Abdelrahman Saeed Sayed Salem ‫ﻋبدالرحمن سعيد سيد سالم‬

Section 4

ID: 13240068

CONTENTS

What is Modulation................................................................................................................................... 2
Why modulation ....................................................................................................................................... 2
DSB-SC Modulators .................................................................................................................................. 3
Single diode ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Theory .............................................................................................................................................. 3
Implementation ................................................................................................................................ 4
Practical circuit .................................................................................................................................... 6
Theory .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Implementation ................................................................................................................................ 7
Bridge modulator .................................................................................................................................. 9
Theory .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Implementation .............................................................................................................................. 10
Ring modulator ................................................................................................................................... 12
Theory ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Implementation .............................................................................................................................. 13
Filters ................................................................................................................................................... 15
Band pass filter analysis ..................................................................................................................... 15
Low pass filter analysis ....................................................................................................................... 19
Oscillator ............................................................................................................................................... 21
WHAT IS MODULATION
Modulation is a fundamental process in communication systems where a message signal (usually containing
information) is combined with a carrier wave (usually a high-frequency sinusoidal wave) to produce a new signal
that can be transmitted over a medium such as air, cable, or optical fiber. This process helps in efficient transmission
and reception of the signal over long distances.

There are three primary types of modulation:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier wave varies in proportion to the message signal
while the frequency and phase remain constant.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier wave varies in accordance with the message signal
while the amplitude and phase remain constant.

3. Phase Modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier wave changes according to the message signal while the
amplitude and frequency remain constant.

WHY MODULATION
1. Frequency Multiplexing: Modulation allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously over the same
communication channel by assigning each signal a different frequency band, enabling efficient use of the available
bandwidth.

2. Practical Antenna Size: Higher frequency carrier waves used in modulation require smaller antennas, making it
feasible to design compact and portable communication devices, such as mobile phones and radios.

3. Modulation for Narrow Banding: The receiving antenna band is depending on the ratio between the minimum
and maximum frequency components in the signal, Modulation decreases the ratio so we can receive all components
easily

4. Frequency Assignment in Mobile Communication: Modulation helps in assigning specific frequency bands to
different mobile communication channels, ensuring organized and efficient use of the spectrum to support numerous
simultaneous users without interference.

5.Improved Signal Strength and Quality: Modulation enhances the signal-to-noise ratio, making communication
more reliable by reducing the impact of noise and interference.
DSB-SC MODULATORS

SINGLE DIODE

THEORY

It is a basic type of modulator used to generate Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
signals. It utilizes the nonlinear characteristics of a diode to mix the message signal with the
carrier wave, producing a modulated output.

The core principle behind a single diode modulator is That Diodes, due to their nonlinear
current-voltage relationship, can produce an output that contains various frequency components
when two different frequency signals are applied to them. These frequency components include
the sum and difference frequencies of the input signals.

Single diode modulators are simple and cost-effective,

making them suitable for basic amplitude modulation
applications where perfect carrier suppression is not
critical. They are often used in educational demonstrations
and in some low-cost communication systems.

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑨𝒄 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + 𝒎(𝒕)

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒊𝒅 (𝒕) × 𝑹 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹 = 𝟏Ω 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝒊𝒅 (𝒕) = 𝒂𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒕) + 𝒃 𝑽𝟐𝒊𝒏 (𝒕) + 𝒄𝑽𝟑𝒊𝒏 (𝒕)+. . 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (1)

𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 ∶

𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤 𝑡) + 𝑎𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑚(𝑡) + 2𝑏𝐴 𝑚(𝑡)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤 𝑡) + 𝑏𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑤 𝑡) + ⋯ (2)

The required term 𝟐𝒃𝑨𝒄 𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) can be selected using a BPF tuned at ±𝑤

Disadvantage

Although the single diode is very cheap and simple it’s not balanced meaning it doesn’t the
carrier signal and the message signal which can cause harmonic distortion and intermodulation
so we must use a practical circuit
IMPLEMENTATION

The first stage of the circuit is a sine wave Colpitts Oscillator tuned at 680𝐾ℎ𝑧 which will be
discussed later

The output of the oscillator is combined with the message signal (68khz Sine wave) to form
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒕)

The output of the diode which is eq (2) shown above is taken from 𝑅 = 10𝑘Ω

The next stage is a Sallen key active bandpass filter tuned at 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟔𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒉𝒛 to select the
modulated signal 𝟐𝒃𝑨𝒄 𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) from the diode’s output , The filter design and analysis
will be discussed in the filter section.
The modulated signal from the band pass filter is input to the last stage which is the
demodulation circuit consisting of a single diode demodulator which takes the carrier wave from
the oscillator and the modulated signal as inputs.

The output of the demodulator is input to a Sallen Key active low pass filter tuned at 68Khz
(The message signal frequency) to select the demodulated signal.

The oscilloscope output: Oscillator, Diode output, BPF output, LPF output.
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT

THEORY

A Two Identical Diode Modulator is a more advanced version of the single diode modulator,
designed to improve carrier suppression and reduce distortion. It uses two diodes in a balanced
configuration to achieve Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation.

The core principle behind a two-diode modulator is the balanced mixing of the carrier and
message signals. By using two diodes in a balanced arrangement, the modulator cancels out the
carrier signal more effectively, resulting in better carrier suppression and a cleaner output signal.

𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + 𝒎(𝒕)

𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) − 𝒎(𝒕)

𝒚𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝒂 𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝒃𝒙𝟐𝟏 (𝒕)

𝒚𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝒂 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) + 𝒃𝒙𝟐𝟐 (𝒕)

𝒚𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝒂𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + 𝒂𝒎(𝒕) + 𝒃𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)𝟐 + 𝒃𝒎𝟐 (𝒕) + 𝟐𝒃𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)

𝒚𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝒂𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) − 𝒂𝒎(𝒕) + 𝒃𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)𝟐 + 𝒃𝒎𝟐 (𝒕) − 𝟐𝒃𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)

𝒛(𝒕) = 𝒚𝟏 (𝒕) − 𝒚𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝒂𝒎(𝒕) + 𝟒𝒃𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)

The Band pass filter tuned at ±𝑤 will select the modulated signal 𝟒𝒃𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)

and will reject the message signal 𝟐𝒂𝒎(𝒕)

In this circuit there are two inputs m(t) and 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤 𝑡).The summer output z(t) does not contain
one of the inputs, the carrier signal cos ct. - Consequently, the carrier signal does not appear at
the input of the final band pass filter the circuit act as a balanced bridge for one the inputs (the
carrier), for this reason it’s called a single balanced modulator.
IMPLEMENTATION

The first stage is the oscillator to generate the carrier, the practical circuit takes two inputs

 Message signal: 68khz sine wave

 Carrier signal: 680Khz sine wave

The output of this stage is 𝑍(𝑡).

Second stage

Consists of a Sallen key active band pass filter tuned at ±𝑤 which will select the modulated
signal 𝟒𝒃𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) from Z(t), Filter Design and analysis will be discussed later.
The Demodulation circuit consists of the practical demodulator and a low pass filter tuned at the
message frequency to recover the message signal from the demodulator output.

The oscilloscope output:

 Oscillator
 Practical circuit output
 BPF output
 Demodulator output
BRIDGE MODULATOR

THEORY

The bridge modulator typically consists of four diodes

arranged in a bridge configuration. The modulating signal is
applied to two opposite corners of the bridge circuit. The
carrier signal is applied across the other two opposite
corners. The bridge circuit modulates the amplitude of the
carrier signal based on the amplitude of the modulating
signal

When the signal 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒄 𝒕 is of a polarity that will make terminal c positive with respect to d, all
the diodes conduct. m(t) passes to the input of BPF Because diodes 𝑫𝟏, and 𝑫𝟐 are matched,
terminals a and b have the same potential and are effectively shorted. During the next half-cycle,
terminal d is positive with respect to c, and all four diodes open, thus, opening the terminals A
and B. m(t) don’t pass to the input of BPF as shown, the four diodes act as multiplying m(t) by
square pulse train (0,1).

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎(𝒕)𝝎(𝒕) = 𝒎(𝒕) + [𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟑𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟓𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + ⋯ ]
𝟐 𝝅 𝟑 𝟓

the spectrum of m(t)𝝎(t) consists of the spectrum 𝑴(𝝎) and 𝒘(𝝎)shifted to ±𝝎𝒄, ±𝟑𝝎𝒄, ±𝟓𝝎𝒄 ,
(with decreasing relative weights)

𝟐
The Band pass filter output is 𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)
𝝅
IMPLEMENTATION

First stage

Consists of the oscillator to generate the carrier signal and the bridge modulator.

Second stage

𝟐
This Stage is responsible for selecting the modulated signal 𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)
𝝅

from the bridge’s output and reject all unwanted components.

Third Stage

This stage is responsible for demodulation by using a bridge demodulator and a Low pass
filter to select the message signal at 68Khz

The oscilloscope output:

RING MODULATOR

THEORY

Another switching modulator, known as the ring modulator, During the positive half-cycles
of the carrier, diodes 𝑫𝟏, and 𝑫𝟑 conduct, and 𝑫𝟐 and𝑫𝟒 are open. Hence, terminal a is
connected to c, and terminal b is connected to d. During the negativities half-cycles of the
carrier, diodes 𝑫𝟏 and 𝑫𝟑 are open, and 𝑫𝟐 and 𝑫𝟒 are conducting thus connecting
terminal a-to d and terminal b to c Hence, the output, is proportional to m(t) during the
positive half-cycle and to -𝒎(𝒕) during the negative half-cycle. In effect 𝒎(𝒕) is multiplied by
a square pulse train 𝝎𝟎(𝒕) (1, -1)

𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝝎(𝒕) = [𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟑𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟓𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + ⋯ ]
𝝅 𝟑 𝟓
𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎(𝒕)𝝎(𝒕) = [𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) − 𝒎(𝒕)𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟑𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + 𝒎(𝒕) 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟓𝒘𝒄 𝒕) + ⋯ ]
𝝅 𝟑 𝟓
𝟒
The band pass filter is 𝒎(𝒕) 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕)
𝝅
IMPLEMENTATION

First Stage

The First stage consists of Oscillator to generate the carrier wave and the Ring modulator
The additional resistors in the ring modulator is for impedance matching and stability
improvement.

Second stage

𝟒
This stage will select the modulated signal 𝒎(𝒕) 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒄 𝒕) from the ring modulator’s
𝝅
output.
Third stage

The Ring modulator will Multiply the modulated signal by 𝝎(𝒕) which yields the message
signal and another unwanted components which will be rejected by the low pass filter
tuned at the message frequency

Oscilloscope output: Carrier, Modulated signal, Demodulated signal.

FILTERS

BAND PASS FILTER ANALYSIS

a band pass filter at 𝒘 can be achieved by designing a Low pass filter tuned at 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎
and a high pass filter tuned at 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 and connecting them in cascade.

HPF DESIGN: Tuned at 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑

𝑲𝑺𝟐
High pass transfer function is given by 𝒘𝒐 (𝟏)
𝑺𝟐 𝑸
𝑺 𝒘𝟐𝒐

For a 4th order HPF:

𝑯𝒐𝟏 𝑯𝒐𝟐
𝑯(𝒔) = × 𝟐
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝑺 + 𝟏

𝒘𝒄
For HPFs replace each S with
𝑺

𝑺𝟐 𝑯𝒐𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑯𝒐𝟐
𝑯(𝑺) = × (𝟐)
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝒘𝒄 𝑺 + 𝒘𝟐𝒄 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝒘𝒄 𝑺 + 𝒘𝟐𝒄

For 𝑯𝒐𝟏

comparing (1) & (2) we get:

𝟏 𝟏
𝒘𝒐 = 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 , 𝒘𝒄 = , 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒑𝒇 ∴ 𝑹 = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝑲Ω
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪 𝟐𝝅×𝒘𝒄 ×𝑪

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 ∵ 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑
𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝑸 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓

𝑹𝟑
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟓𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟏) × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓𝑲Ω
𝑹𝟒

For 𝑯𝒐𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟏 ∵ 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓
𝟏.𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝑸 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓

𝑹𝟑
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟓𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏) × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎Ω
𝑹𝟒
The Final filter design

Frequency Response:

3dB frequency = 612Khz.

LPF DESIGN: Tuned at 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟔𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑

𝑯𝒐𝟏 𝑯𝒐𝟐
𝑯(𝑺) = × 𝟐
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝑺 + 𝟏
𝑺
For a Low pass filter replace S with to normalize the transfer function.
𝒘𝒄

𝒘𝟐𝒄 𝑯𝒐𝟏 𝒘𝟐𝒄 𝑯𝒐𝟐

𝑯(𝑺) = × (𝟐)
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝒘𝒄 𝑺 + 𝒘𝟐𝒄 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝒘𝒄 𝑺 + 𝒘𝟐𝒄

For 𝑯𝒐𝟏

comparing (1) & (2) we get:

𝟏 𝟏
𝒘𝒐 = 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟔𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 , 𝒘𝒄 = , 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒑𝒇 ∴ 𝑹 = = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑲Ω
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪 𝟐𝝅×𝒘𝒄 ×𝑪

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 ∵ 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑
𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝑸 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓

𝑹𝟑
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟓𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟏) × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓𝑲Ω
𝑹𝟒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟏 ∵ 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓
𝟏.𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝑸 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓

𝑹𝟑
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟓𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏) × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎Ω
𝑹𝟒

The final filter design:

Frequency response

𝟑𝒅𝑩 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟕𝟒𝟖𝑲𝒉𝒛

The total Bandpass filter design (HPF and LPF Cascaded):

LOW PASS FILTER ANALYSIS

For the 4th order LPF this polynomial will be used (𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑺 + 𝟏)(𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝑺 + 𝟏)

The cutoff frequency of the filter is 68khz ∴ 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑

𝑲
The low pass filter Transfer function is given by 𝒘𝒐 (𝟏)
𝑺𝟐 𝑺 𝒘𝟐𝒐
𝑸

𝑯𝒐𝟏 𝑯𝒐𝟐
𝑯(𝑺) = ×
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝑺 + 𝟏
𝑺
For a Low pass filter replace S with to normalize the transfer function.
𝒘𝒄

𝑤 𝐻 𝑤 𝐻
𝐻(𝑆) = × (𝟐)
𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝒘𝒄 𝑺 + 𝒘𝟐𝒄 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟖𝒘𝒄 𝑺 + 𝒘𝟐𝒄

For 𝑯𝒐𝟏

comparing (1) & (2) we get:

𝟏 𝟏
𝒘𝒐 = 𝒘𝒄 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 , 𝒘𝒄 = , 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒑𝒇 ∴ 𝑹 = = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝑲Ω
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪 𝟐𝝅×𝒘𝒄 ×𝑪

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟕 ∵ 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑
𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝑸 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓

𝑹𝟑
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟓𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟏) × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓𝑲Ω
𝑹𝟒
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟏 ∵ 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − 𝑨𝒗 = 𝟑 − = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓
𝟏.𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝑸 𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟓

𝑹𝟑
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟓𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏) × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎Ω
𝑹𝟒

The final design:

The frequency response of the filter:

OSCILLATOR

Colpitts Oscillator: An Overview

The Colpitts oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator that generates sinusoidal oscillations. Named after its
inventor, Edwin H. Colpitts, this oscillator is widely used in radio frequency (RF) applications due to its
simplicity and effectiveness in producing stable oscillations. It is a variant of the LC oscillator, which relies
on an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) to create oscillations.

The Colpitts oscillator operates based on the principle of positive feedback and resonance in an LC circuit.
Its basic configuration includes an amplifier (typically a transistor or an operational amplifier) and a feedback
network consisting of a capacitive voltage divider and an inductor.

Here’s a step-by-step explanation of how it works:

1. Circuit Configuration: The circuit consists of an amplifying device (transistor or op-amp), an inductor (L),
and two capacitors (C1 and C2) connected in series. These capacitors form a capacitive voltage divider,
which is the distinctive feature of the Colpitts oscillator.

2. Initial Signal: When power is applied, a small noise signal or a transient voltage initiates oscillation. This
initial signal is amplified by the active device.

3. Feedback Loop: The amplified signal is fed back to the LC circuit. The capacitive voltage divider (C1 and
C2) provides the feedback necessary for sustaining oscillations. The feedback fraction is determined by the
ratio of the capacitors, ensuring the correct phase shift for positive feedback.

4. Resonance: The LC circuit determines the frequency of oscillation. The total capacitance (Ct) in the
resonant tank circuit is given by the formula

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟏
𝑪𝑻 = 𝒇𝒐 = 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏𝒏𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪𝑻

𝟐×𝟏𝟎 𝟗
∴ 𝑪𝑻 = =, 𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒄 = 𝟔𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒉𝒛
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖
 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
𝑳≈ = ≈ 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝝁𝑯
(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝟎 )𝟐 × 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 (𝟐𝝅 × 𝟔𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖

The actual inductor value that generates this frequency can be different in simulation and
practical implementation due to real life non idealities.

To Bias the transistor to always be in forward active mode the target is to keep
approximately 3 or 4 volts at the base, this can be achieved using a simple voltage divider
network.

𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽𝒄𝒄 = 𝟗𝒗 , 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟗𝒌Ω , 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝒌Ω

𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝟐 𝟗 × 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = = ≈ 𝟒𝑽
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹 𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑹𝒄
Since the gain of transistor is approximately We can include a 1kΩ resistance in
𝑹𝑬
series with the bypass capacitor to control the gain by increasing or decreasing 𝑹𝑬
total value, typical bypass capacitor value would be around 𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝁𝑭