is used on: Single phase 50 VA through 25 KVA
and on three phase 3 KVA through 15 KVA. Light gray is used with a pleasing
blue-gray on the side and top covers on — Single phase 37 ½ KVA through 250
KVA and three phase 20 KVA through 750 KVA.
21. How Do You Select a Transformer to Operate in an Ambient Higher Than
40° Centigrade?
ANSWER: If the 24 hour average ambient does not exceed 40° C, standard
transformers can be used. When the ambient exceeds 40° C use the following
chart for de-rating standard transformers.
Maximum Maximum
Ambient Percentage of
 Loading
40° C 100%
50° C 92%
60° C 85%
70° C 78%
Instead of ordering custom built transformers to operate in ambient higher
than 40° C, it is more economical to use a standard transformer of a larger KVA
rating.
22. Can Transformers be Reconnected as Autotransformers to Increase Their
KVA Rating?
ANSWER: Several of standard single phase transformers can be connected as
autotransformers. The KVA capacity will be greatly increased when used as an
Autotransformer, in comparison to the nameplate KVA as an insulating
transformer. Examples of autotransformer applications are changing 600 volts
to 480 volts in either single phase or three phase; changing 480 volts to 240
volts single three phase or vice versa; or the developing of a fourth vire
(neutral) from a 480 volt three phase three wire system or obtaining 277 volts
single phase. This voltage is normally used for operating fluorescent lamps or
similar devices requiring 277 volts.
23. What is Corona and How Does it Affect Dry Type Transformers?
ANSWER: Corona — a type of localized discharge resulting from transient
gaseous ionization in insulation sys¬tems when the voltage stress exceeds a
critical value." In a dry type transformer, part of the insulation system is air,
which is referred to in the definition as gas. If a transformer is not designed
properly and the insulation is overworked, it will result in the development of
ionization of the air which in turn causes deteriorating affects on the insulation
of the trans¬former. This will result in an extremely short life of the
trans¬former. Our transformers are designed so that they are corona-free even
at voltages considerably higher than recommended operating voltages. The
reason is, if a momen¬tary transient voltage occurs and causes corona
inception, the design of the transformer is such that the corona extinction
voltage level is appreciably higher than the operating voltage level; therefore,
corona will not be present during operation.
24. What is BIL and How Does it Apply to our Transformers ?
ANSWER: BIL is an abbreviation for Basic Impulse Level. Impulse tests are
dielectric tests that consist of the applica¬tion of a high frequency steep wave
front voltage between windings, and between windings and ground. The Basic
Impulse Level of a transformer is a method of expressing the voltage surge
(lightning, switching surges, etc.) that a trans¬former will tolerate without
breakdown. All transformers manufactured for 600 volts and below will
with¬stand BIL rating, which is 10 KV. This assures the user that he will not
experience breakdowns when his system is properly protected with lightning
arrestors or similar surge protection devices.
25. What is Polarity, When Associated With a Transformer?
ANSWER: Polarity is the instantaneous voltage obtained from the primary
winding in relation to the secondary winding. Transformers 600 volts and
below are normally connected in additive polarity — that is, the terminals of
the high voltage and low voltage windings on the left hand side are connected
together, This leaves one high voltage and one low voltage terminal
unconnected. When the trans¬former is excited, the resultant voltage
appearing across a voltmeter will be the sum of the high and low voltage
wind¬ings. This is useful when connecting single phase transform¬ers in
parallel for three phase operations. Polarity is a term used only with single
phase transformers.
26. What is Meant by Indoor or Outdoor Transformers?
ANSWER: Indoor transformers are ordinarily defined as trans¬formers suitable
for indoor operation only. Outdoor trans¬formers are intended for indoor or
outdoor operation. The transformers illustrated in this catalog may be used for
either indoor or outdoor operation. However, it is desirable to supply some
protection for the transformer such that it will be shielded from direct
exposure to rain, snow, or submersion in water.
27. Will a Transformer Change Three Phase to Single Phase?
ANSWER: A transformer will not act as a phase changing device when
attempting to change three phase to single phase. There is no way that a
transformer will take three phase in and deliver single phase out while at the
same time presenting a balanced load to the three phase supply system. There
are, however, circuits available to change three phase to two phase or vice
versa using standard dual wound trans¬formers.
28. Range of our Dry Type Transformers?
ANSWER: We manufactures the most complete line available of boost-buck
transformers for applications ranging from 80 to 520 volts single or three
phase.
Further complete engineering and manufacturing facili¬ties are available for
custom designed transformers — frac¬tional through 5000 KVA ratings, low
voltage through 15 KV. Some of the applications in which these custom built
trans¬formers are used are — instrumentation, telecommunications,
computer peripherals, rectifiers, reactors, oven and heating applications, and
various others to match the customer's exact specifications. These
transformers are available in vari¬ous temperature rise and insulation systems,
along with pos¬sible convection, forced air, water, or oil cooling as required by
the customer.
29. How Do You Size a Transformer for Operating a DC Motor?
ANSWER: There are no straight forward simple formulas which can be used in
sizing transformers to operate DC motors. However, the transformer size can
be calculated accurately when the circuit is known for rectifying the AC to DC
for operating the motor. There are a great variety of circuits now in common
use for changing AC to DC. One of the more common circuits is the three phase
full wave bridge circuit employing three SCR's and three diodes.
30. What is Meant by "Balanced Loading" on Single Phase Transformer
Applications?
ANSWER: Since most single phase transformers have a sec¬ondary voltage of
120/240, they will be operated as a three wire system. Care must be taken in
properly distributing the load as the transformer secondary consists of 2
separate 120 volt windings. Each 120 volt winding is rated at one-half the
nameplate KVA rating. For example: A 10 KVA transformer, 120/240 volt
secondary is to service an 8 KVA load at 240 volts and two 1 KVA loads at 120
volts each.
If the incorrect method is used, winding A will be loaded at 6 KVA, and winding
B will be loaded at 4 KVA. These do total 10 KVA but, since each winding is only
rated at 5 KVA (V2 of nameplate rating), we have an overloaded transformer
and a certain failure.
31. What About Balanced Loading on Three Phase?
ANSWER: Each phase of a three phase transformer must be considered as a
single phase transformer when determining loading. For example: A 45 KVA
three phase transformer with a 208Y/120 volt secondary is to service 4 loads at
120 volts single phase each. These loads are 10 KVA, 5 KVA, 8 KVA, and 4 KVA.
Note that maximum loading on any phase does not exceed 10 KVA. Each phase
has a 15 KVA capacity.

It should be noted that it is impossible to create a perfect current balance on a

3 phase supply when feeding a single phase load. Consequently there are
several different methods of producing a single phase output each of which
may be suitable for different circumstances.
Here are some of the possible methods:
1. Using one of the phases and a neutral wire in a 3-phase 4-wire system
By considering one of the phase wires and neutral wire and connecting them
to load, 1-phase supply can be obtained from 3-hase supply without any
conversion. In most of the cases, it doesn’t meet the load specifications hence
is not reliable. So practically we use other methods for this conversion.
2. By conversion of 3-phase AC supply to DC then to 1-phase
This is the most simplest method of getting a controlled single phase output
from a three phase supply. A 3 phase supply is converted to DC output using a
power electronic rectifier. The DC output of this rectifier can be controlled and
this DC is converted to a single phase supply using a single phase inverter.
3. Single Phase Transformer
By far the simplest method of obtaining a single phase output from a 3 phase
supply is to place a single phase transformer across two phases of a 3 phase
supply. The effect of this system is to pull the full rated current in two of the
supply lines and zero current in the third line. This is probably acceptable up to
a rating of about 5KVA on a 400V system (13Amps / 13Amps / 0Amps). Above
this level an alternative method may be required to achieve a better balance of
currents flowing in each of the three phases.
4. Open Delta Transformers
Above 5KVA the most common type of transformer used to supply a single
phase system from a 3 phase supply is the Open Delta Transformer. This is a
transformer built on the two outer legs of a three phase transformer core. The
primary coils are connected as per a standard 3 phase delta input but with the
“B” coil missing and the secondary coils are connected as a standard 3 phase
star output, again with the “B” coil missing.
The primary then draws the same current in two of the lines and the third line
carries twice this current. Compared to the 5KVA single phase system
mentioned above the currents will be 7.5Amps / 15Amps / 7.5Amps
The KVA rating of the transformer is equivalent to the KVA rating of the load

5. Scott T Transformers
This is another popular method of generating a single phase supply from a
three phase supply this time using two single phase transformers, The “Main
Transformer” and the “Teaser Transformer” The main transformer is
connected to 2 of the 3 supply lines of the 3 phase system. The teaser
transformer primary is connected between a centre tap on the primary of the
main transformer and the third supply line. Typical currents in the three lines
for the 5KVA load at 400V are 7.5Amps / 10.6Amps / 14.5Amps.
Scott T transformers can be used to supply two separate single phase loads or
the output of the transformers can be joined to supply one single phase load
The main transformer rating is equivalent to 90% of the load rating and the
teaser transformer about 70% giving a total of 160% of the load rating
6.Le-Blanc Transformers
The final 3 phase to single phase converter transformer is the Le-Blanc
transformer. The 5KVA 400V will have line currents of 3.9Amps / 10.6Amps /
14.5Amps

The transformer rating is equivalent to 120% of the load rating.

Scott T Transformers
This is another popular method of generating a single phase supply from a
three phase supply this time using two single phase transformers, The “Main
Transformer” and the “Teaser Transformer” The main transformer is
connected to 2 of the 3 supply lines of the 3 phase system. The teaser
transformer primary is connected between a centre tap on the primary of the
main transformer and the third supply line. Typical currents in the three lines
for the 5KVA load at 400V are 7.5Amps / 10.6Amps / 14.5Amps.
Scott T transformers can be used to supply two separate single phase loads or
the output of the transformers can be joined to supply one single phase load
The main transformer rating is equivalent to 90% of the load rating and the
teaser transformer about 70% giving a total of 160% of the load rating

Difference between Synchronous and Induction Motors

Earthing or Neutral Grounding Transformer

When a transformer is used for the purpose of providing a neutral point for
grounding purpose in a system where the neutral point of a three phase
system are not available or where the transformers or generators are delta
connected, that type of transformer is called Earthing or neutral grounding
transformer.

The Earthing or neutral grounding transformer may be two winding with a zig-
zag connected primary and a star connected secondary or a single winding
three phase auto-transformer with windings interconnected star or zig-zag.
Earthing transformer is a three limbed core type transformer having two
equally balanced windings on each core. One set of windings is connected in
stare to provide the neutral point. The others ends of this set of windings are
connected to the second set of windings as shown in figure.

The distribution of currents in the various windings of the earthing

transformer, under the single line to a ground fault condition on phase B, is
shown in fig. The Earth fault current flowing in the earth returns to the power
system by way of the earth star point of the earthing transformer. It gets
divided equally into all the three phases. It would be apparent from the figure
that the currents in the two windings of the same limb flow in opposite
directions. Consequently, the magnetic flux set up by the currents in the two
windings will neutralize each other. No chocking effect occurs to hamper the
flow of fault current.
Zig-Zag type earthing transformers are designed on the base of rated normal
current flows when a solid single line to ground fault is applied at transformer
terminals. It is common to select the current rating of the earthing transformer
equal to the full load current rating of the largest generator or transformer
unit. The KVA rating of a three phase earthing transformer is the product of
normal line to neutral voltage (KV ) and the neutral current in amperes that the
transformer is designed to carry under fault conditions for a specified time.
The two most common time intervals specified for the duration of the earth
fault current are 30 and 60 seconds. Unless the system conditions or protective
system applied warrant it is quite adequate to specify the rating for 30 seconds

only.
Electrostatic shield.
What is an electrostatic shield?
The electrostatic shield is simply a grounded single turn of conductive
nonferrous foil placed between coils to divert primary noise to ground. The
conductive foil completely enclosing the windings will provide a ground path
for primary circuit noise and has the advantage that a very much smaller
capacitance exists between primary and secondary coils than in the case of a
simple Faraday shield. The enclosing shield will not re-radiate the noise signal,
and will provide effective electromagnetic noise reduction. Typically, according
to Topaz at a distance of 18 inches from a transformer's geometric center, the
field strength will be less than 0.1 gauss, and will roughly follow inverse cube
laws.
Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used for power supplies
for sensitive equipment such as computers or laboratory instruments. An
isolation transformer is designed to address the problems associated with
referencing its internal shields to ground. It is constructed with two isolated
Faraday shields between the primary and secondary windings. The shield,
which is closest to the primary winding, is connected to the common power
supply ground and the shield closest to the secondary winding is connected to
the shield of the circuit to be isolated. The use of two shields in the
construction of the isolation transformer diverts high frequency noise, which
would normally be coupled across the transformer to the grounds of the circuit
in which they occur. The two shields provide more effective isolation of the
primary and secondary circuits by also isolating their grounds.
The isolation transformer adds a third capacitance between the two Faraday
shields, which may allow coupling of high frequency noise between the system
grounds. However, increasing the separation between the two Faraday shields
normally minimizes this third capacitance. Additionally, the dielectric effect of
the shields plus the increased separation of the windings significantly reduce
the inter-capacitance between the windings.
Since inter-winding capacitance is the primary path by which significant power
line and transient related noise couples to the system, more information is
needed to describe what occurs. During the time power is being transferred
between transformer windings, noise potentials between the primary circuits
and ground is similarly coupled to the secondary through both capacitive and
resistive paths. This noise appears in three forms normally in a transformer
circuit: common-mode, transverse mode, and electromagnetic.
Common - Mode Noise
This noise appears between both sides of a power line and ground. Since this
noise is referenced to the power system ground, the most obvious method of
eliminating this noise is by grounding the transformer center tap to the system
ground via the lowest impedance path possible. Internal transformer designs,
which separate the coils to reduce capacitive coupling, have some advantage,
but it also increases leakage inductance and reduces the power transfer.
Transverse - Mode
Transverse-mode noise is much more difficult to eliminate than common-mode
noise. The key here is to differentiate between power and noise, and then
reduce the noise. Noise and power are separated by the difference in their
frequencies. The most effective transformer would be a design exactly
opposite to a audio transformer. The purpose is to transfer the power required
by the load at the fundamental power frequency and to eliminate all higher
and lower frequencies. Sub-harmonic frequencies are attenuated by operating
the transformer at relatively high flux density, which is effective in reducing or
eliminating them. Above the fundamental frequency, noise is reduced by
introducing as much leakage inductance as possible, consistent with good
power transfer to the secondary.
Transverse-mode noise appears as a voltage across both the primary and
secondary windings of an isolation transformer. It occurs when a common-
mode noise signal causes current to flow in the primary winding (or secondary
winding), and from there to ground via capacitance to a grounded shield.
Common-mode noise can also be transformed into 'transverse-mode noise,
and thereby, through magnetic coupling, contaminate the secondary of an
isolation transformer. Normally, by the proper selection of core loss verses
primary winding inductance, a well-designed isolation transformer will
eliminate the majority of this type of noise. Here again, grounding the
transformer shield to the lowest impedance path available, will result in noise
currents using this return path rather than some other higher impedance path
to the noise source ground.
Electromagnetic Noise
Electromagnetic noise does not constitute a major problem in most
applications, but is sometimes critical in some recording or digital data
systems, and in making electromagnetic interference measurements.
Rack Level Applications
The most effective application of isolation transformers is with racks of
equipment. A rack acts as an outer shield for internal instruments, while
serving as the zero-signal reference for system output signals. Isolation
transformers are used to control shield currents, and to break up the mutual
capacitance between rack instrumentation and an unknown power ground.
The main benefit of using an isolation transformer with a rack of equipment is
the enhanced control of currents in the equipment shields. Any potential
differences between the utility power ground and the rack's ground will cause
currents to flow in the loop. The isolation transformer allows these "ground"
currents to be directed through a portion of the rack's shielding which will not
effect the operation of sensitive circuits and completely isolates these currents
from the internal equipment reference conductors.
Room Level Applications
It is often necessary to isolate EMC test enclosures from noisy building
grounds. Not only can isolation transformers be used to effectively decouple
building power, but also since they also act as tuned circuits; they reduce the
differential noise from external equipment, which reaches your screen room.
While it is recognized as a second isolation transformer inside the test room
will greatly reduce power line ambient, this section will only consider using
transformers on the power lines to a typical screen room. As with any
transformer, isolation transformers radiate magnetic fields. Physically locating
the transformer adjacent to, or connected to, a screen room may increase
rather than decrease ambient noise. Since the physical case of a transformer,
as well as the primary winding shield, are normally connected to the third-wire
power ground of the supplied power, the secondary winding shield must be
isolated from the transformer case and connected only to the conduit shield
going to the shielded room to achieve proper ground isolation. The conduit
acts as an RF shield for the room's power and completes the connection
between the shielded room and the secondary winding shield in the
transformer. If the transformer is three phase and supplies more than one
room, the best application for isolation between rooms is to use only one
phase for each room, with a limit of three rooms per transformer. With this
approach, power line filters will effectively isolate the room while providing
practical noise attenuation. Proper transformer design, wiring, and, above all,
grounding, are the only effective means of reducing the three types of noise
problems. Grounding should be controlled and use the lowest impedance path
possible (i.e., bonding) to the central reference ground system to insure
maximum attenuation of noise sources. To achieve the maximum protection
from a transformer, not only must it be applied properly, but also the
transformer should be one specially designed for isolation usage. The Shielded
three phase isolation transformers have all the feature of the standard 3 phase
plus they also incorporate a full metallic shield (usually copper or aluminum)
between the 3 phase primary and 3 phase secondary windings. This
electrostatic shield or Faraday Shield, is connected to earth ground and
performs two functions: Its attenuates (filters) voltage transients (voltage
spikes). These shielded 3 phase isolation transformers have an attenuation
ratio of 100 to 1. It filters common mode noise, Attenuation of approximately
30 decibels. The shield three phase isolation transformer is preferred over the
standard three phase isolation transformer because it provides protection to
sensitive and critical equipment. When more that one shielded 3 phase
isolation transformer is used between the source and the load, it is referred to
as a " cascading" and greatly improves power quality.

Glossary of Copper Fabrication Terms

Abrasive: Used in abrasive waterjet cutting, but also used for grinding,
polishing, super-finishing and more. The most common type of abrasive used
in waterjet cutting is garnet. Other options include emery, cubic boron nitride,
silicon carbide, and more[1].
Air Terminal (Lightning): Connects and supports a Lightning Rod. Designed to
provide protection to structures against physical damage from lightning
strikes[2].
Alloy: A substance with metallic properties made up of two or more elements,
where at least one of which is metal; partial or complete solid solution of
copper with one or more alloying elements such as zinc, tin, nickel aluminum
or silicon[3].
Alpha: The name of a phase or a certain range of copper alloys which contains
one or more alloying elements dissolved in copper, the phase being a
homogeneous, solid solution3.
Annealing: The process involving the heating and cooling of a metal to induce
softening, improve machinability, and reduce internal stresses; a form of heat
treating3.
Beta: The name of a second phase in the internal structure of certain copper
alloys, generally harder and less ductile than the alpha phase. The beta phase
renders the alloy more ductile when hot and less ductile when cold3.
Busbar: rigid, high conductivity copper electrical conductor or tubular or solid
section. Also spelled bus bar3.
C11000: A copper alloy for high current applications; electrolytic tough pitch
(ETP) copper, used in most electric current carrying applications. 99.9% pure
copper with 100% electrical conductivity. Conductivity, corrosion resistance
and ductility makes it very versatile; anneal resistant. Also written C110[4].
C114500: A copper alloy for high current applications. Also written C1454.
Cable Assemblies: cable harness, also known as a wire harness, cable assembly,
wiring assembly or wiring loom, is an assembly of cables or wires which
transmit signals or electrical power. The cables are bound together by straps,
cable ties, cable lacing, sleeves, electrical tape, conduit, a weave of extruded
string, or a combination thereof[5].
CDA: The Copper Development Association Inc. is the market development,
engineering and information services arm of the copper industry, chartered to
enhance and expand markets for copper and its alloys in North America.
Abbreviation for “Copper Development Association, Inc. is CDA.”3
Cold Cutting (Cold Working): The process of changing form or cross-section of a
piece of metal at a temperature below the softening or recrystallization point,
but commonly at or about room temperature. It includes rolling, drawing,
pressing and stretching.3
Cutting: The procedure of bringing a product to desired dimensions by such
operations as slitting, shearing, sawing, and blanking. As applied to surface
finishing--cutting through or removing the surface of a metal with a buffing
wheel and suitable abrasive compound usually coarser than that used for
buffing3.
Computer Numerical Control Machining: A process used in manufacturing that
involves the use of computers to control machine tools; lathes, mills, routers
and grinders CNC Machining is the process by which material is removed from
a piece of material with Computer Numerical Control (CNC) equipment that
cuts away unwanted material. Also known as CNC Machining[6].
CNC Manufacturing: CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way
parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required to set up
the machine to produce different components6.
Copper: A ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-
orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building
material, and a constituent of various metal alloys. Machining of copper is
possible, although it is usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts to
get good machinability characteristics. Also known as “The Red Metal”.[7]
Corrosion: Chemical or electrochemical deterioration of a metal or alloy3.
Ductility: The property of a metal that permits permanent deformation before
fracture by stress in tension3.
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM): A process occurring in water that uses
electricity to spark or discharge from an electrode to the material, with cutting
times measured in inches or fractions of inches per hour[8].
Electrical Contractor: is a business person or firm that performs specialized
construction work related to the design, installation, and maintenance of
electrical system[9].
Electrostatic fluidized bed coating; application uses the same fluidizing
technique and the conventional fluidized bed dip process but with much less
powder depth in the bed. An electrostatic charging medium is placed inside the
bed so that the powder material becomes charged as the fluidizing air lifts it
up. Charged particles of powder move upward and form a cloud of charged
powder above the fluid bed. When a grounded part is passed through the
charged cloud the particles will be attracted to its surface. The parts are not
preheated as they are for the conventional fluidized bed dip process. Also
known as powder coating[10].
Electroless nickel plating: An autocatalytic chemical technique used to deposit
a layer of nickel-phosphorus or nickel-boron alloy on a solid work piece, such
as metal or plastic[11].
Engineers: A professional practitioner of engineering; they design materials,
structures and systems while considering the limitations imposed by
practicality, regulation, safety and cost[12].
Fabrication: The building of metal structures by cutting, bending, fabricating
and assembling processes7.
Facilities Manager: A person who is in charge of maintaining the service level
implemented by a company and supervising employees in charge of
maintaining features associated with the facility12.
Flexible bonding: 2K power mix – polyurethane; Used in various high and low
voltage electric appliances to be used for flexible connectors or grounding;
conductive ratio high and anti-fatigue ability is strong[13].
Flexbraid: Flexible electrical copper braided connectors for high voltage and
ground strap applications. Also known as flexible bonding straps, flexible
bonding connectors, ground braids and braids13.
Galvanizing: The process of coating steel with zinc to create a surface that is
highly resistant to corrosion[14].
Ground Bar Kit: A thick copper bar with the associated insulators, steel
mounting brackets, bolts & lock washers in a single package. Ground bar kits
are used in telecom room and other installations to provide a central ground-
point for equipment. The ground bar kit provides a common grounding point
for connecting grounds from telecommunications equipment, computers, and
other data center equipment3.
HAAS Milling Machine: The first-ever, fully automatic, programmable collet
indexer – a device used to position parts for machining with very high
accuracy[15].
HSS (High-Strength Steels): A broad category of steel products commonly
having yield strength in excess of 40,000 psi14.
Insulator: Standoff electrical insulators provide a barrier where internal electric
charges do not flow freely, and which therefore does not conduct an electric
current, under the influence of an electric field. Made up of plastic or ceramic
materials, then UV coated, with mechanical connections. Storm Copper is one
of the largest distributors in the US of insulators used in grounding
applications[16].
Laminated busbar: (lamination) a multilayer conductor, which by means of
construction provides a flexible or ridged low inductance electrical
connection3.
Metric copper: Flat rolled copper bars in metric sizes14
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM): A company the makes products or
components that are purchased by another business and retailed under that
purchasing company’s brand name. OEM refers to the company that originally
manufactured a fully finished product[17].
Plating: A surface covering in which a metal is deposited on a conductive
surface. Typical plating options are Tin, Bright Tin, Matte Tin, Silver, Lead,
Nickel and Electroless nickel14.
Powder Coating: A type of coating that is applied as a free-flowing, dry powder;
does not require a solvent to keep the binder and filler parts in a liquid
suspension form. Also known in manufacturing applications as Electrostatic
fluidized bed7.
Punch: Generally the upper member of a tool set which cuts or forms the top
side a product; process of putting holes into a piece of sheet metal using a die
or punch, Also known as Punching8.
Punch press: A type of machine press used to cut holes in material. It can be
small and manually operated and hold one simple die set, or be very large, CNC
operated, with a multi-station turret and hold a much larger and complex die
set7.
RFQ = request for quote: A RFQ is issued when an organization wants to buy
something and chooses to make the specifications available to other
companies so they can submit competitive bids[18].
Shearing: The cutting action in a straight line to separate metal by two moving
blades; a machine with blades or rotary disks for cutting sheets, plates or bars
of metal[19].
Shunts: A device that allows electric current to pass around another point in
the circuit by creating a low resistance path[20].
Stainless Steel: Group of corrosion resisting steels containing a minimum 10%
chromium and in which varying amounts of nickel, molybdenum, titanium,
niobium as well as other elements may be present.; Also known as inbox steel,
is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass. Stainless
steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does.
It is also called corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) when the alloy type and grade
are not detailed, particularly in the aviation industry. Stainless steel is used
where both the properties of steel and resistance to corrosion are required7.
Storm Pro Store: An e-commerce environment where electrical contractors,
facility managers, tradesman and other power professionals can purchase
electrical component parts directly from manufactured by Storm Copper
Components, L.L.C.
Superalloys: Strong alloys that are incredibly tough to machine, many are
nickel-based metals8.
Water jet cutter: An industrial tool capable of cutting a wide variety of
materials using a very high-pressure jet of water, or a mixture of water and an
abrasive substance; preferred method when materials being cut are sensitive
to high temperatures generated by other methods8.
INSULATING MATERIAL USED IN TRANSFORMERS
Insulation is one of the most important qualities that a transformer has, which
is responsible for providing better performance when the transformer is
operated. In fact, the durability and stability of a transformer highly depend
upon the proper utilization of the insulation materials present within it. This
means that other than metallic components like silicon steel and copper, there
are also other important insulating materials used in power transformers for
better functioning. You must get in touch with a reliable transformer
manufacturer in India like Miracle Electronics so that you can rest assured that
the transformers you buy will be of top-class quality with the best materials,
both metallic and insulating, installed within. Now, let us take a look at the list
of insulating materials present in a transformer, along with their uses and
applications.
Insulating oil
Insulating oil is one of the most important components within a transformer
that acts as both an electrical insulator and coolant to dissipate heat losses.
This oil is seen in 11kV or higher voltage transformers, placed in the tank
where the transformer core is placed. It is not required in low voltage
transformers as the heat dissipation in such transformers is very low. Insulating
oil is obtained by fractional distillation and subsequent treatment of crude
petroleum.
Insulating paper
Insulating paper is made up of vegetable fibers that are felted together to form
a sheet. The fibers are obtained from plants like cotton, straw, hemp, manila,
and coniferous trees. When this insulating paper is put into the insulating oil
under vacuum, it attains extremely high electric strength.
Insulating tape
As the name itself says, insulating tape is used for various taping purposes.
These are available in a variety of forms like cotton tapes, woven tapes, glass
woven tapes, and phenol laminated paper base sheet. These tapes are used in
areas where high strength is required. They are also used for banding of
transformer cores.
Pressboard
Used in the electrical, mechanical, and thermal designing of transformers, the
pressboard is also made up of vegetable fibers that contain huge amounts of
cellulose. These pressboards can be moulded into any shape to be used in
transformers; the most commonly seen shapes being angle rings and caps.
Wood-based laminates
Wood-based laminates are made from selected veneers that are obtained
from various timbers. The veneers are first dried, and then are
partially/completely saturated naturally. Such laminates are used in areas that
require higher mechanical and lower electric strength. They are used in making
a variety of components like coil clamping rings, cores, yokes, and supports.
All these insulation materials used in transformers are based on their
temperature withstanding capacity. They are classified into classes A, B, C, E, F,
H, and Y. Let us understand all these classes in detail.
Class A materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 105°C.
These include cotton, silk, and paper for impregnation.
Class B materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 130°C.
These include glass fiber, mica, and asbestos with suitable impregnation or
coating substance.
Class C materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 180°C.
These include glass, mica, asbestos, porcelain, and quartz with or without an
inorganic binder.
Class E materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 120°C.
These include wire and enamel.
Class F materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 155°C.
These include glass, mica, and asbestos with suitable binding impregnation or
coating substances.
Class H materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 180°C.
These are a combination of materials like glass fiber, asbestos, and mica
suitable bonded together.
Class Y materials are those whose maximum hot spot temperature is 90°C.
These include cotton, silk, paper, and wood without impregnation.
Shielded Isolation Transformers with Single Electrostatic Shield
This is the simplest type of shielded transformer with one grounded shield
extending from top to bottom between the primary and secondary windings.
This will typically supply 60dB of common mode noise attenuation from 100Hz
through 1MHz. Up to 100dB of TMNA and 40dB at 1000kHz of CMNA can be
obtained with effective close coupling and low capacitance.
Shielded Isolation Transformer with Double Electrostatic Shields
This has two grounded shields extending top to bottom between the primary
and secondary windings and between the secondary windings and the core.
This will typically supply 60-80dB of common mode noise attenuation from
100Hz through 1MHz.
Shielded Isolation Transformer with Triple Electrostatic Shields
This has three grounded shields extending top to bottom between the primary
and secondary windings and between the secondary windings and core and
covering the outer winding. Little benefit is gained by having the third shield.
This will typically supply 65-80dB of common mode noise attenuation from
100Hz through 1MHz.
Transforming 3 Phase to 2 Phase
There are two main reasons for the need to transform from three phases to
two phases:
To give a supply to an existing two phase system from a three phase supply.
To supply two phase furnace transformers from a three phase source.
Two-phase systems can have 3-wire, 4-wire, or 5-wire circuits. It is needed to
be considering that a two-phase system is not 2/3 of a three-phase system.
Balanced three-wire, two-phase circuits have two phase wires, both carrying
approximately the same amount of current, with a neutral wire carrying 1.414
times the currents in the phase wires. The phase-to-neutral voltages are 90°
out of phase with each other.
Two phase 4-wire circuits are essentially just two ungrounded single-phase
circuits that are electrically 90° out of phase with each other. Two phase 5-wire
circuits have four phase wires plus a neutral; the four phase wires are 90° out
of phase with each other. Scott-T Connection – 2 and 3 phase wire connection
The easiest way to transform three-phase voltages into two-phase voltages is
with two conventional single-phase transformers. The first transformer is
connected phase-to-neutral on the primary (three-phase) side and the second
transformer is connected between the other two phases on the primary side.
The secondary windings of the two transformers are then connected to the
two-phase circuit. The phase-to-neutral primary voltage is 90° out of phase
with the phase-to-phase primary voltage, producing a two-phase voltage
across the secondary windings. This simple connection, called the T
connection, is shown in Figure
The main advantage of the T connection is that it uses transformers with
standard primary and secondary voltages.
The disadvantage of the T connection is that a balanced two-phase load still
produces unbalanced three-phase currents; i.e., the phase currents in the
three-phase system do not have equal magnitudes, their phase angles are not
120° apart, and there is a considerable amount of neutral current that must be
returned to the source.
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The Scott Connection of Transformer

A Scott-T transformer (also called a Scott connection) is a type of circuit used to
derive two-phase power from a three-phase source or vice-versa. The Scott
connection evenly distributes a balanced load between the phases of the
source.
Scott T Transformers require a three phase power input and provide two equal
single phase outputs called Main and Teaser. The Main and Teaser outputs are
90 degrees out of phase. The MAIN and the Teaser outputs must not be
connected in parallel or in series as it creates a vector current imbalance on
the primary side.
MAIN and Teaser outputs are on separate cores. An external jumper is also
required to connect the primary side of the MAIN and Teaser sections.
The schematic of a typical Scott T Transformer is shown below:
Typical Scott T Transformer schematic diagram
Scott T Transformer is built with two single phase transformers of equal power
rating. The MAIN and Teaser sections can be enclosed in a floor mount
enclosure with MAIN on the bottom and Teaser on top with a connecting
jumper cable. They can also be placed side by side in separate enclosures.
Assuming the desired voltage is the same on the two and three phase sides,
the Scott-T transformer connection consists of a center-tapped 1:1 ratio main
transformer, T1, and an 86.6% (0.5√3) ratio teaser transformer, T2. The center-
tapped side of T1 is connected between two of the phases on the three-phase
side. Its center tap then connects to one end of the lower turn count side of
T2, the other end connects to the remaining phase.
The other side of the transformers then connects directly to the two pairs of a
two-phase four-wire system. Scott-T connection convert 3-phase to 2-phase
The Scott-T transformer connection may be also used in a back to back T to T
arrangement for a three-phase to 3 phase connection. This is a cost saving in
the smaller kVA transformers due to the 2 coil T connected to a secondary 2
coil T in-lieu of the traditional three-coil primary to three-coil secondary
transformer. In this arrangement the Neutral tap is part way up on the
secondary teaser transformer .
The voltage stability of this T to T arrangement as compared to the traditional
3 coil primary to three-coil secondary transformer is questioned.

Key Points //
If the main transformer has a turn’s ratio of 1: 1, then the teaser transformer
requires a turn’s ratio of 0.866: 1 for balanced operation.
The principle of operation of the Scott connection can be most easily seen by
first applying a current to the teaser secondary windings, and then applying a
current to the main secondary winding, calculating the primary currents
separately and superimposing the results.

Load connected between phaseY1 and phase Y2 of the secondary:

Secondary current from the teaser winding into phase X1 = 1.0 < 90°
Secondary current from the teaser winding into phase X2 = -1.0 < 90°
Primary current from H3 phase into the teaser winding = 1.1547 < 90°
Primary current from H2 phase into the main winding = 0.5774 < 90°
Primary current from H1 phase into the main winding = -0.5774 < 90°
The reason that the primary current from H3 phase into the teaser winding is
1.1547 due to 0.866: 1 turn’s ratio of the teaser, transforming 1/0.866= 1.1547
times the secondary current. This current must split in half at the center tap of
the main primary winding because both halves of the main primary winding
are wound on the same core and the total ampere-turns of the main winding
must equal zero.

Load connected between phase X2 and phase X1 of the secondary:

Secondary current from the main winding into phase X2 =1.0 < 0°
Secondary current from the main winding into phase X4 = -1.0 < 0°
Primary current from H2 phase into the main winding = 1.0 < 0°
Primary current from H1 phase into the main winding = – 1.0 < 0°
Primary current from H3 phase into the teaser winding = 0
Superimpose the two sets of primary currents:
I H3 = 1.1547 < 90° + 0 = 1.1547 < 90°
I H2 = 0.5774 < 90° + 1.0 < 0° = 1.1547 < 30°
I H1 = 0.5774 < 90°+ 1.0 < 0° = 1.1547 < 210°
Notice that the primary three-phase currents are balanced; i.e., the phase
currents have the same magnitude and their phase angles are 120° apart. The
apparent power supplied by the main transformer is greater than the apparent
power supplied by the teaser transformer.
This is easily verified by observing that the primary currents in both
transformers have the same magnitude; however, the primary voltage of the
teaser transformer is only 86.6% as great as the primary voltage of the main
transformer.
Therefore, the teaser transforms only 86.6% of the apparent power
transformed by the main.
We also observe that while the total real power delivered to the two phase
load is equal to the total real power supplied from the three-phase system, the
total apparent power transformed by both transformers is greater than the
total apparent power delivered to the two-phase load.
The apparent power transformed by the teaser is 0.866 X IH1= 1.0 and the
apparent power transformed by the main is 1.0X IH2 =1.1547 for a total of
2.1547 of apparent power transformed.
The additional 0.1547 per unit of apparent power is due to parasitic reactive
power owing between the two halves of the primary winding in the main
transformer.
Single-phase transformers used in the Scott connection are specialty items that
are virtually impossible to buy ‘‘off the shelf ’’ nowadays. In an emergency,
standard distribution transformers can be used.

Advantages of the Scott T Connection //

If desired, a three phase, two phase, or single phase load may be supplied
simultaneously. The neutral points can be available for grounding or loading
purposes

Disadvantages when used for 3 Phase Loading //

This type of asymmetrical connection (3 phases, 2 coils), reconstructs three
phases from 2 windings. This can cause unequal voltage drops in the windings,
resulting in potentially unbalanced voltages to be applied to the load.
The transformation ratio of the coils and the voltage obtained may be slightly
unbalanced due to manufacturing variances of the interconnected coils.
This design’s neutral has to be solidly grounded. If it is not grounded solidly,
the secondary voltages could become unstable. Since this design will have a
low impedance, special care will have to be taken on the primary protection
fault current capacity. This could be an issue if the system was designed for a
Delta-Star connection.
The inherent single phase construction and characteristics of this connection
produces a comparatively bulky and heavier transformer when compared with
a normal three phase transformer of the same rating.

Application
Main application is for For Industrial Furnace Transformer.
For Traction Purpose:
The power is obtained from the 220 kV or 132 kV or 110 kV or 66 kV, three-
phase, effectively earthed transmission network of the State Electricity Board,
through single-phase transformers or Scott connected transformer installed at
the Traction Substation.
The primary winding of the single-phase transformer is connected to two
phases of the transmission network or where Scott-connected transformer is
used, the primary windings are connected to the three phases of the
transmission network.
The single-phase transformers at a Traction Substation are connected to the
same two phases of the transmission network (referred as single-phase
connection), or alternatively to different pairs of phases- the three single phase
transformers forming a delta-connection on the primary side.[/info_b0x]
Out of three single-phase transformers, one transformer feeds the overhead
equipment (OHE) on one side of the Traction Substation, another feeds the
OHE on the other side of the Traction Substation, and the third remains as
standby. Thus the two single-phase transformers which feed the OHE
constitute an open-delta connection (alternatively, referred as V-connection)
on the three-phase transformers network.
The Scott-connected transformer and V-connected single-phase transformers
are effective in reducing voltage imbalance on the transmission network. The
spacing between adjacent substations is normally between 70 and 100 km.

Form Factor
Definition: The ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an
alternating quantity (current or voltage) is called Form Factor. The average of
all the instantaneous values of current and voltage over one complete cycle is
known as the average value of the alternating quantities.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:

Ir.m.s and Er.m.s are the roots mean square values of the current and the voltage
respectively, and Iav and Eav are the average values of the alternating current
and the voltage respectively.
For the current varying sinusoidally, the Form Factor is given as:

The value of Form Factor is 1.11

There is a relation between the peak value, the average value, and the root
means square (R.M.S) value of an alternating quantity. Therefore, to express
the relationship between all these three quantities, the two factors are used,
namely as Peak Factor and Form Factor.
The Form Factor for the various sinusoidal waveforms are as follows:
For a sine wave, it is π/2√2 = 1.11072073
For a half-wave rectified sine wave, it is π/2 = 1.5707963
For a full-wave rectified sine wave, it is π/2√2 = 1.11072073
For a square wave, it is equal to 1
For triangle waveform, it is 2/√3 = 1.15470054
For sawtooth waveform, it is 2/√3 = 1.15470054
This is all about the form factor.

How is Root Mean Square (RMS) Relevant to AC?

In the two circuits above, we have the same amount of load resistance (2 Ω)
dissipating the same amount of power in the form of heat (50 watts), one
powered by AC and the other by DC. Because the AC voltage source pictured
above is equivalent (in terms of power delivered to a load) to a 10 volt DC
battery, we would call this a “10 volt” AC source.
More specifically, we would denote its voltage value as being 10 volts RMS.
The qualifier “RMS” stands for Root Mean Square, the algorithm used to
obtain the DC equivalent value from points on a graph (essentially, the
procedure consists of squaring all the positive and negative points on a
waveform graph, averaging those squared values, then taking the square root
of that average to obtain the final answer).
Sometimes the alternative terms equivalent or DC equivalent are used
instead of “RMS,” but the quantity and principle are both the same.
RMS amplitude measurement is the best way to relate AC quantities to DC
quantities, or other AC quantities of differing waveform shapes, when dealing
with measurements of electric power.
For other considerations, peak or peak-to-peak measurements may be the best
to employ. For instance, when determining the proper size of wire (ampacity)
to conduct electric power from a source to a load, RMS current measurement
is the best to use, because the principal concern with current is overheating of
the wire, which is a function of power dissipation caused by current through
the resistance of the wire.
However, when rating insulators for service in high-voltage AC applications,
peak voltage measurements are the most appropriate, because the principal
concern here is insulator “flashover” caused by brief spikes of voltage,
irrespective of time.
Instruments Used to Measure the Amplitude of a Waveform
Peak and peak-to-peak measurements are best performed with an
oscilloscope, which can capture the crests of the waveform with a high degree
of accuracy due to the fast action of the cathode-ray-tube in response to
changes in voltage. For RMS measurements, analog meter movements
(D’Arsonval, Weston, iron vane, electrodynamometer) will work so long as they
have been calibrated in RMS figures.
Because the mechanical inertia and dampening effects of an electromechanical
meter movement makes the deflection of the needle naturally proportional to
the average value of the AC, not the true RMS value, analog meters must be
specifically calibrated (or mis-calibrated, depending on how you look at it) to
indicate voltage or current in RMS units.
The accuracy of this calibration depends on an assumed waveshape, usually a
sine wave.
Electronic meters specifically designed for RMS measurement are best for the
task. Some instrument manufacturers have designed ingenious methods for
determining the RMS value of any waveform. One such manufacturer produces
“True-RMS” meters with a tiny resistive heating element powered by a voltage
proportional to that being measured.
The heating effect of that resistance element is measured thermally to give a
true RMS value with no mathematical calculations whatsoever, just the laws of
physics in action in fulfillment of the definition of RMS. The accuracy of this
type of RMS measurement is independent of waveshape.
Relationship of Peak, Peak-to-Peak, Average, and RMS
For “pure” waveforms, simple conversion coefficients exist for equating Peak,
Peak-to-Peak, Average (practical, not algebraic), and RMS measurements to
one another:

Conversion factors for common waveforms.

In addition to RMS, average, peak (crest), and peak-to-peak measures of an AC

waveform, there are ratios expressing the proportionality between some of
these fundamental measurements. The crest factor of an AC waveform, for
instance, is the ratio of its peak (crest) value divided by its RMS value.
The form factor of an AC waveform is the ratio of its RMS value divided by its
average value. Square-shaped waveforms always have crest and form factors
equal to 1, since the peak is the same as the RMS and average values.
Sinusoidal waveforms have an RMS value of 0.707 (the reciprocal of the square
root of 2) and a form factor of 1.11 (0.707/0.636).
Triangle- and sawtooth-shaped waveforms have RMS values of 0.577 (the
reciprocal of square root of 3) and form factors of 1.15 (0.577/0.5).
Bear in mind that the conversion constants shown here for peak, RMS, and
average amplitudes of sine waves, square waves, and triangle waves hold true
only for pure forms of these waveshapes. The RMS and average values of
distorted waveshapes are not related by the same ratios: Figure below

Arbitrary waveforms have no simple conversions.

This is a very important concept to understand when using an analog

D’Arsonval meter movement to measure AC voltage or current. An analog
D’Arsonval movement, calibrated to indicate sine-wave RMS amplitude, will
only be accurate when measuring pure sine waves.
If the waveform of the voltage or current being measured is anything but a
pure sine wave, the indication given by the meter will not be the true RMS
value of the waveform, because the degree of needle deflection in an analog
D’Arsonval meter movement is proportional to the average value of the
waveform, not the RMS.
RMS meter calibration is obtained by “skewing” the span of the meter so that
it displays a small multiple of the average value, which will be equal to be the
RMS value for a particular waveshape and a particular waveshape only.
Since the sine-wave shape is most common in electrical measurements, it is
the waveshape assumed for analog meter calibration, and the small multiple
used in the calibration of the meter is 1.1107 (the form factor: 0.707/0.636:
the ratio of RMS divided by average for a sinusoidal waveform).
Any waveshape other than a pure sine wave will have a different ratio of RMS
and average values, and thus a meter calibrated for sine-wave voltage or
current will not indicate true RMS when reading a non-sinusoidal wave. Bear in
mind that this limitation applies only to simple, analog AC meters not
employing “True-RMS” technology.

REVIEW:
The amplitude of an AC waveform is its height as depicted on a graph over
time. An amplitude measurement can take the form of peak, peak-to-peak,
average, or RMS quantity.
Peak amplitude is the height of an AC waveform as measured from the zero
mark to the highest positive or lowest negative point on a graph. Also known
as the crest amplitude of a wave.
Peak-to-peak amplitude is the total height of an AC waveform as measured
from maximum positive to maximum negative peaks on a graph. Often
abbreviated as “P-P”.
Average amplitude is the mathematical “mean” of all a waveform’s points
over the period of one cycle. Technically, the average amplitude of any
waveform with equal-area portions above and below the “zero” line on a
graph is zero. However, as a practical measure of amplitude, a waveform’s
average value is often calculated as the mathematical mean of all the
points’ absolute values (taking all the negative values and considering them
as positive). For a sine wave, the average value so calculated is approximately
0.637 of its peak value.
“RMS” stands for Root Mean Square, and is a way of expressing an AC
quantity of voltage or current in terms functionally equivalent to DC. For
example, 10 volts AC RMS is the amount of voltage that would produce the
same amount of heat dissipation across a resistor of given value as a 10 volt DC
power supply. Also known as the “equivalent” or “DC equivalent” value of an
AC voltage or current. For a sine wave, the RMS value is approximately 0.707
of its peak value.
The crest factor of an AC waveform is the ratio of its peak (crest) to its RMS
value.
The form factor of an AC waveform is the ratio of its RMS value to its average
value.
Analog, electromechanical meter movements respond proportionally to
the average value of an AC voltage or current. When RMS indication is
desired, the meter’s calibration must be “skewed” accordingly. This means that
the accuracy of an electromechanical meter’s RMS indication is dependent on
the purity of the waveform: whether it is the exact same waveshape as the
waveform used in calibrating.
The crest factor is the ratio between the value of the peak current or
voltage(IM or UM) and its r.m.s. value.
E.m.f Equation of Transformer

Suppose , N1 = No. of turns of primary coil &

N2 = No. of turns of secondary coil of a transformer.
Φm = Maximum flux in core ( webers)
= Bm x A
f= frequency of alternating current in Hz
From the figure , it has been seen that the flux Φ increases from its zero value
to maximum value Φm in one quarter of the cycle i.e in 1/4 f second

=4 f Φm Wb/s or volt
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f in volts.
∴ average e.m.f/ turn = 4 f Φm volt
If the magnitude of flux Φ varies sinusoidally, then the r.m.s value of induced
e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average value with from factor.

∴ r.m.s value of e.m.f./turn = 1.11 x 4fΦm = 4.44 fΦm volt

Now, r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the primary winding
∴ E1 = (induced e.m.f/turn) x No. of primary turns
∴ E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 (As Φm = Bm x A )
∴ E1 = 4.44 f N1Bm A .....................(i)
Similarly, r.m.s value of the e.m.f. induced in secondary is,
∴ E2 = (induced e.m.f/turn) x No. of Secondary turns
= 4.44 f Φm N2 (As Φm = Bm x A )
⇒ E2 = 4.44 f N2 Bm A .....................(ii)
It is seen from equation (i) and (ii) that E1 / N1 = E2 / N2 = 4.44 f Φm .
from the above equation it is seen that the e.m.f/ turn is the same in both
primary and secondary windings.
.
Cast-Resin Dry-Type Transformers -Characteristics
Moisture Proof In cast-resin dry-type transformers, the
complete encapsulation of primary and
secondary winding in epoxy resin
prevents penetration of moisture into
windings. The cast resin offers very
good protection against adverse
ambient conditions. These transformers
can work without disruption of service
at 100% humidity.
Immediate Switch on Due to the high grade insulation
material, coils are non-hygroscopes &
the transformer can be switched on
directly without pre-drying even after a
long period of service interruption.
Impulse Strength Contrary to the conventional dry type
transformers the cast coil transformers
are better in respect of impulse voltage
withstand strength.
Short Circuit Strength Higher dynamic short circuit withstand
 strength as compared to oil immersed
and conventional dry type transformers
because of fibre glass reinforced epoxy
encapsulation.
Free of partial No partial discharges can occur during
discharge's operation.
Resistant against The insulation material used is glass
temperature fibre reinforced with epoxy resin of
Fluctuation class 'F' which can withstand wide
temperature variation.
Hardly inflammable Due to high quality insulation material
and self-extinguishing the transformer is practically non-
inflammable by an electrical arc, special
fire protection measures are not
required.
No Maintenance Due to encapsulation of coils with cast
Required resin the coils dimensions are stable &
no coil tightening is required to
maintain the short circuit strength. Also
no check of oil level and electrical
insulation/oil is required. This leads to
saving in cost on account of
maintenance.
No leakage or As cast resin transformers are solidly
Pilferage of Oil cast, problem associated with oil filled
transformers like oil leakage and
pilferage of oil is completely avoided.
Saving in Space These transformers are generally
smaller in dimensions and lesser in
weights. The construction and
installation cost for the sub-station can
be reduced by adopting dry type
transformers.
Saving in Civil work Without fire or danger of explosion, it is
cost and LT cables possible to place the transformers near
to the load centre. Also, these
transformers do not need construction
of special fibre brick walls or oil pits,
which reduces the overall civil works.
 Additionally, since LT cables are not
required, thers is also saving in cost on
account of expensive cable laying
works.
Eco-friendly Since no oil is used in these
transformers, there are no chances of
contamination of ground water due to
oil leakage.