Chapter 2

CONDUCTION

Source:
Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications, 4th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar, McGraw-Hill, 2011
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Part 1 Heat Conduction Equation
Part 2 Steady Heat Conduction
Part 3 Numerical Methods in Heat
Conduction
 PART 1

HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION

 INTRODUCTION
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a different
nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus signs.

4
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
– rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
– cylindrical T(r, φ, z, t)
– spherical T(r, φ, θ, t).

5
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

• Steady implies no change

with time at any point within
the medium
• Transient implies variation
with time or time
dependence
• In the special case of
variation with time but not
with position, the
temperature of the medium
changes uniformly with
time. Such heat transfer
systems are called lumped
systems.

6
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
– one-dimensional
– two dimensional
– three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-
dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-
dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in
different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction
only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of
temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are negligible or
zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies
mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the
third direction (and thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible.

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• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction (say,
in the x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction for one-
dimensional heat conduction as:

Heat is conducted in the direction

of decreasing temperature, and
thus the temperature gradient is
negative when heat is conducted
in the positive x -direction.

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• The heat flux vector at a point P on the
surface of the figure must be
perpendicular to the surface, and it
must point in the direction of
decreasing temperature
• If n is the normal of the isothermal
surface at point P, the rate of heat
conduction at that point can be
expressed by Fourier’s law as

10
• Examples:
– electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R, Heat
– fuel elements of nuclear reactors, Generation
– exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as
position within the medium.

11
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the wall of a
house, the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate at the bottom of
a pressing iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element,
an electrical resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a
spherical metal ball that is being quenched or tempered.
Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be
approximated as being one-dimensional since heat conduction through
these geometries is dominant in one direction and negligible in other
directions.
Next we develop the onedimensional heat conduction equation in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

12
 Heat Conduction
Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
(2-6)

13
14
Heat
Conduction
Equation in a
Long Cylinder

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16
Heat Conduction Equation in
a Sphere

17
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation

An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat conduction

equations for the plane wall, cylinder, and sphere reveals that all
three equations can be expressed in a compact form as

n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder
n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable
r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat
generation cases as described before.

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GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
In the last section we considered one-dimensional heat conduction
and assumed heat conduction in other directions to be negligible.
Most heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be
approximated as being one-dimensional, and we mostly deal with
such problems in this text.
However, this is not always the case, and sometimes we need to
consider heat transfer in other directions as well.
In such cases heat conduction is said to be multidimensional, and
in this section we develop the governing differential equation in
such systems in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate
systems.

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Rectangular Coordinates

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22
Cylindrical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular
and cylindrical coordinate systems:

23
Spherical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular
and spherical coordinate systems:

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BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
The description of a heat transfer problem in a medium is not complete without a full
description of the thermal conditions at the bounding surfaces of the medium.
Boundary conditions: The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the
boundaries.

The temperature at any

point on the wall at a
specified time depends
on the condition of the
geometry at the
beginning of the heat
conduction process.
Such a condition, which
is usually specified at
time t = 0, is called the
initial condition, which is
a mathematical
expression for the
temperature distribution
of the medium initially.

25
 Boundary Conditions

• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions

26
1 Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
The temperature of an exposed surface
can usually be measured directly and
easily.
Therefore, one of the easiest ways to
specify the thermal conditions on a surface
is to specify the temperature.
For one-dimensional heat transfer through
a plane wall of thickness L, for example,
the specified temperature boundary
conditions can be expressed as

where T1 and T2 are the specified

temperatures at surfaces at x = 0 and
x = L, respectively.
The specified temperatures can be
constant, which is the case for steady
heat conduction, or may vary with time. 27
2 Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the
medium, including the boundaries, can be expressed by

For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat

flux of 50 W/m2 into the medium from both
sides, for example, the specified heat flux
boundary conditions can be expressed as

28
Special Case: Insulated Boundary

A well-insulated surface can be modeled

as a surface with a specified heat flux of
zero. Then the boundary condition on a
perfectly insulated surface (at x = 0, for
example) can be expressed as

On an insulated surface, the first

derivative of temperature with respect
to the space variable (the temperature
gradient) in the direction normal to the
insulated surface is zero.

29
Another Special Case: Thermal Symmetry
Some heat transfer problems possess thermal
symmetry as a result of the symmetry in imposed
thermal conditions.
For example, the two surfaces of a large hot plate
of thickness L suspended vertically in air is
subjected to the same thermal conditions, and thus
the temperature distribution in one half of the plate
is the same as that in the other half.
That is, the heat transfer problem in this plate
possesses thermal symmetry about the center
plane at x = L/2.
Therefore, the center plane can be viewed as an
insulated surface, and the thermal condition at this
plane of symmetry can be expressed as

which resembles the insulation or zero heat

flux boundary condition.
30
3 Convection Boundary Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction
in a plate of thickness L, the convection boundary
conditions on both surfaces:

31
4 Radiation Boundary Condition
Radiation boundary condition on a surface:

For one-dimensional heat transfer in the

x-direction in a plate of thickness L, the
radiation boundary conditions on both
surfaces can be expressed as

32
5 Interface Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions at an interface
are based on the requirements that
(1) two bodies in contact must have the
same temperature at the area of contact
and
(2) an interface (which is a surface)
cannot store any energy, and thus the
heat flux on the two sides of an interface
must be the same.
The boundary conditions at the interface
of two bodies A and B in perfect contact at
x = x0 can be expressed as

33
6 Generalized Boundary Conditions

In general, however, a surface may involve convection,

radiation, and specified heat flux simultaneously.
The boundary condition in such cases is again obtained
from a surface energy balance, expressed as

34
SOLUTION OF STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL
HEAT CONDUCTION PROBLEMS
In this section we will solve a wide range of heat
conduction problems in rectangular, cylindrical,
and spherical geometries.
We will limit our attention to problems that result
in ordinary differential equations such as the
steady one-dimensional heat conduction
problems. We will also assume constant thermal
conductivity.
The solution procedure for solving heat
conduction problems can be summarized as
(1) formulate the problem by obtaining the
applicable differential equation in its simplest
form and specifying the boundary conditions,
(2) Obtain the general solution of the differential
equation, and
(3) apply the boundary conditions and determine
the arbitrary constants in the general solution.
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47
HEAT GENERATION IN A SOLID
Many practical heat transfer applications
involve the conversion of some form of energy
into thermal energy in the medium.
Such mediums are said to involve internal heat
generation, which manifests itself as a rise in
temperature throughout the medium.
Some examples of heat generation are
- resistance heating in wires,
- exothermic chemical reactions in a solid, and
- nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods
where electrical, chemical, and nuclear
energies are converted to heat, respectively.
Heat generation in an electrical wire of outer
radius ro and length L can be expressed as

48
The quantities of major interest in a medium with
heat generation are the surface temperature Ts
and the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs
in the medium in steady operation.

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 Summary
• Introduction
– Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
– Multidimensional Heat Transfer
– Heat Generation
• One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
– Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall
– Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder
– Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere
– Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
• General Heat Conduction Equation
– Rectangular Coordinates
– Cylindrical Coordinates
– Spherical Coordinates
• Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Solution of Steady One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Problems
• Heat Generation in a Solid

57
 PART 2

STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION

STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE WALLS
Heat transfer through the wall of a house can be
modeled as steady and one-dimensional.
The temperature of the wall in this case depends
on one direction only (say the x-direction) and
can be expressed as T(x).

for steady operation

In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer
through the wall is constant.

Fourier’s law of
heat conduction

59
 The rate of heat conduction through
a plane wall is proportional to the
average thermal conductivity, the
wall area, and the temperature
difference, but is inversely
proportional to the wall thickness.
Once the rate of heat conduction is
available, the temperature T(x) at
any location x can be determined by
Under steady conditions, the
replacing T2 by T, and L by x.
temperature distribution in a plane
wall is a straight line: dT/dx = const.
60
Thermal Resistance Concept

Conduction resistance of the wall:

Thermal resistance of the wall
against heat conduction.
Thermal resistance of a medium Analogy between thermal and electrical
depends on the geometry and the resistance concepts.
thermal properties of the medium.
rate of heat transfer → electric current
thermal resistance → electrical resistance
Electrical resistance temperature difference → voltage difference

61
Newton’s law of cooling

Convection resistance of the surface:

Thermal resistance of the surface
against heat convection.

Schematic for convection resistance at a surface.

When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ∞),

the convection resistance becomes zero and Ts ≈ T.
That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it
does not slow down the heat transfer process.
This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling
and condensation occur.
62
 Radiation resistance of the
surface: Thermal resistance of the
surface against radiation.

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

Combined heat transfer

coefficient

Schematic for
convection and radiation
resistances at a surface. 63
 Thermal Resistance Network

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane wall subjected to
convection on both sides, and the electrical analogy.

64
Temperature drop

U overall heat
transfer coefficient

Once Q is evaluated, the

surface temperature T1 can
be determined from

The temperature drop across a layer is

proportional to its thermal resistance.

65
 Multilayer
Plane
Walls
The thermal resistance
network for heat transfer
through a two-layer plane
wall subjected to
convection on both sides.

66
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THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along two solid plates
pressed against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact. 76
• When two such surfaces are
pressed against each other, the
peaks form good material
contact but the valleys form
voids filled with air.
• These numerous air gaps of
varying sizes act as insulation
because of the low thermal
conductivity of air.
• Thus, an interface offers some
resistance to heat transfer, and
this resistance per unit interface
area is called the thermal
contact resistance, Rc.

A typical experimental
setup for the
determination of thermal
contact resistance
77
 The value of thermal
contact resistance
hc thermal contact depends on:
conductance • surface roughness,
• material properties,
• temperature and
pressure at the
interface
• type of fluid trapped
at the interface.

Thermal contact resistance is significant and can even dominate the

heat transfer for good heat conductors such as metals, but can be
disregarded for poor heat conductors such as insulations.
78
The thermal contact resistance can be
minimized by applying
• a thermal grease such as silicon oil
• a better conducting gas such as
helium or hydrogen
• a soft metallic foil such as tin, silver, Effect of metallic coatings on
copper, nickel, or aluminum thermal contact conductance 79
The thermal contact conductance is highest (and thus the contact
resistance is lowest) for soft metals with smooth surfaces at high pressure.
80
GENERALIZED THERMAL RESISTANCE NETWORKS

Thermal
resistance
network for two
parallel layers. 81
Two assumptions in solving complex
multidimensional heat transfer
problems by treating them as one-
dimensional using the thermal
resistance network are
(1) any plane wall normal to the x-axis is
isothermal (i.e., to assume the
temperature to vary in the x-direction
only)
(2) any plane parallel to the x-axis is
adiabatic (i.e., to assume heat transfer Thermal resistance network for
to occur in the x-direction only) combined series-parallel
arrangement. 82
HEAT CONDUCTION IN CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Heat transfer through the pipe
can be modeled as steady
and one-dimensional.
The temperature of the pipe
depends on one direction only
(the radial r-direction) and can
be expressed as T = T(r).
The temperature is
independent of the azimuthal
angle or the axial distance.
This situation is approximated
in practice in long cylindrical
Heat is lost from a hot-water pipe to
pipes and spherical
the air outside in the radial direction,
containers.
and thus heat transfer from a long
pipe is one-dimensional.
87
A long cylindrical pipe (or spherical
shell) with specified inner and outer
surface temperatures T1 and T2.

Conduction resistance of the cylinder layer

88
 A spherical shell
with specified
inner and outer
surface
temperatures T1
and T2.

Conduction resistance of the spherical layer

89
 for a cylindrical layer

for a spherical layer

The thermal resistance
network for a cylindrical (or
spherical) shell subjected
to convection from both the
inner and the outer sides.
90
Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres

The thermal resistance

network for heat transfer
through a three-layered
composite cylinder
subjected to convection
on both sides.

91
 Once heat transfer rate Q has been
calculated, the interface temperature
T2 can be determined from any of the
following two relations:

92
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95
CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
Adding more insulation to a wall or
to the attic always decreases heat
transfer since the heat transfer area
is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal
resistance of the wall without
increasing the convection
resistance.
In a a cylindrical pipe or a spherical
shell, the additional insulation
increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer
but decreases the convection An insulated cylindrical pipe exposed to
resistance of the surface because convection from the outer surface and
of the increase in the outer surface the thermal resistance network
area for convection. associated with it.
The heat transfer from the pipe
may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect
dominates.
96
The critical radius of insulation
for a cylindrical body:

The critical radius of insulation

for a spherical shell:

The largest value of the critical

radius we are likely to
encounter is

We can insulate hot-water or

steam pipes freely without The variation of heat transfer
worrying about the possibility of rate with the outer radius of the
increasing the heat transfer by insulation r2 when r1 < rcr.
insulating the pipes. 97
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 Summary
• Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls
– Thermal Resistance Concept
– Thermal Resistance Network
– Multilayer Plane Walls
• Thermal Contact Resistance
• Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks
• Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres
– Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres
• Critical Radius of Insulation

101
 PART 3

NUMERICAL METHODS IN HEAT

CONDUCTION
WHY NUMERICAL METHODS?
In Heat Conduction Equation (part 1),
we solved various heat conduction
problems in various geometries in a
systematic but highly mathematical
manner by
(1) deriving the governing differential
equation by performing an energy
balance on a differential volume
element,
(2) expressing the boundary
conditions in the proper mathematical
form, and
(3) solving the differential equation
and applying the boundary conditions
to determine the integration
constants.
103
1 Limitations
Analytical solution methods are limited to
highly simplified problems in simple
geometries.
The geometry must be such that its entire
surface can be described mathematically
in a coordinate system by setting the
variables equal to constants.
That is, it must fit into a coordinate system
perfectly with nothing sticking out or in.
Even in simple geometries, heat transfer
problems cannot be solved analytically if
the thermal conditions are not sufficiently
simple.
Analytical solutions are limited to problems
that are simple or can be simplified with
reasonable approximations.

104
2 Better Modeling
When attempting to get an analytical solution
to a physical problem, there is always the
tendency to oversimplify the problem to make
the mathematical model sufficiently simple to
warrant an analytical solution.
Therefore, it is common practice to ignore any
effects that cause mathematical complications
such as nonlinearities in the differential
equation or the boundary conditions
(nonlinearities such as temperature
dependence of thermal conductivity and the
radiation boundary conditions).
A mathematical model intended for a numerical
solution is likely to represent the actual
problem better.
The numerical solution of engineering
problems has now become the norm rather
than the exception even when analytical
solutions are available.
105
3 Flexibility
Engineering problems often require extensive parametric studies
to understand the influence of some variables on the solution in
order to choose the right set of variables and to answer some
“what-if” questions.
This is an iterative process that is extremely tedious and time-
consuming if done by hand.
Computers and numerical methods are ideally suited for such
calculations, and a wide range of related problems can be solved
by minor modifications in the code or input variables.
Today it is almost unthinkable to perform any significant
optimization studies in engineering without the power and flexibility
of computers and numerical methods.

106
4 Complications
Some problems can be solved analytically,
but the solution procedure is so complex and
the resulting solution expressions so
complicated that it is not worth all that effort.
With the exception of steady one-dimensional
or transient lumped system problems, all heat
conduction problems result in partial
differential equations.
Solving such equations usually requires
mathematical sophistication beyond that
acquired at the undergraduate level, such as
orthogonality, eigenvalues, Fourier and
Laplace transforms, Bessel and Legendre
functions, and infinite series.
In such cases, the evaluation of the solution,
which often involves double or triple
summations of infinite series at a specified
point, is a challenge in itself.

107
5 Human Nature Analytical solutions are necessary
because insight to the physical
phenomena and engineering wisdom
is gained primarily through analysis.
The “feel” that engineers develop
during the analysis of simple but
fundamental problems serves as an
invaluable tool when interpreting a
huge pile of results obtained from a
computer when solving a complex
problem.
A simple analysis by hand for a
limiting case can be used to check if
the results are in the proper range.
In this chapter, you will learn how to
formulate and solve heat transfer
problems numerically using one or
more approaches.

108
FINITE DIFFERENCE FORMULATION
OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The numerical methods for solving differential
equations are based on replacing the
differential equations by algebraic equations.
In the case of the popular finite difference
method, this is done by replacing the
derivatives by differences.
Below we demonstrate this with both first- and
second-order derivatives.

AN EXAMPLE

Reasonably accurate results can be

obtained by replacing differential quantities
by sufficiently small differences 109
 finite difference
form of the first
derivative

Taylor series expansion of the function f

about the point x,

The smaller the ∆x, the smaller

the error, and thus the more
accurate the approximation.

110
Consider steady one-dimensional heat conduction in a plane wall of thickness L
with heat generation.

Finite difference representation

of the second derivative at a
general internal node m.

no heat generation

111
Finite difference formulation for steady two-
dimensional heat conduction in a region with
heat generation and constant thermal
conductivity in rectangular coordinates

112
ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY HEAT
CONDUCTION
In this section we develop the finite difference
formulation of heat conduction in a plane wall
using the energy balance approach and
discuss how to solve the resulting equations.
The energy balance method is based on
subdividing the medium into a sufficient
number of volume elements and then
applying an energy balance on each element.

113
This equation is applicable to each of the
M - 1 interior nodes, and its application
gives M - 1 equations for the determination
of temperatures at M + 1 nodes.
The two additional equations needed to
solve for the M + 1 unknown nodal
temperatures are obtained by applying the
energy balance on the two elements at the
boundaries (unless, of course, the
boundary temperatures are specified).
114
115
Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions most commonly encountered in practice are the
specified temperature, specified heat flux, convection, and radiation
boundary conditions, and here we develop the finite difference formulations
for them for the case of steady one-dimensional heat conduction in a plane
wall of thickness L as an example.
The node number at the left surface at x = 0 is 0, and at the right surface at
x = L it is M. Note that the width of the volume element for either boundary
node is ∆x/2.

Specified temperature boundary condition

116
When other boundary conditions such as the specified heat flux, convection,
radiation, or combined convection and radiation conditions are specified at a
boundary, the finite difference equation for the node at that boundary is obtained
by writing an energy balance on the volume element at that boundary.

The finite difference form of various

boundary conditions at the left boundary:

117
118
 Schematic for
the finite
difference
formulation of
the interface
boundary
condition for two
mediums A and
B that are in
perfect thermal
contact. 119
Treating Insulated Boundary Nodes as Interior Nodes:
The Mirror Image Concept

The mirror image approach can also be

used for problems that possess thermal
symmetry by replacing the plane of
symmetry by a mirror.
Alternately, we can replace the plane of
symmetry by insulation and consider
only half of the medium in the solution.
The solution in the other half of the
medium is simply the mirror image of the
solution obtained.

120
EXAMPLE

Node 1

Node 2

121
Exact solution:

122
The finite difference formulation of
steady heat conduction problems
usually results in a system of N
algebraic equations in N unknown
nodal temperatures that need to be
solved simultaneously.
There are numerous systematic
approaches available in the literature,
and they are broadly classified as
direct and iterative methods.
The direct methods are based on a
fixed number of well-defined steps that
result in the solution in a systematic
manner.
The iterative methods are based on an
initial guess for the solution that is
refined by iteration until a specified
convergence criterion is satisfied.

123
One of the simplest iterative methods is the Gauss-Seidel iteration.

124
TWO-DIMENSIONAL STEADY HEAT
CONDUCTION
Sometimes we need to consider heat transfer
in other directions as well when the variation
of temperature in other directions is
significant.
We consider the numerical formulation and
solution of two-dimensional steady heat
conduction in rectangular coordinates using
the finite difference method.

125
For square mesh:

no heat
generation 126
Boundary Nodes
The region is partitioned between the
nodes by forming volume elements
around the nodes, and an energy
balance is written for each boundary
node.
An energy balance on a volume
element is

We assume, for convenience in

formulation, all heat transfer to be into the
volume element from all surfaces except
for specified heat flux, whose direction is
already specified.

127
 EXAMPLE

Node 1

Node 2

128
 Node 3

Node 4

Node 5

Node 6

129
 Nodes 7, 8

Node 9

130
Irregular Boundaries
Many geometries encountered in practice
such as turbine blades or engine blocks do
not have simple shapes, and it is difficult to
fill such geometries having irregular
boundaries with simple volume elements.
A practical way of dealing with such
geometries is to replace the irregular
geometry by a series of simple volume
elements.
This simple approach is often satisfactory
for practical purposes, especially when the
nodes are closely spaced near the
boundary.
More sophisticated approaches are
available for handling irregular boundaries,
and they are commonly incorporated into
the commercial software packages.

131
 Summary
• Why numerical methods?
• Finite difference formulation of differential equations
• One-dimensional steady heat conduction
 Boundary conditions
 Treating Insulated Boundary Nodes as Interior Nodes: The
Mirror Image Concept
• Two-dimensional steady heat conduction
 Boundary Nodes
 Irregular Boundaries

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