Properties of Matter

CO1 Physical Properties

Chemistry - can be observed and measured without changing

the composition of a substance
- the study of matter and the changes it undergoes
o color
CO1 L1: MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES o state of matter
o melting point
Matter o boiling point
o density
- anything that occupies space and has mass
o viscosity (how easily does the liquid flow)
States of Matter o electrical conductivity

- state is an easily observed property of matter Chemical Properties

- the states of matter are:
- describes the potential of a substance to undergo a
o solid
chemical change or reaction by virtue of its
▪ has definite shape and volume
composition
▪ the particles are tightly packed
o flammability
together
o heat of combustion
▪ incompressible
o toxicity
▪ high density
o radioactivity (emission of radiation)
o liquid
o chemical stability
▪ no definite shape but has definite
o half-life (time for half of the amt. to decay)
volume
▪ the particles are close with one Intensive Properties
another but not as close as those
in solid - independent on the amount of substance being
▪ almost incompressible measured
▪ medium density o boiling point
o gas o melting point
▪ takes the shape of its container o freezing point
▪ the particles are far away from
Extensive Properties
each other
▪ highly compressible - dependent on the amount of substance being
▪ low density measured
o mass
Particulate Nature of Matter
o volume
- Kinetic Molecular Theory o length
1. All matter consists of extremely minute o height
particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) that o width
are in constant motion
Changes in Matter
2. There are forces of attraction between
particles that allow them to form structures Physical Changes
or more past one another
- changes in the physical properties of a substance
3. There are net forces of attraction between
- the identity of a substance is preserved even though
particles in all states – generally small
it may have changed its physical state or the size,
forces in gases and large forces in liquids
shape, mass, or volume of the substance itself
and solids
- does not form a new substance by virtue of its
4. The forces between particles have a
chemical composition
significant role in determining the
- substance is still composed of the same particles
properties of matter
before and after the change
5. Increasing temperature corresponds to
faster motions of atoms and molecules
Chemical Changes o solvent
▪ component present in larger
- two or more substances (reactants) are transformed
amount
into one or more completely different substances
▪ dissolves the solute
(products)
- soluble
- chemical equation
o when a solid solute completely dissolves in
o used to represent chemical change
a solvent
AB + CD –> AC + BD
- insoluble
- each substance has their own chemical property
o when a solid does not dissolve in a solvent
that indicates whether and sometimes how readily a
material undergoes a chemical change with another Heterogenous Mixture
material
- suspension
Classification of Matter o mixtures where one substance is suspended
in another but not evenly distributed
- pure substance
- colloids
o compound
o mixtures where one substance is dispersed
▪ substances that are composed of
evenly throughout another substance
two or more different elements
held together by chemical bonds Types of Colloids
o organic
o inorganic TYPE DISPERSING MEDIUM DISPERSED PHASE
Aerosol Gas Liquid
o element
Aerosol Gas Solid
▪ simplest form of pure substance
Foam Liquid Gas
▪ composed of only one type of
Foam Solid Gas
atom
Emulsion Liquid Liquid
▪ in the periodic table, there are 118
Gel Soli Liquid
known elements
Sol Liquid or Solid Solid
o metal
o metalloid
o non-metal Properties of Colloids
- mixture
PROPERTY DEFINITION
o homogenous mixture
Tyndall Effect scattering of light by a colloidal dispersion
▪ only one visibly distinct phase
Brownian characteristic movement in which the
▪ the phase has the same properties
Movement particles change speed and direction
throughout
erratically
o solution Electrical colloidal particles have uniform electrical
o heterogeneous mixture Properties charges which accounts to the stability of
▪ two or more visibly distinct phases colloidal systems
▪ each phase has different Stability and refers to the tendency of the colloidal
properties Unstability system to remain a solution and the
o suspensions tendency of the colloid to be coagulated
o colloids by heating or addition of an electrolyte
Adsorptive colloidal particles are very good in
Mixture Property attracting and holding particles of other
substances because of their large surface
- physical combination of two or more substances
area
- variable composition
- properties vary as composition varies
- components can be separated using physical means Methods of Separating Mixtures

Homogenous Mixture (Solution) 1. Evaporation

• the process by which water and other
- consists of two components
liquids changes from a liquid state to vapor
o solute
or a gas state
▪ component present in lesser
amount
 • great for separating a homogenous mixture Units of Measurement
or solution of a soluble liquid and a solvent
Seven SI Base Units
• the process involves heating of the solution
until the solvent evaporates leaving behind MEASURED PROPERTY NAME OF UNIT ABB.
the solid residue Mass Kilogram kg
2. Crystallization Length Meter m
• a technique used for the purification of Time Second s
substances Temperature Kelvin K
• used to separate solids from a solution Amount of Substance Mole mol
• also involves heat Electric Current Ampere A
3. Decantation Luminous Intensity Candela cd
• the process of separation of liquid from
solid and other immiscible liquids Selected Prefixes Used in the Metric System
• done by removing the liquid layer at the top
from the layer of solid or liquid below PREFIX ABB. NOTATION MEANING
4. Filtration Giga- G 109 billion
• a common method of separating an Mega- M 106 million
insoluble solid from a liquid Kilo- k 103 thousand
• example: sand and water deci- d 10−1 tenth
• used in water treatment plants, where centi- c 10−2 one hundredth
milli- m 10−3 one thousandth
water from the river is filtered to remove
micro- µ 10−6 one millionth
solid particles
nano- n 10−9 one billionth
5. Distillation
pico- p 10−12 one trillionth
• refers to the selective boiling and
femto- f 10−15 quadrillionth
subsequent condensation of a component
in a liquid mixture
• used to either increase the concentration of Measurement
a particular component in the mixture or to
- Precision
obtain almost pure components from the
o refers to how close the measurements in a
mixture
series are to each other
6. Sublimation
- Accuracy
• used for the separation of solid-to-solid
o refers to how close each measurement is to
mixtures where one of the components
the actual value
sublimes (converts from solid state to
gaseous state without forming liquid) upon CO1 L3: SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
heating, leaving behind the other
components that are non-sublimable Fixed Notation

CO1 L2: MEASUREMENTS - used to express relatively small or large

measurements
Two Types of Observations
Scientific Notation
- Qualitative
o observations like changes in color or the - also known as exponential notation
evolution of heat - used to express very large or very small
- Quantitative measurements
o Observations like temperature, time, N x 10𝑛
volume, mass, length, or size o n = exponential term (any integer)
o N = digit term (between 1 to 9.9999…)
SI
Conversion of Regular Form and Scientific Notation
- the scientific community's chosen modified version
of the metric system to record and report - the exponent n is positive if the number is greater
measurements than 1 and negative if less than 1
- Le System International d'Unites - the decimal point moves to the right if the number is
- The International System of Units (abb: SI) positive and to the left if negative
Steps in Writing Scientific Notation CO1 L4: BASIC QUANTITIES IN CHEMISTRY

1. Move the decimal point of the number until there is Temperature

only one non-zero digit to the left of the decimal
- measurement of how hot or cold a material is
point that is less than 10
- three temperature scales used in scientific work
2. Count the number of places you moved the decimal
o Celsius (°C)
point
▪ by Anders Celsius
3. If you moved the decimal to the left, the exponent
▪ size of the scale = 0°C – 100°C
of 10 will be positive. If to the right, it will be
o Fahrenheit (°F)
negative
▪ by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
4. Write your scientific notation as N x 10𝑏
▪ 0°C = 32°F
Significant Figures o Kelvin (K)
▪ first used by William Thomson,
- express how precise the measuring tool used is known as Lord Kelvin (1824 - 1907)
- in general, in a number representing a scientific ▪ lowest temperature is at 0K,
measurement, the last digit ot the right is taken to known as absolute zero
be inexact
- all nonzero digits (1-9) are always considered Formulas for Conversion
significant
- Celsius to Fahrenheit
o 777 = 3 sig fig.s
o 5.234 = 4 sig fig.s 9
o F = °C * + 32
5
When are zeroes significant?
- Fahrenheit to Celsius
- Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant
o 780,001 = 6 sig fig.s 5
o C = (°F - 32) *
o 1,000,568 = 7 sig fig.s 9

- Zeroes to the right of a nonzero number

- Celsius to Kelvin
o 0.00300 = 3 sig fig.s
o 0.0105000 = 6 sig fig.s o T (K) = T(°C) + 273.15
- Zeroes to the right of a decimal place
o 1,000,523.00 = 9 sig fig.s

When are zeroes not significant? Length, Volume, and Mass

- Zeroes that are placeholders are not significant - Length

- Zeroes that occur before the first nonzero digit o measurements are often reported in units
o 0.0059 = 2 sig fig.s of centimeters (cm), millimeters (mm), or
o 0.01050 = 4 sig fig.s micrometers (µm)
- Trailing zeroes are also not significant if there is no o objects on the atomic and molecular scale
decimal point after or before these zeroes have dimensions of nanometers (nm) or
o 9,000 = 1 sig fig. picometers (pm)
o 99,000 = 2 sig fig.s - Volume
o measurements are often reported in units
Using Significant Figures in Calculations of Liter (L) or milliliter (mL)
- Addition or Subtraction - Mass
o the number of decimal places in the final o measurements are often reported in units
answer is equal to the given value with the of kilogram (Kg), grams (g), or milligrams
least number of decimal places (mg)
▪ 89.332 + 1.1 = 1 sig fig after Converting Units of Measurement
decimal point
- Multiplication or Division - in converting, place the given unit of measurement
o the number of significant figures in the final below the needed unit to cancel out the unit from
answer is equal to the given value with the the given
least number of significant figures - 1 kg = 2.2 lbs
▪ 4.51 x 3.6666 = 3 sig fig.s - 1 in = 2.54 cm
Energy - Water Displacement Method
o the density of the object is determined by
- measurements are often reported in joule (J),
the ratio of its measured mass to its
Kilojoule (KJ), or calorie (cal)
displaced volume
- Calorie
o is usually used to determine the density of
o the amount of heat energy required to raise
irregular-shaped objects
the temperature of 1.00- g material 1°C
o the dietary calorie (Cal) is often used in the 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
o Density =
United States to represent the energy 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉2 ) − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉1 )

content of foods
o 1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J) CO2
o 1 dietary calorie (Cal) = 1 kilocalorie (kcal)
o 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1,000 calories (cal) CO2 L1: ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

CO1 L5: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS The Search for Primal Matter

Dimensional Analysis Atomism

- the idea that things are made up of much smaller

- is used because some problems require a specific
things that cannot be changed nor divided
unit for the final answer even though the given
(Democritus and Leucippus)
values are in different units - the word "atom" comes from the Greek word
- a general problem-solving approach that uses the "atomos" (ατομοσ) and means "indivisible"
dimensions or units of each value to guide through
calculations Dalton's Atomic Theory (1808)

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
- Number in Original Unit * = new number called atoms.
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having
the same size, mass and chemical properties. The
Density Measurement atoms of one element are different from the atoms
of all other elements.
Density 3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than
one element. In any compound, the ratio of the
- one physical property useful for identifying
numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
substances present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
- the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume 4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does
- Density = not result in their creation or destruction.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Fundamental Laws of Matter

Solving for Density
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
- Geometric Method − Matter cannot be created nor destroyed, it
o the density of an object is determined by can only change forms
the ratio of its measured mass to its 2. Law of Definite Proportions
computed volume − the proportion of elements in any
o is usually used to determine the density of compound is always the same
regular-shaped objects − was established by Joseph Proust that
supports the atomic theory
o the computed volume is based on the
3. Law of Multiple Proportions
shape of the object and is calculated using
− if two elements combine to form different
geometric formulas for that shape
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 compounds, the ratio of masses of the
o Density = second element that react with a fixed
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
mass of the first element will be a simple
whole numbered ratio
Subatomic Particles Atomic Structure

1. Joseph John Thomson The Structure of an Atom

• Cathode Ray Tube Experiment
• Plum Pudding Model - an atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all
• Cathode rays consisted of negatively of the chemical properties of an element
charged elements
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
• Positive charges spread over the entire
sphere
• Charge / Mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
2. Robert Millikan - Atomic Number (Z)
• Oil-Drop Experiment o number of protons in the nucleus
• determined the actual charge of electrons o atomic number = number of protons
which is 1.592𝑥10−19 coulomb
- Mass Number (A)
• won the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physics
o mass number = electrons
• e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g
o number of protons + number of neutrons
3. Ernest Rutherford
o atomic number + number of neutrons
• Gold-Foil Experiment
• Nuclear Model - Isotopes
• atoms positive charge is concentrated in o atomic mass of an element = average mass
the nucleus of atoms
• proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of o atoms of the same element (X) with
electron (-) different numbers of neutrons in their
• mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 nuclei
g) o atoms with the same atomic number but
• Conclusions different mass numbers
i. atoms must be mostly space o scientists often refer to a particular isotope
ii. atoms must have a very small, by giving its mass number
dense area of + charge o for hydrogen, its isotopes are so important
iii. protons have same charge as e-, that they have special names and symbols
mass of proton > mass of electron
4. James Chadwick
• Experiment (1932)
o
• Won the 1935 Noble Prize in Physics
• Proves that neutrons have neutral charge
5. Neil Bohr's Model
• Planetary Model 1913
• Nucleus is surrounded by orbiting electrons
The Modern Periodic Table
at different energy levels
• Electrons have definite orbits
• The lowest allowable energy state of an
atom is called its ground state
• When an atom gains energy, it is in an
"excited state"
• Bohr suggested that an electron moves
around the nucleus only in certain allowed
circular orbits
6. Erwin Schrodinger and Werner Heisenberg
• Quantum Mechanical Model 1926
• electrons are in probability zones called
"orbitals", not orbits and the location
cannot be pinpointed
• electrons are particles and waves at the
same time
Molecule
• developed quantum numbers based on
theories of Einstein and Planck - an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces
Diatomic Molecule - electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its
wavelength and frequency
- contains only two atoms

Polyatomic Molecule

- contains more than two atoms

Ions

- an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or

negative charge
- types Nature of Waves
o cation
Wave
▪ ion with a positive charge
▪ if a neutral atom loses one or more - can be thought of as a vibrating disturbance by
electrons, it becomes a cation which energy is transmitted
o anion
▪ ion with a negative charge Wavelength (λ)
▪ if a neutral atom gains one or more
- lambda
electrons, it becomes an anion
- the distance between identical points on successive
o monoatomic ion
waves
▪ contains only one atom
- or defined as the distance between a given point on
o polyatomic ion
a wave and the corresponding point in the next cycle
▪ contains more than one atom
of a wave
CO2 L2: QUANTUM NUMBERS
Frequency (v)
Quantum Mechanical Model
- nu
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck - the number of waves that pass through a particular
point in 1 second
- by German Physicist - the number of waves = number of cycles
- 1858 - 1947 - units is hertz (Hz) or cycles = s-1
- received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918 for his - 1 Hz = 1 s-1
quantum theory
- made significant contributions in thermodynamics Amplitude
and other areas of Physics
- the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to
- discovered that atoms and molecules emit energy
the peak or trough
only in discrete quantities or quanta
- height of the wave
- gave the name "quantum" to the smallest quantity
- measure of how intense the light is
of energy that can be emitted (or absorbed) in the
o the larger the amplitude, the brighter the
form of electromagnetic radiation
light
- energy E of a single quantum of energy is given by:
o E = hv The Relationship between Wavelength and Frequency
▪ h = Planck's constant
- for waves traveling at the same speed, the shorter
= 6.63 * 10−34 J * s
the wavelength, the more frequently they pass.
▪ v = frequency of radiation
- since the speed of light is constant, if we know
=c/λ
𝑐 wavelength we can find the frequency, and visa
o E=h
𝜆 versa.
Wave Functions

Electromagnetic Radiation The Electromagnetic Spectrum

- by James Clerk Maxwell
- a mathematical theory used to describe light and
other forms of radiation in terms of oscillating, or
wavelike, electric and magnetic fields
Electromagnetic Spectrum Quantum Numbers

- visible light comprises only a small fraction of all the Energy Level
wavelengths of light
- the number is called the principal quantum number
- short wavelength = high frequency
(n) and it indicates the relative size and energy of
- short wavelength light has high energy
atomic orbitals
o radio wave light has the lowest energy
o n specifies the atom's major energy levels,
o gamma ray light has the highest energy
called the principal energy levels
- high energy electromagnetic radiation can
- energy sublevels are contained within the principal
potentially damage biological molecules
energy levels
Quantum Mechanical Model
Sublevels
1. Albert Einstein PRINCIPLE ALLOWED # OF # OF # OF
• proposed that the light energy was QUANTUM # SUBLEVELS SUBLEVELS ORBITALS ELECTRONS

delivered to the atoms in packets called 1 s 1 1 2

quanta or photons 2 s, p 2 4 8
• photoelectric effect 3 s, p, d 3 9 18
4 s, p, d, f 4 16 32
▪ a phenomenon in which electrons
n - n n² 2n²
are ejected from the surface of
certain metals exposed to light of
at least a certain minimum - s sublevel
frequency, called the threshold
o ℓ=0
frequency
o all s orbitals are spherical and their size
2. Louis Victor Pierre de Broglie
increases with increasing principal quantum
• 1891 - 1977
number
• The Dual Nature of Electrons
- p sublevel
• He proposed that matter and radiation
o ℓ=1
have the properties of both wave and
o three p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped and
particle
are oriented along the three perpendicular
• de Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize in
x, y, and z axes
Physics in 1929
- d sublevel
3. Werner Heisenberg
o ℓ=2
• 1901 – 1976 o four of the five d orbitals have the same
• The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle shape but lie in different planes
▪ it is impossible to know o the 𝑑𝑧 2 has its own unique shape
simultaneously both the - f sublevel
momentum and the position of a o ℓ=3
particle with certainty o shape formed by the orbitals looks like a
4. Erwin Schrodinger flower
• 1887 – 1961
• Austrian Physicist Orbitals
• developed a number of fundamental results
- the space occupied by a pair of electrons
in the field of quantum theory, which
- each orbital can hold one pair of electrons
formed the basis of wave mechanics
- describe regions in space where the electron is more
• developed a model for electrons in atoms
likely to be found
that has come to be called quantum o s=1
mechanics o p=3
• Schrodinger's Wave Equation o d=5
▪ describes both the particle and o f=7
wave nature of e-
▪ describes
1. energy of e- with given 𝚿
2. probability of finding e- in
a volume of space
Quantum Numbers Aufbau's Principles

- the solution to Schrodinger's equation for an - German word "Aufbau" means "building up"
electron in three-dimensional spaces, which - Electrons in an atom are assigned to shells (n) and
depends on these integers subshells (n and ℓ) in order of increasingly higher
o n – principal quantum number
energy
o ℓ - angular momentum quantum number
- The maximum number of electrons for an energy
o 𝑚ℓ - magnetic quantum number
level is found by using the equation 2n²
o 𝑚𝑠 – spin quantum number
o n = an energy level, 1-7
Principal Quantum Numbers (n)

- Energy and distance of 𝑒 − from the nucleus

Angular Quantum Numbers (ℓ)

- also known as azimuthal quantum number

- orbitals of a given electron shell are grouped into
subshells, where each subshell is characterized by a
different value of quantum numbers
Pauli's Exclusion Principle
- defines the characteristics and shape of an orbital
- different ℓ values correspond to different orbital - Wolfgang Pauli
shape o 1900-1958
o Austrian Physicist
VALUE OF ℓ SUBSHELL LEVEL SHAPE - no more than two electrons can be assigned to the
0 s sphere same orbital, and, if there are two electrons in the
1 p dumbbell same orbital, they must have opposite spins
2 d cloverleaf - this means that "s" has 2 electrons, "p" has 6, "d" has
3 f 3d flower 10, and "f" has 14
- different direction of spins:
Magnetic Quantum Numbers (𝑚ℓ ) Hund's Rule of Multiplicity
- the orientation in space of the orbitals within a - Paramagnetism
subshell o elements and compounds that have
- for a given set of quantum numbers, each principal unpaired electrons are attached to a
shell contains a fixed number of subshells, and each magnet
subshell contains a fixed number of orbitals - Diamagnetism
SUBSHELL LABEL 𝒎𝓵 o substances in which all electrons are paired
ℓ
experience a slight repulsion when
S 0 0
subjected to a magnetic field
P 1 -1 , 0 , 1
▪ two electrons of each pair having
D 2 -2 , -1 , 0, 1 , 2
opposite spins
f 3 -3 , -2 , -1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3

Spin Quantum Numbers (𝑚𝑠 )

- when an electrically charged object spins, it CO2 L3: PERIODIC TABLE

produces a magnetic moment parallel to the axis of
rotation and behaves like a magnet Periodic Table
- for any electron, ms can have only two possible
- a systematic catalog of elements
values, designated + (up) and – (down), indicating
- elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
that the two orientations are opposite
number
- as of 2018, the modern periodic table has 118
elements officially recognized by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
Development of the Periodic Table Rules in Writing Electron Configuration

1. 1829 1. Aufbau Principle

− Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner arranged the 2. Pauli's Exclusion Principle
elements with similar properties into a 3. Hund's Rule Multiplicity
group of three called "triads"
Electronic Configuration
2. 1862
− Alexandre-Emile Beguyer de Chancourtois - order in which subshells are filled with electrons
organized the chemical elements in order - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
of increasing atomic weights 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10
3. 1864
− John Alexander Reina Newlands Shorthand Configuration
− "Law of Octaves" – every eight element - valence electrons only
showed similar properties when arranged in - noble gases
increasing atomic masses - ex: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 –> [Ne] 3s2 3p4
4. 1868 - atoms lose electrons so that cations has a noble-gas
− Lothar Meyer arranged the elements by outer electron configuration
their valency - atoms gain electrons so that anions have a noble-gas
5. 1869 outer electron configuration
− Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements
by atomic mass Ions
6. 1869
- if the atom lose those electrons to become a (+)
− Henry Mosely arranged the table in charge ion
increasing atomic number - if the atom gain those electrons to become a (-)
Parts of Periodic Table charge ion
- cation and anion classification
- Rows
o rows on the periodic table chart are called
periods
- Columns
o are called groups
o elements in the same group have similar
chemical properties
CO2 L3: PERIODIC TRENDS
GROUP GROUP NAME
1A Alkali Metals Periodic Trends
2A Alkaline Earth Metals
3A Boron Group - atomic properties follow a trend across a period and
4A Carbon Group down a group
5A Nitrogen Group - elements in periodic table tend to have their own
6A Oxygen Group unique qualities based on their sub-atomic particles
7A Halogens - periodic trends to consider:
8A Noble Gases o atomic radius / ionic radius
▪ atomic radius
▪ ionic radius
CO2 L4: ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
o ionization energy
Electron Configuration o electron affinity
o electronegativity
- how the electrons are distributed among the various
atomic orbitals in an atom Atomic Radius

- average distance between the nucleus and the

-
valence electron
Ionic Radius - smallest identifiable unit that can be divided and still
retain the composition and chemical properties of
- size of an atom when it is an ionic particle
the substance
o cation is smaller than the parent atom
- types of molecules
o anion is bigger than the parent atom
o diatomic molecules
- the valence shell of metal becomes empty when it
▪ contains only two atoms
loses an electron, resulting in a smaller cationic size
▪ ex: H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
- when a nonmetal accepts an electron which results
o polyatomic molecules
to increasing atomic radius
▪ contains more than two atoms
Electronegativity ▪ O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

- ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract Ions

electrons toward itself
- an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or
o Elements at the upper right-hand side of
negative charge
the periodic table have high
- Cation
electronegativity
o ion with a positive charge
o Elements at the lower left have low
o a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
electronegativity value
- Anion
o Example: F > O > N
o ion with a negative charge
Electron Affinity o a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
- Monoatomic Ion
- energy is released when a neutral atom gains an o contains only one atom
electron. o monoatomic cations
- electron affinity is defined as exothermic (−), but ▪ metals can lose electron to form
may actually be endothermic (+). positively charge ions
- the more energy that is released, the larger the o monoatomic anions
electron affinity. ▪ nonmetals can gain electron to
- the more negative the number, the larger the EA. form negatively charger ions
- Polyatomic Ions
Ionization Energy
o made up of two or more atoms and
- it is the energy required to remove an electron from collection has an electric charge
an atom in the gas phase.
Chemical Formula and Naming Compounds
- this energy breaks the attraction between nucleus
and valence electron. Chemical Formula
- the higher the energy needed, the harder it is to pull
the electron away. - a shorthand way of writing the name of a compound
- composed of the symbol of the elements and the
Periodic Trends number of atoms of each element present in the
compound
- molecular formula
o shows the exact number of atoms of each
element in the smallest unit of a substance
o ex: H2O , C6H12O6 , O3
- empirical formula
o shows the simplest whole-number ratio of
the atoms in a substance
o ex: H2O , CH2O , O

CO2 L6: CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE

Molecules

- a particle of a substance which may contain two or

more atoms bonded together by a chemical force
(bond)
Writing Chemical Formula Acids and Bases

1. Write down the ions which will combine to form a Acid

compound.
- defined as a substance that yields hydrogen ions
• Start with the cation, then the anion. The
(H+) when dissolved in water
charge of an ion is always written as a
superscript in the chemical formula.
2. Crisscross the charges of the ions.
• The interchanged numbers will be the
subscript of the elements in the formula.
The subscript 1 is not written in the
formula.
3. Polyatomic ions behave as a unit.
• When there are multiple numbers of an
individual polyatomic ion, parentheses are Oxoacid
used to separate the polyatomic ion from
the subscript that indicates how many of - an acid that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and
the ions are in the formula. another element
4. The formula must be written in simplest form. Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions
• Simplify it by dividing the subscript by any
common multiple.

Naming Chemical Compounds

Chemical Nomenclature

- Ionic compounds
o Metal + nonmetal
o Metal name + Non-metal root word + "-ide"
- Transition Metal Ionic Compounds
o Cation with two or more charges
o In classical name, the charge of metal ion is
with Roman Numerals
- Molecular Compounds
o Nonmetals or Nonmetals+Metalloids
o if more than one compound can be formed
from the same elements, use prefixes to
indicate the number of each kind of atom
o last element name ends in -ide
o the prefix "mono" is not used in the first
element if it contains 1 atom only
o name
▪ prefix + nonmetal Base
▪ prefix + nonmetal root word + -ide
- defined as a substance that yields hydroxide ions
(OH-) when dissolved in water

CO3

CO3 L1: LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

Forces of Attraction

1. intramolecular forces
• forces that hold atoms together in
molecules
 ▪ ionic bond Valence Electron
▪ covalent bond
- the outer shell electrons of an atom
▪ metallic bond
2. Intermolecular forces GROUP e- CONFIGURATION # OF VALENCE e-
• forces that exist between molecules 1A ns1 1
• hydrogen bonding 2A ns2 2
• london dispersing forces 3A ns2 np1 3
• dipole-dipole movement 4A ns2 np2 4
5A ns2 np3 5
Intramolecular Forces 6A ns2 np4 6
- ionic bonding 7A ns2 np5 7
- n = the principal quantum number (energy level)
o forms when one or more electrons from an
atom’s outermost shell is transferred from Lewis Structure
one atom to another, creating positive and
negative ions - electrons are distributed in Lewis structure as:
o electron transfer o shared or bond pairs
- covalent bonding o unshared or lone pairs
o involves sharing of electrons from each
Chemical Bonding
atom’s outermost shell (valence electrons)
between atoms - the force that holds atoms together in a compound
o electron sharing - two types of chemical compounds
- metallic bonding o ionic
o electron pooling and metallic bonding o covalent
o described as metals in their uncharged - when atoms interact to form a chemical bond either
elemental states by transferring or sharing of electrons, only the
o electron pooling electrons in the valence shell are involved
- the octet rule and formal charges need to be
Lewis Structure
satisfied in a chemical bonding
- by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1902 o octet rule
- electron-dot representation that helps us describe ▪ states that when atoms of
the bonding of atoms elements combine to form
- show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and compounds, they tend to lose,
the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the gain, or share electrons to achieve
molecule the same electron arrangement as
o atoms combine in order to achieve a more the noble gas nearest them in the
stable electron configuration periodic table (8 electrons)
o this maximum stability is attained when an o exceptions for octet rule
atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas 1) Hydrogen (it follows the duet rule)
▪ exception: Helium 2) Helium (it does not form bonds
o the noble gases have eight outer electrons because it is already “full” with its
or an octet of electrons. two electrons)
3) Incomplete octets
Lewis Dot Symbol 4) Odd – electron molecules
5) The expanded rule
- consists of the symbol of the element and one dot
for each valence electron in the atom of the element Ionic Bond
- valence electrons of the atom can also be
determined in its respective groups - the bond that forms between a metal and a
nonmetal ion
- it involves a transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom to another
- steps
I. Provide the Lewis Structure of the atoms
II. Metal ions donate an electron to nonmetals
which needs to attain the octet rule
 III. If the nonmetal’s electron is not enough to Molecular Shape
form an octet rule, two atoms of metal is
- also known as molecular geometry
needed to supply the enough electrons.
- describes the three-dimensional arrangement of
▪ To complete octet rule, if the
atoms within a molecule or polyatomic ion
metal still have an electron to
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Model
donate. Metal atom will need two
(VSEPR)
non metal atoms to supply two
▪ suggests that electron pairs around an
electrons
atom assume an arrangement in space that
Covalent Bond reduces the repulsion between them.
▪ predicts the geometry of the molecule from
- the bond that forms between two atoms by
the electrostatic repulsions between the
nonmetal elements.
electron (bonding and nonbonding) pairs.
- sharing of electrons in order to attain the octet rule
▪ model is applied to a central atom with two,
- types
three, and four electron pairs surrounding it
• single bond as follows:
▪ two atoms share one pair of ▪ 2 electron pairs
electrons o to be as far apart as
• double bond possible
▪ two atoms share two pairs of o they should be at 180°
electrons angle from each other
• triple bond o it is a linear arrangement
▪ two atoms share three pairs of ▪ 3 electron pairs
electrons o widely separated at a 120°
- steps angle from one another
I. calculate the total number of valence o forms an equilateral
electron triangle
II. draw the skeletal structure. put in the o described as trigonal
center atom with lowest electronegativity. planar
III. distribute enough electrons to each atoms ▪ Tetrahedral arrangement
IV. identify the type of bond based on the o reduces repulsions amog
electrons that can be shared by each atom four sets of electron pairs
that is required to attained the octet rule o angle between any two
CO3 L2: FORMAL CHARGE electrons is 109.5°
▪ 𝐴𝐵𝑛 𝐸𝑥
Formal Charge ▪ A = central atom
▪ B = bonded to central atom
- the difference between the number of valence
▪ n = # of bonded to central atom
electrons in an isolated atom and the number of
▪ E = lone pair to central atom
electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis Structure
▪ x = # of lone pair to central atom
- atoms in molecules often bear a charge (+ or -)
- the most important dominant resonance structure
of a molecule is the one with formal charges as
close to zero as possible

- formal charge = (# of valence e-) – (# of unshared e-)

+ ½*(# of shared e-)

- principle of formal charges also applies to

polyatomic ions since the atoms in the ions are also
covalently bonded
Predicting Molecular or Ion Shape Dipole

1) Write the Lewis structure - exists when there is unequal sharing of electrons
2) Count the number of electron domains around the - a molecule that has two poles or regions with
central atom to determine the arrangement opposite charges
minimizing repulsion - represented by a dipole arrow pointing towards the
3) Describe the molecular geometry in terms of the more negative end
arrangement of the bonding domains.
Polar Covalent Bond
4) Double and triple bonds are counted as one domain
for determining molecular shape - these two things must be true
1. the molecule must contain polar bonds
Hybridization & Bond Angles
− can be determined from
- mixing of two or more atomic orbitals to form a new differences in electronegativity
set of hybrid orbitals 2. asymmetric molecule
I. Mix at least two nonequivalent atomic − if a molecule has polar bonds (and
orbitals (e.g. s and p). Hybrid orbitals have there is no symmetry to cancel out
a very different shape from original atomic + and – charges), the molecule is
orbitals. polar.
II. Number of hybrid orbitals equals the
number of pure atomic orbitals used in the Non-Polar Covalent Bond
hybridization process. - occurs only when two dissimilar atoms are bonded
III. Covalent bonds are formed by: - can also be observed if there is a large difference
a. An overlap of hybrid orbitals with between the atom’s electronegativity values.
atomic orbitals - because of symmetry, molecules that have polar
b. Overlap of hybrid orbitals with bonds are overall nonpolar molecules (+ and –
other hybrid orbitals charges cancel out or balance out)
Predicting The Hybridization Of The Central Atom Electronegativity Difference
1. Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule. - can be used to predict the nature of chemical bond
2. Count the number of lone pairs and the number of that exist between atoms
atoms bonded to the central atom
TYPE OF BOND
Polar and Non-Polar Bonds Ionic Bond ΔEN ≥ 1.7
- Types of covalent bonds Polar Covalent Bond 1.7 > ΔEN > 0.4
I. Nonpolar Covalent Bond Non Polar Covalent Bond ΔEN ≤ 0.4
− equal sharing of electrons
II. Polar Covalent Bond - for 1.6 and 2.0 if the ΔEN is between 1.6 and 2.0 and
− unequal sharing of electrons if a metal is involved, then the bond is considered
− occurs only when two dissimilar ionic
atoms are bonded. - if only nonmetals are involved, the bond is
− can also be observed if there is a considered polar covalent.
large difference between the
atom’s electronegativity values.
− one atom typically has a negative
charge, and the other atom has a
positive charge.

How To Show Polarity Of A Bond

- d+ means partially positive (less electronegative)

- d- means partially negative (more electronegative)
• pulls harder on the electrons
• is where electrons spend more time around